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Language module

The language module, also known as the language faculty, is a hypothesized specialized cognitive system within the human mind dedicated to the acquisition, comprehension, and production of language, posited as an innate, biologically determined mechanism that operates independently from other cognitive processes.^[1] This concept, central to generative linguistics, embodies universal grammar—a set of innate principles and constraints that enable children to rapidly learn any human language despite the poverty of linguistic input they receive.^[2] Proposed by Noam Chomsky in his foundational work on generative grammar, the module accounts for the hierarchical and recursive structure of language, distinguishing it from other domains like vision or reasoning.^[3] Chomsky's framework views the language module as a "mental organ" that matures through interaction with environmental stimuli, supporting infinite linguistic creativity from finite means, as evidenced by the critical period for language acquisition typically ending around age 12.^[4] Complementing this, Jerry Fodor's theory of the modularity of mind extends the idea to perceptual input systems, characterizing the language module as domain-specific, informationally encapsulated (relying solely on linguistic data and internal rules), mandatory, and fast-acting—for instance, in real-time speech processing with latencies as low as 250 milliseconds.^[3] Neurological evidence supports this modularity through localized brain regions, such as Broca's area for syntactic processing and Wernicke's area for comprehension, with double dissociations in aphasia demonstrating selective impairments.^[1] While influential in cognitive science, the language module hypothesis faces challenges from empirical studies across diverse languages, which suggest that some linguistic features may emerge from general learning mechanisms rather than innate specificity, prompting ongoing debates about the extent of its autonomy.^[4] Nonetheless, it remains a cornerstone for understanding human cognition, influencing fields from artificial intelligence to evolutionary psychology by highlighting language's unique role in thought.^[2]

Conceptual Foundations

Definition of Modularity in Language

In cognitive science, the language module refers to a specialized cognitive system dedicated to processing linguistic information, posited as a distinct, autonomous component of the mind separate from general intelligence. This concept is central to theories of modularity, where language is treated as one of several innate "input systems" that handle specific perceptual or computational tasks with high efficiency.^[3] Jerry Fodor's influential theory of the modularity of mind, outlined in his 1983 work, applies these principles directly to the language faculty, viewing it as a modular system characterized by domain specificity, informational encapsulation, and mandatory processing. Domain specificity means the module is tuned exclusively to linguistic stimuli, such as phonological, syntactic, and semantic features, ignoring non-linguistic information. Informational encapsulation ensures that the module's operations remain insulated from higher-level beliefs, desires, or contextual knowledge, preventing top-down influences during core linguistic computations. Mandatory processing implies that the module activates involuntarily and rapidly upon encountering relevant inputs, delivering standardized outputs to central cognitive systems without requiring conscious effort.^[5]^[3] Noam Chomsky's framework complements Fodor's by emphasizing the innateness and autonomy of the language module through the concept of universal grammar (UG). Chomsky posits that UG is an innate biological endowment, a genetically specified set of principles and parameters that constitutes the core of the language faculty, enabling children to acquire complex grammars from limited environmental input. This module functions independently of general cognitive processes, such as reasoning or memory, operating as a self-contained system that matures through exposure to language data but relies on its predefined structure for acquisition and use.^[6]^[4]

Historical Origins and Key Theorists

The concept of a language module traces its philosophical roots to the rationalist tradition of the 17th century, particularly René Descartes' doctrine of innate ideas, which posited that certain fundamental concepts and structures are hardwired into the human mind rather than derived solely from experience.^[6] Descartes argued that ideas such as those of God, infinity, and causation are innate, providing a foundational framework for later theories of linguistic innateness by suggesting that the mind possesses pre-existing capacities that enable complex knowledge acquisition, including the structures underlying language.^[6] This rationalist perspective contrasted with empiricist views, like those of John Locke, and laid groundwork for viewing language abilities as partially endogenous to human cognition.^[6] In the mid-20th century, Noam Chomsky revolutionized linguistic theory with his development of generative grammar, beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, which emphasized an innate universal grammar as a biological endowment of the human brain.^[7] Chomsky's seminal work, Syntactic Structures (1957), introduced transformational-generative rules to account for the infinite productivity of language from finite means, positing a dedicated cognitive faculty for language acquisition that operates independently of general intelligence. By the 1960s, in works like Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), Chomsky further articulated the innateness hypothesis, arguing that children are equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD) to rapidly master complex grammars despite limited input, reviving and extending Cartesian ideas to modern linguistics. The explicit formulation of modularity in language emerged in the 1980s through Chomsky's evolving framework and Jerry Fodor's broader cognitive architecture. Chomsky's Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) proposed a modular theory of grammar, dividing linguistic competence into autonomous subsystems—such as syntax, phonology, and semantics—that interact in a highly constrained manner, reflecting the brain's specialized processing for language. Concurrently, Fodor's The Modularity of Mind (1983) applied modularity to cognition at large, characterizing language as a "peripheral input system" that is domain-specific, fast-acting, and informationally encapsulated, mandatory in operation and supported by dedicated neural machinery. Fodor drew on Chomsky's linguistic insights to argue that such modules buffer central cognition from raw sensory data, with language exemplifying this specialization. Key debates on language modularity intensified from the 1970s through the 1990s, amid critiques from empiricists and connectionists, yet nativist views gained popular reinforcement through Steven Pinker's The Language Instinct (1994), which popularized Chomsky's ideas by portraying language as an evolved, modular instinct akin to other biological adaptations. Pinker synthesized evidence from acquisition patterns and creoles to argue that the language faculty is a distinct, genetically specified module, resilient to environmental variation and integral to human uniqueness.^[6] This period solidified modularity as a cornerstone of generative linguistics, influencing ongoing discussions on the autonomy of linguistic processing.^[4]

Evidence Challenging Strict Modularity

Anatomical and Neuroimaging Findings

While the classical model of language localization emphasizes discrete regions such as Broca's area in the inferior frontal gyrus and Wernicke's area in the superior temporal gyrus, neuroimaging studies have revealed that language processing relies on distributed networks spanning the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.^[8] Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans from the 1990s onward demonstrate that these networks involve bilateral activations, with left-hemisphere dominance for core linguistic functions but significant right-hemisphere contributions for prosody and context integration.^[8] For instance, early PET research by Demonet et al. (1992) identified distinct but overlapping activations in the left supramarginal gyrus for phonological tasks and the left inferior temporal gyrus for semantic processing, underscoring the interconnected nature of these regions rather than isolated modules.^[9] Further evidence from fMRI and PET studies in the 1990s and 2000s highlights the overlap between language-related activations and those supporting other cognitive domains, challenging the notion of anatomically encapsulated language modules. Language tasks, such as semantic retrieval or sentence comprehension, frequently engage regions like the angular gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which are also active during working memory and attention demands.^[8] A comprehensive review of over 100 such studies by Price (2012) synthesizes findings showing that heard speech, spoken language, and reading activate a core network including the superior temporal sulcus and middle temporal gyrus, but these areas show task-dependent modulation and co-activation with non-linguistic processes, indicating shared neural resources rather than dedicated language isolation.^[8] Neuroplasticity observed in aphasia recovery further illustrates the non-modular organization of language anatomy. Following left-hemisphere lesions, such as those causing Broca's or Wernicke's aphasia, functional reorganization often involves recruitment of perilesional areas, contralateral homologues, and even non-traditional regions like the right inferior frontal gyrus.^[10] Longitudinal fMRI studies of post-stroke patients demonstrate that language recovery correlates with increased activation in these distributed areas, as seen in interventions promoting neuroplastic changes through therapy.^[11] For example, Meinzer et al. (2011) reviewed neuroimaging data from aphasia cases showing that right-hemisphere networks compensate for damaged left-hemisphere structures, with plasticity peaking in the first months post-lesion but persisting over years.^[10] Recent advances in diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) from the 2010s and 2020s reinforce this distributed view by mapping language as embedded within broader white matter tracts. DTI reveals that key pathways, such as the arcuate fasciculus connecting frontal and temporal lobes, form part of larger networks including the superior longitudinal fasciculus and uncinate fasciculus, which also subserve executive function and memory.^[12] Studies using DTI tractography in healthy and aphasic populations show reduced fractional anisotropy in these tracts post-injury, correlating with language deficits, but also highlight their integration with non-language fibers, precluding strict anatomical isolation.^[13] A 2023 narrative review by Forkel et al. emphasizes how these tracts enable dynamic interactions across lobes, supporting the idea of language as a network property rather than a modular enclave.^[12]

Dissociation Evidence in Acquired and Developmental Cases

In cognitive neuropsychology, a double dissociation occurs when one patient exhibits impairment in function A while performing normally on function B, and another patient shows the opposite pattern, suggesting independent cognitive modules.^[14] For language modularity, this would require cases of isolated language impairment without affecting general intelligence or executive functions, and vice versa, to support domain-specific independence.^[15] In acquired cases, such as aphasia following stroke, language deficits frequently co-occur with impairments in executive functions like attention and working memory, challenging the notion of pure language-specific lesions.^[16] For instance, studies of post-stroke aphasia patients reveal that up to 79% also demonstrate executive dysfunction, influencing communication recovery and indicating intertwined cognitive processes rather than isolated modular damage.^[17] Longitudinal analyses further show that while some recovery in language occurs, executive control deficits often persist and modulate language performance, without clear evidence of double dissociation from general cognition.^[18] Developmental cases similarly lack robust double dissociations supporting strict modularity. Specific language impairment (SLI), characterized by language delays without obvious neurological causes, is often associated with broader cognitive challenges, including subtle deficits in procedural memory and social cognition, as evidenced in genetic and psycholinguistic studies from the 1990s to 2010s.^[19] Dorothy Bishop's research highlights the heterogeneity of SLI, where grammatical impairments correlate with non-linguistic cognitive delays in many cases, undermining claims of domain-specific isolation.^[20] In Williams syndrome, individuals exhibit relative strengths in concrete vocabulary and verbal short-term memory despite overall intellectual disability, but pragmatic language skills are impaired alongside social deficits, preventing a clean separation from general cognition.^[21] Recent longitudinal studies in the 2020s, particularly on autism spectrum disorder, reinforce the absence of innate modular triggers for language, showing intertwined developmental trajectories where language growth is moderated by social and executive factors from early childhood.^[22] For example, tracking autistic children over 12 months reveals that speech development subgroups exhibit variability linked to cognitive and behavioral profiles, with no isolated language module emerging independently of broader neurodevelopmental influences.^[23]

Information Encapsulation and Domain Specificity

Jerry Fodor's theory of informational encapsulation posits that cognitive modules, including the language module, process inputs in a mandatory and automatic manner, insulated from top-down influences such as general world knowledge or beliefs.^[3] This encapsulation ensures rapid, domain-specific computation without interference from central cognitive systems. However, experimental evidence from sentence comprehension challenges this view, demonstrating that world knowledge can modulate syntactic parsing. For instance, in garden-path sentences—temporarily ambiguous structures like "The defendant examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable"—readers initially misparse the phrase but use plausibility from world knowledge (e.g., lawyers examine defendants) to facilitate reanalysis and recovery. Such context effects violate encapsulation by showing that non-syntactic priors influence early linguistic processing. Domain specificity, another hallmark of Fodorian modularity, assumes language processing relies on dedicated neural machinery isolated from other domains. Yet, bilingualism research reveals shared neural resources across languages, undermining strict domain isolation. In event-related potential (ERP) studies from the 2000s, Guillaume Thierry and colleagues found that reading words in a second language (L2) automatically activates native-language (L1) translations, as evidenced by N400 modulation indicating semantic integration in shared brain regions like the left temporal lobe.^[24] This non-selective activation persists even when L2 is the focus, suggesting bilingual language systems overlap rather than segregate into domain-specific modules.^[25] Further, semantic priming experiments highlight how non-linguistic emotional cues intrude on word processing. For example, emotional prosody—non-verbal intonational patterns conveying affect—modulates semantic priming effects in auditory-visual tasks, with congruent emotional tones speeding target word recognition via limbic-prefrontal interactions, thus blending affective and linguistic domains.^[26] Key experiments using Stroop-like tasks in the 2010s further illustrate interference from attention and working memory, contravening modularity's mandatory processing. In linguistic variants of the Stroop task, such as naming pictures while ignoring superimposed color words, participants exhibit slowed responses when word meaning conflicts with the task, with interference magnitude correlating with working memory capacity. This reflects attentional competition between lexical access and executive control, as higher memory load exacerbates delays in suppressing irrelevant linguistic input.^[27] Similarly, in children with language impairment, increased working memory demands in token-based Stroop tasks amplify interference, linking cognitive resources directly to linguistic performance and highlighting permeable boundaries between language and general cognition. Recent critiques in the 2020s incorporate Bayesian models to frame language comprehension as probabilistic inference integrating linguistic and non-linguistic priors. These models posit that comprehenders update interpretations by combining syntactic probabilities with broader contextual evidence, such as visual scenes or expectations, rather than relying on encapsulated rules. For example, noisy-channel accounts demonstrate how implausible sentences are repaired using non-linguistic priors about message intent, with Bayesian inference explaining prediction errors in comprehension.^[28] This integrative approach reveals language processing as inherently interactive, challenging Fodor's isolationist tenets with evidence of flexible, prior-driven adaptation.

Alternative Theoretical Frameworks

Connectionist and Network-Based Models

Connectionist and network-based models propose that language processing and acquisition emerge from the interactions within distributed neural networks, rather than relying on a dedicated, encapsulated module. These models, rooted in computational neuroscience, simulate cognitive processes through interconnected units that adjust weighted connections based on experience, enabling the system to learn linguistic patterns without presupposing innate rules or domain-specific structures. This approach contrasts with strict modularity by emphasizing parallel, distributed processing across brain-like architectures, where knowledge is represented in the strengths of connections rather than symbolic rules. The foundational principles of these models were articulated in the parallel distributed processing (PDP) framework developed by Rumelhart, McClelland, and colleagues in the 1980s. PDP systems consist of simple processing units organized in layers, with learning occurring through error-driven adjustments to connection weights, as demonstrated in simulations of word perception and past-tense verb formation. For instance, Rumelhart and McClelland's 1986 model of English past-tense inflection showed how networks could acquire irregular forms like "went" through gradual exposure, exhibiting overgeneralization errors (e.g., "goed") that mirror child language development, without explicit rule programming. This framework highlighted how linguistic regularities could arise from statistical associations in input data, processed in a massively parallel manner akin to neural activity. Key developments in the 1990s advanced PDP through recurrent neural networks (RNNs), particularly Jeffrey Elman's simple recurrent network (SRN), which incorporated hidden states to handle sequential dependencies in language. Elman's 1991 work demonstrated that SRNs could implicitly learn grammatical structures, such as word categories and syntactic dependencies, from predictive processing of word sequences, revealing emergent sensitivity to long-range dependencies without predefined grammar. Building on this, modern transformer architectures, introduced by Vaswani et al. in 2017 and exemplified by BERT (Devlin et al., 2018), leverage self-attention mechanisms to capture contextual statistical patterns across entire sentences. BERT's bidirectional pre-training on vast corpora enables it to model syntax and semantics through learned representations of co-occurrence probabilities, achieving high performance on tasks like grammatical acceptability judgments by encoding linguistic hierarchies via attention weights rather than modular rules. These models offer advantages over strict modularity by accounting for the gradual, error-prone nature of language development and its variability across languages, as evidenced by simulations that adapt to diverse input distributions without fixed parameters. For example, connectionist simulations replicate cross-linguistic differences in acquisition trajectories, such as varying rates of morphological learning, through differences in training data rather than innate universals. Empirical support comes from neuroimaging studies aligning brain activity with network predictions, such as Hasson et al.'s 2010 fMRI work showing dynamic, inter-brain coupling during naturalistic language exchange, indicative of distributed processing across temporal and frontal regions rather than localized modules. Later studies by Hasson and colleagues in the 2010s further confirmed non-localized, predictive dynamics in language comprehension, where neural responses track statistical regularities in unfolding narratives, mirroring transformer-like context integration.

Emergentist and Usage-Based Approaches

Emergentist approaches to language posit that linguistic abilities emerge from general-purpose cognitive processes and social interactions, rather than from a domain-specific innate module. In this framework, language develops as a complex adaptive system through children's participation in communicative exchanges, where skills like intention-reading and joint attention play central roles. Michael Tomasello's work in the 2000s emphasized how young children infer speakers' communicative intentions during joint attentional episodes, enabling the gradual construction of shared linguistic conventions without relying on pre-wired grammar. This perspective views language as culturally transmitted, arising from collaborative activities that scaffold learning through social feedback and generalization from specific usage events. Usage-based theories complement emergentism by arguing that grammatical structures emerge from the frequency and patterns of language use in everyday interactions, eschewing the need for innate rules. Adele Goldberg's construction grammar, developed from the 1990s through the 2010s, posits that linguistic knowledge consists of learned form-meaning pairings, or constructions, which generalize based on exposure rather than universal principles.^[29] For instance, idiomatic expressions like "cut the mustard" are treated as holistic units that children abstract into productive patterns through repeated use. Empirical support for these generalizations comes from corpus analyses showing alignment with token frequencies in natural language data and how probabilistic input shapes syntax and semantics, as explored in usage-based studies of frequency effects.^[30] Key evidence for these approaches includes studies on child language acquisition highlighting statistical learning mechanisms. In a seminal experiment, 8-month-old infants successfully segmented novel words from continuous speech streams by tracking transitional probabilities between syllables, illustrating how domain-general pattern detection extracts structure from input alone.^[31] This capability underpins early vocabulary growth and grammatical inference, as children build representations incrementally from social-linguistic exposure. Additionally, cross-linguistic diversity provides compelling challenges to innate universal grammar, with typological surveys revealing profound structural variations across languages that cannot be reduced to a small set of hardwired principles. Such variability, including non-configurational word orders and diverse morphological systems, supports the view that grammar emerges from usage patterns shaped by cultural and communicative needs. In the 2020s, sociolinguistic models have advanced emergentist and usage-based theories by integrating cultural transmission and embodied cognition, emphasizing how language arises in situated social contexts. These frameworks highlight the role of embodiment in grounding meanings through sensorimotor experiences during interactions, fostering adaptive linguistic systems attuned to diverse communities.^[32] For example, recent analyses show that language processing and acquisition are influenced by bodily states and environmental affordances, promoting culturally variable conventions over rigid universals.^[32] Recent developments include constructivist frameworks that explain acquisition through interactive learning components (Rowland et al., 2025) and emergentist accounts seeking neural correlates of usage-based processing (Pulvermüller et al., 2025).^[33]^[34] This evolution underscores language as a dynamic, socially embedded phenomenon, continually reshaped by collective use.^[35]

Current Research Directions

Integrative Neurocognitive Models

Integrative neurocognitive models represent a synthesis of modular and non-modular perspectives on language processing, incorporating elements of domain-specificity while emphasizing interactive, hierarchical, and embodied mechanisms. These frameworks address limitations in strict modularity by positing that language emerges from dynamic interactions across brain networks, integrating predictive inference, memory systems, and sensorimotor experiences. Seminal developments in the 2010s and 2020s have drawn on computational neuroscience to propose unified accounts, where language comprehension and production are embedded within broader cognitive architectures.^[36] Predictive coding frameworks, grounded in Karl Friston's free-energy principle, have gained prominence since the 2010s as a means to integrate language processing into hierarchical brain predictions. The free-energy principle posits that the brain minimizes surprise by generating top-down predictions about sensory inputs and updating them via bottom-up prediction errors, a process formalized as variational inference to bound free energy as a proxy for model evidence. In language contexts, this manifests as a predictive hierarchy across fronto-temporal regions, where higher-level linguistic expectations (e.g., syntactic structures) anticipate lower-level features (e.g., phonemes), evidenced by MEG and ERP studies showing graded prediction error signals during speech comprehension.^[37] For instance, neural responses in the superior temporal gyrus reflect hierarchical surprise minimization, linking language to general perceptual inference without invoking isolated modules.^[36] This approach reconciles modularity by allowing domain-specific priors (e.g., grammatical rules) within a universal predictive architecture, as articulated in reviews connecting predictive processing to language-perception interfaces.^[38] Dual-route models exemplify hybrid integrations by combining rule-based, modular-like pathways with associative, connectionist routes, particularly in reading and grammar. Michael Ullman's declarative/procedural model, developed in the 2000s, proposes that declarative memory—supported by temporal lobe structures—stores lexical items and irregular forms, while procedural memory—engaging frontal and basal ganglia circuits—handles rule-governed computations like regular morphology and syntax.^[39] In reading, this dual system parallels classic dual-route theories, where a sublexical route applies grapheme-phoneme rules (procedural) alongside a lexical route for whole-word recognition (declarative), explaining dissociations in disorders like developmental dyslexia.^[40] Neuroimaging evidence supports this synthesis, showing segregated yet interactive activations during complex word processing, thus bridging modular rule application with distributed associative learning.^[39] Post-2010 embodied cognition approaches further integrate language with sensorimotor systems, positing that linguistic representations are grounded in bodily experiences rather than abstract symbols alone. These models suggest that action words activate corresponding motor areas, facilitating comprehension through simulation, as demonstrated in EEG and MEG studies where movement priming enhances early (150 ms) brain responses in sensorimotor cortices for effector-specific verbs (e.g., hand vs. leg actions).^[41] For example, congruent motor priming modulates posterior superior temporal activity during semantic processing, indicating rapid sensorimotor-linguistic coupling without strict encapsulation.^[41] Reviews of such evidence highlight ultra-early effects in verb processing, underscoring how embodied mechanisms address modularity's neglect of perceptual-motor contexts in language use.^[42] Recent 2020s research draws on AI-inspired large language models (LLMs) to inform brain-language links, revealing parallels in predictive processing without requiring strict modularity. LLMs, such as those using transformer architectures, generate contextual embeddings that linearly align with human neural activity in speech and language areas during naturalistic comprehension, as shown in electrocorticography studies where model predictions mirror brain responses to surprise and semantic content.^[43] For instance, embeddings from models like Whisper predict superior temporal gyrus activity for acoustic features and inferior frontal responses for syntactic predictions, suggesting shared hierarchical inference principles across artificial and biological systems.^[44] This convergence highlights incompletenesses in purely modular views by demonstrating how emergent, distributed representations in LLMs capture brain-like language dynamics, informing hybrid models of cognition.^[45]

Implications for Language Acquisition and Disorders

The debate surrounding the language module has profound implications for understanding language acquisition, shifting emphasis from an innate, domain-specific mechanism to interactive, emergent processes driven by environmental input and general cognitive abilities. This perspective posits that children acquire language through dynamic interactions with caregivers and peers, rather than relying solely on a pre-wired grammatical module, as evidenced by developmental studies highlighting the role of statistical learning and social feedback in early lexicon and syntax formation.^[46] Such a view informs therapeutic interventions, particularly conversational recasting, where clinicians reformulate a child's utterance to model correct grammar without explicit correction; a 2015 meta-analysis of 40 studies demonstrated that recasts significantly improve grammatical development in preschoolers with language delays, with effect sizes up to 0.76 for targeted morphemes.^[47] Stephen Camarata's research in the 2010s further supports this, showing that recast frequency (e.g., 0.8–1.0 per minute) predicts long-term gains in spontaneous language use among children with specific language impairment (SLI), underscoring the efficacy of naturalistic, interactive approaches over drill-based methods.^[48] In clinical contexts, viewing language disorders through a non-modular lens reframes conditions like aphasia and dyslexia as disruptions in distributed neural networks rather than isolated module failures, promoting holistic assessments that integrate sensory, motor, and cognitive domains. For aphasia, post-stroke neuroimaging reveals altered connectivity in perisylvian networks, with recovery tied to compensatory recruitment across hemispheres rather than restoration of a singular language center.^[49] Similarly, dyslexia involves atypical functional connectivity in reading networks, including reduced left-hemisphere synchronization and heightened right-hemisphere involvement, correlating with impaired phonological processing; a 2023 study using data-driven fMRI parcellation found that dyslexic readers exhibit globally disrupted network interactions, explaining persistent reading deficits despite intact local activations.^[50] For SLI, treatments increasingly emphasize general cognitive enhancements, such as executive function training, over language-specific drills; a 2015 review of executive function deficits in SLI highlights their role in working memory and inhibition, while emerging 2020s analyses of neurodevelopmental disorders advocate for comorbidity-focused interventions that address overlapping cognitive impairments.^[51] Therapeutic advancements leverage neuroplasticity principles from non-modular frameworks, employing virtual reality (VR) and artificial intelligence (AI) to create adaptive, ecologically valid environments that exploit network-wide reorganization. VR-based interventions, for instance, immerse patients in interactive scenarios to practice language in context, fostering plasticity in chronic aphasia, as evidenced by studies showing improvements in functional communication.^[52] AI integration further personalizes rehab by analyzing real-time speech patterns and adjusting prompts, as seen in 2025 applications for communication disorders that enhance neuroplastic changes through gamified, multimodal exercises.^[53] These tools draw from emergentist views by emphasizing experience-dependent learning across interconnected systems. Broader societal impacts include reevaluating policies in bilingual education and AI language technologies, which historically assumed modular separation of languages—a notion rooted in 1990s symbolic AI models that treated grammar as rule-based modules but faltered in handling variability and context.^[54] In bilingual programs, non-modular insights advocate for integrated curricula that build on cross-linguistic transfer via shared cognitive resources, with a 2018 review of 22 studies confirming that dual-language immersion boosts executive function and literacy without delaying acquisition, informing policies in diverse regions like the EU and US.^[55] For AI, shifting to connectionist architectures in the 2020s has enabled models like transformers to mimic interactive learning, rendering 1990s modular assumptions obsolete and paving the way for inclusive tools in language therapy and education.^[56]

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Contributions of memory circuits to language: the declarative ...
The declarative/procedural (DP) model claims that the mental lexicon of memorized word-specific knowledge depends on the largely temporal-lobe substrates of ...Missing: route | Show results with:route
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Dual-route processing of complex words: New fMRI evidence from ...
Results support a dual-route model of lexical access of complex words that is consistent with the Ullman et al. proposal. Article PDF. Download to read the full ...<|separator|>
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Movement priming of EEG/MEG brain responses for action-words ...
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[PDF] Brain Signatures of Embodied Semantics and Language
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Large Language Models Reveal the Neural Tracking of Linguistic ...
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Increasing the Odds: Applying Emergentist Theory in Language ...
This review introduces a leading theory of language development, emergentism, the view that language ability is the product of interactions between the language ...
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Within-Treatment Factors as Predictors of Outcomes Following ...
Noncorrective recasts proved to be a positive predictor of short- and long-term gains in the use of the target form.
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In this review, we first discuss mechanisms of damage and plasticity in the post-stroke brain, both in the acute and the chronic phase of recovery.
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Disrupted network interactions serve as a neural marker of dyslexia
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Executive Function in SLI: Recent Advances and Future Directions
This paper provides a review of recent research on executive function abilities in children with specific language impairment (SLI).Missing: emphasizing 2020s
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Dec 6, 2023 · Our data suggest the potential effectiveness of a VR-based rehabilitation approach in promoting neuroplastic changes even in the chronic phase ...
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A History of Large Language Models - Gregory Gundersen
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Bilingual education for young children: review of the effects and ...
The present review examines research evaluating the outcomes of bilingual education for language and literacy levels, academic achievement, and suitability for ...
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Language models and psychological sciences - PubMed Central - NIH
Oct 20, 2023 · In short, the necessity of modular/symbolic theories of thought are required as associative networks (before LLMs) do not explain reasoning ...