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Last Adam

The Last Adam is a biblical title for Jesus Christ, denoting his role as the second and final representative head of humanity, who through perfect obedience reverses the disobedience of the first Adam and imparts eternal life to believers. This concept originates in the Apostle Paul's writings, particularly 1 Corinthians 15:45, where he states, "The first man Adam became a living being; the last Adam a life-giving spirit," contrasting Adam's introduction of sin and death (Genesis 3:6; Romans 5:12) with Christ's provision of righteousness and resurrection (Romans 5:18–19; 1 Corinthians 15:21–22).^[1]^[2] In broader New Testament theology, the Last Adam fulfills and surpasses the covenantal responsibilities given to the first Adam in the Garden of Eden, where humanity was tasked with obedience to God for blessing but failed, leading to universal condemnation (Genesis 2:16–17; Romans 5:12–21).^[3] Jesus, as the obedient Son of Man, undergoes temptation without sin (Matthew 4:1–11; Hebrews 4:15), offers himself as a substitutionary sacrifice (Romans 5:15–17), and rises as the "man of heaven" to transform believers into his likeness (1 Corinthians 15:47–49).^[1] This typology underscores core Christian doctrines of federal headship—where Adam represents fallen humanity and Christ the redeemed—emphasizing justification by grace through faith rather than works (Romans 5:1; Ephesians 2:8–9).^[2] The significance of the Last Adam extends to eschatological hope, portraying Jesus not only as redeemer but as the inaugurator of a new creation, where death is defeated and spiritual life abounds for all united with him (1 Corinthians 15:20–28; 2 Corinthians 5:17).^[3] Early church fathers and subsequent theologians, drawing directly from Pauline epistles, have interpreted this motif to affirm Christ's divinity and humanity, influencing soteriology (the doctrine of salvation) across Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox traditions.^[1]

Scriptural Foundations

The First Adam in the Old Testament

In the biblical account of creation, the first man, Adam, is formed by God from the dust of the ground, with God breathing into his nostrils the breath of life, making him a living being.^[4] This act establishes Adam as the progenitor of humanity, created in the image of God alongside the broader creation of humankind on the sixth day.^[5] God then places Adam in the Garden of Eden, a paradise planted eastward, tasking him with working and keeping it.^[6] In Eden, Adam is given freedom to eat from any tree except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, with the warning that eating its fruit would result in death.^[7] To provide companionship, God forms a woman from one of Adam's ribs while he sleeps, whom Adam names Eve, recognizing her as bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh; the two become one flesh.^[8] Initially, Adam and Eve are both naked and feel no shame.^[9] Adam further demonstrates his role in creation by naming the animals brought before him by God, a task that underscores his dominion and authority over the earthly creatures, though no suitable helper is found among them.^[10] This naming act highlights Adam's intimate involvement in the ordered world God has established. The narrative shifts to temptation when the serpent, described as more crafty than any other beast, deceives Eve by questioning God's command and promising that eating the fruit would open their eyes and make them like God, knowing good and evil.^[11] Eve eats the fruit and gives some to Adam, who is with her, and he also eats.^[12] Their eyes are opened, they realize their nakedness, and they sew fig leaves to cover themselves.^[13] The consequences of this disobedience unfold as God confronts them. Adam blames Eve, and Eve blames the serpent, leading to curses: the serpent is condemned to crawl on its belly and enmity with the woman's offspring; the woman faces increased pain in childbearing and desire for her husband; and Adam, as the one who listened to his wife and ate the forbidden fruit, receives a curse on the ground, making his toil laborious until he returns to dust, introducing mortality to humanity.^[14] God makes garments of skin for Adam and Eve, then expels them from Eden to prevent access to the tree of life, stationing cherubim and a flaming sword to guard the way.^[15] Through this event, Adam serves as the representative head of humanity, with the introduction of sin and death affecting all descendants, as the curse's scope extends beyond the individual to the human condition and the earth itself.^[16]^[17]

Typological Parallels in the Hebrew Bible

In the prophetic literature of the Hebrew Bible, Hosea 6:7 presents a direct typological parallel to the Genesis narrative by likening Israel's covenant unfaithfulness to Adam's transgression. The verse states, "But like Adam they transgressed the covenant; there they dealt faithlessly with me," portraying Israel's violation of the Mosaic covenant as echoing the primordial breach in Eden, where humanity first broke divine fellowship through disobedience. This comparison underscores a recurring motif of covenant-breaking that extends from the foundational human failure to later communal sins, emphasizing the enduring consequences of such acts on Israel's relationship with God.^[18] Prophetic visions of renewal further develop Adamic typology through imagery of a restored creation that reverses the curse of Eden. In Isaiah 43:18-19, the prophet declares, "Remember not the former things, nor consider the things of old. Behold, I am doing a new thing; now it springs forth, do you not perceive it?" signaling a divine initiative to surpass past failures, including the loss of paradisiacal harmony. Similarly, Isaiah 65:17-25 envisions "new heavens and a new earth" where "the former things shall not be remembered," depicting a transformed world free from toil, predation, and death—direct counters to the Edenic curses of thorns, enmity, and mortality imposed after the fall.^[19] These passages portray a renewed humanity in harmony with creation, evoking the pre-fall state while promising eschatological restoration beyond it.^[20] Adamic echoes appear in the figure of Noah, who embodies a typological "new start" following the flood, paralleling the original human mandate in Genesis 9. God blesses Noah and his sons, commanding them to "be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth," an instruction that directly recapitulates the charge given to Adam and Eve in Eden before the curse.^[21] The post-flood world, with its rainbow covenant ensuring no total destruction, represents a partial renewal of the created order, yet Noah's own failings—such as his drunkenness—highlight the persistence of human frailty akin to Adam's, setting the stage for ongoing divine intervention.^[22] This typology positions Noah as a representative head of a restarted humanity, underscoring themes of preservation and limited restoration amid persistent sin.^[23] The Suffering Servant in Isaiah 53 offers another layer of typology, contrasting obedient endurance with Adamic disobedience through a figure who bears others' transgressions. Described as one who "was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth" and "by oppression and judgment he was taken away," the Servant suffers vicariously, reversing the self-serving rebellion that marked the first human pair's fall.^[24] This portrayal aligns with broader prophetic motifs where Israel's collective disobedience mirrors Eden's breach, but the Servant's silent submission and resultant justification for many prefigure a redemptive obedience that heals communal fractures.^[25] Unlike Adam's solitary act leading to widespread curse, the Servant's path through suffering evokes a covenantal renewal for the nation and beyond. Restoration motifs tied to Eden's loss culminate in Ezekiel 28:12-19, where the lament over the king of Tyre evokes an Adamic guardian figure fallen from divine favor. The passage depicts the king as "the signet of perfection, full of wisdom and perfect in beauty... in Eden, the garden of God," appointed as an "anointed guardian cherub" who walked among fiery stones until iniquity led to expulsion and destruction by fire.^[26] This imagery parallels Adam's role as steward of the garden, corrupted by pride and violence, transforming the oracle into a mythic reflection on paradise lost and the potential for divine judgment to pave the way for renewal.^[27] By recasting the Tyrean ruler in Edenic terms, Ezekiel reinforces the Hebrew Bible's pattern of fall and hoped-for restoration, linking individual hubris to cosmic disorder while hinting at ultimate reordering.^[28]

New Testament Representations

Pauline Epistles

In the Pauline Epistles, the concept of Christ as the "last Adam" is most explicitly developed in 1 Corinthians 15, where Paul contrasts the first Adam with Christ to explain the resurrection and transformation of believers. Paul states that "since death came through a man, the resurrection of the dead comes also through a man," emphasizing that "in Adam all die, so in Christ all will be made alive" (1 Corinthians 15:21-22, NIV). This federal representation underscores Adam's role in introducing mortality to humanity, while Christ's resurrection reverses it for those united to him. Further, Paul identifies Christ as "the last Adam, a life-giving spirit," in direct opposition to the first Adam, who became "a living being" (psychē zōsa), drawing from Genesis 2:7 to highlight the earthy, soulish nature of the first creation versus the spiritual, heavenly vitality imparted by Christ (1 Corinthians 15:45, NIV). Scholars note that this portrayal positions Christ as the heavenly man (anthrōpos ex ouranou), enabling believers to bear his image rather than Adam's corruptible one, thus fulfilling eschatological renewal (1 Corinthians 15:46-49).^[29] Paul extends this Adam-Christ antithesis in Romans 5:12-21, framing salvation history through the parallel acts of two representative figures. He explains that "sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned," attributing universal condemnation to Adam's single trespass (Romans 5:12, NIV). In contrast, Christ's "one righteous act resulted in justification and life for all people," with his obedience surpassing Adam's disobedience to bring abundant grace that reigns through righteousness (Romans 5:18-21, NIV). This typology portrays Adam as the type and Christ as the antitype, where sin and death hold dominion through the first but are overwhelmed by the superabundance of grace in the second, establishing justification for many.^[30] Paul's federal headship doctrine here implies that humanity's corporate solidarity with Adam imputes death, yet union with the sinless Christ imparts life without transmitting sin, as Christ's humanity remains untainted by the fall.^[29]^[31] An implicit reversal of Adam's fall appears in Philippians 2:6-11, the kenosis hymn, where Christ's self-emptying (kenōsis) and exaltation undo the prideful grasping associated with Adam's disobedience in Genesis 3. Paul describes Christ, "who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be used to his own advantage; rather, he made himself nothing by taking the very nature of a servant" (Philippians 2:6-7, NIV), portraying this voluntary humility as the antidote to Adam's attempt to seize divinity. This obedient descent leads to exaltation, where God highly exalts him and bestows the name above every name (Philippians 2:9-11, NIV), reversing Adam's expulsion and restoring humanity's intended glory through Christ's sinless obedience. In Second Adam Christology, this passage emphasizes Christ's perfect humanity—free from sin—as the means to redeem what Adam forfeited, embodying federal headship by representing believers in perfect submission.^[32]

Johannine Writings

In the Johannine writings, the concept of Jesus as the Last Adam emerges through implicit typological reversals of the Genesis fall, portraying him as the initiator of a new creation without the disobedience that marked the first Adam. The prologue of the Gospel of John (John 1:1-14) presents the Logos becoming flesh as a divine act of formation, echoing Adam's creation from dust in Genesis 2:7 but emphasizing God's unmediated initiative and the absence of sin's intrusion.^[33] This incarnation signals a renewed humanity, where the Word's dwelling among humans (John 1:14) restores the intimate divine presence lost in Eden, fulfilling Adam's priestly role as caretaker of creation.^[34] The passion narrative in John 18-19 further develops this typology through symbolic inversions of Adamic motifs. Jesus' crown of thorns (John 19:2, 5) bears the curse pronounced on the ground after the fall (Genesis 3:18), transforming Adam's shame-covered fig leaves (Genesis 3:7) into a redemptive emblem of kingship and suffering.^[35] The piercing of Jesus' side (John 19:34), from which blood and water flow as life-giving elements, reverses the formation of Eve from Adam's side (Genesis 2:21-22), birthing the church as a new community of the living.^[36] His unbroken bones (John 19:36) align with Passover typology, enacting a new exodus from the Edenic curse of mortality (Genesis 3:19), while his burial in a garden tomb (John 19:41) evokes Eden's restoration, placing the Last Adam in paradisiacal renewal.^[36] Specific Johannine images reinforce this Adamic reversal. Jesus' declaration as the true vine (John 15:1) contrasts the forbidden tree of knowledge in Eden (Genesis 2:17), positioning him as the source of abiding life and fruitfulness for believers, undoing the separation caused by Adam's disobedience.^[33] Similarly, as the light of the world (John 8:12), Jesus dispels the darkness of shame that led Adam to hide from God's presence (Genesis 3:8), offering unhindered communion and guidance.^[37] In the Book of Revelation, attributed to John, the vision of the New Jerusalem (Revelation 21-22) consummates these typologies as the ultimate reversal of the fall. The accessible tree of life (Revelation 22:2) and the river of living water (Revelation 22:1) directly echo and restore the barred elements of Eden (Genesis 2:9-10; 3:22-24), with no lingering curse (Revelation 22:3), fulfilling the Last Adam's redemptive work in a renewed creation.^[38] This eschatological garden-city integrates humanity's priestly service (Revelation 22:3-5), where God's presence banishes the shadows of Adam's failure.^[39]

Other New Testament Allusions

In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author quotes Psalm 8:4-6 to describe humanity's intended dominion over creation, applying it to Jesus as the one who fulfills what the first Adam forfeited through disobedience. The passage states: "What is man, that you are mindful of him, or the son of man, that you care for him? You made him for a little while lower than the angels; you have crowned him with glory and honor, putting everything in subjection under his feet... But we see him who for a little while was made lower than the angels, namely Jesus, crowned with glory and honor because of the suffering of death, so that by the grace of God he might taste death for everyone" (Hebrews 2:6-9, ESV).^[40] This anthropological reading of Psalm 8 highlights humanity's original status—superior to angels yet fallen into subjection—now eschatologically restored in Jesus, who identifies with post-Fall humanity and achieves perfect dominion through his death, contrasting Adam's loss of glory in the Garden.^[41] The temptation narratives in the Synoptic Gospels further illustrate Jesus as the obedient counterpart to Adam, succeeding where the first man failed in Genesis 3. In Matthew 4:1-11, after fasting forty days, Jesus faces three temptations: to turn stones into bread (testing provision and hunger, paralleling the fruit's appeal as "good for food" in Genesis 3:6); to throw himself from the temple pinnacle for angelic protection (probing glory and presumption, echoing the promise to "be like God" in Genesis 3:5); and to worship Satan for worldly kingdoms (assaulting allegiance, akin to idolatry in prioritizing the serpent over God in Genesis 3:1-6).^[42]^[43] Luke 4:1-13 presents a similar sequence, though ordering the second and third temptations differently (bread first, then kingdoms, then temple), emphasizing Jesus' reliance on scripture to resist, thereby reversing Adam and Eve's disobedience and restoring humanity's relationship with God.^[44] These accounts frame Jesus as the "second Adam," whose victory in the wilderness regains the Paradise lost through the primordial couple's succumbence to desire, power, and doubt.^[45] Luke's genealogy in 3:23-38 traces Jesus' lineage through Joseph back seventy-seven generations to "Adam, the son of God," underscoring his solidarity with all humanity as the new head who redeems the failures of the first.^[46] Positioned after Jesus' baptism—where he is declared the beloved Son—and before his temptation, this list connects him to Adam as the original "son of God" (Luke 3:38; cf. Genesis 5:1-3), portraying Jesus as the promised offspring of Genesis 3:15 who undoes the Fall's curse for Gentiles and Jews alike.^[47] In 1 Timothy 2:13-14, Paul references the creation order and the Fall to ground instructions on church order, implicitly elevating Christ's redemptive priority over Adam's primacy: "For Adam was formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor" (ESV).^[48] This allusion to Genesis 2:7 and 3:6 ties Eve's transgression—and Adam's willful sin—to the need for salvation through "the childbirth" (1 Timothy 2:15), interpreted as the Messiah's incarnation, where Christ reverses the curse originating with the first couple.^[49]

Theological Interpretations

Recapitulation and Obedience

The recapitulation theory posits that Jesus Christ, as the Last Adam, reverses the consequences of the first Adam's fall by reliving the entirety of human existence—from birth through death—in perfect obedience to God, thereby undoing humanity's inherited sinfulness at each stage. In this framework, Christ's sinless life encompasses key phases such as infancy, where he assumes human vulnerability without the taint of original sin (Luke 2:1-20),[] contrasting Adam's pristine yet ultimately disobedient state in Eden. Through these recapitulative acts, Christ establishes himself as the new head of humanity, transforming disobedience into a pathway for restoration (1 Corinthians 15:45).[] This process is not merely symbolic but actively reconstructs human nature, succeeding where Adam failed by maintaining fidelity to God's will across all life experiences.[] Central to this theory is the motif of Christ's active obedience, which fulfills the moral law on behalf of humanity and stands in direct opposition to Adam's primal act of rebellion. As described in Philippians 2:8, Christ "humbled himself by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross,"[] thereby achieving a righteousness that is imputed to believers, making the many righteous just as Adam's disobedience made the many sinners (Romans 5:19).[] This active obedience extends beyond passive endurance to proactive fulfillment of divine commands, serving as the theological mechanism for reversing the curse of the fall and enabling justification.[] In Gethsemane, Christ's prayer—"not as I will, but as you will" (Matthew 26:39)—exemplifies this submission amid suffering, transforming potential human frailty into triumphant alignment with the Father.[] Specific theological concepts within recapitulation highlight obedience in pivotal moments of Christ's life. The wilderness temptation functions as a test of filial obedience, where Jesus resists Satan by quoting Deuteronomy 8:3—"Man shall not live by bread alone"—echoing Israel's and Adam's trials while demonstrating unwavering dependence on God (Matthew 4:1-11).[] Similarly, Christ's baptism in the Jordan River (Mark 1:9-11) symbolizes a new creation, as the heavens tear open and the Spirit descends, inaugurating his ministry as the obedient Son who renews humanity's relationship with God.[] These events underscore how Christ's obedience at formative junctures not only recapitulates but elevates human potential, providing a model and means for believers' sanctification.[]

Soteriology and Eschatology

In Christian soteriology, the concept of Christ as the Last Adam underscores his redemptive work in overturning the consequences of the first Adam's sin, particularly through his death and resurrection, which defeat the death that entered the world via human transgression. As Paul articulates, "The last enemy to be destroyed is death," positioning Christ's victory as the antidote to mortality's dominion established in Genesis 3.^[50] This salvific act provides justification for all humanity, where "one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all," contrasting Adam's single trespass that brought condemnation.^[51] Scholars interpret this as Christ imparting eschatological life through his obedience, enabling believers to receive grace that abounds beyond sin's effects.^[52] Central to this soteriological framework is the transformation of believers into a new humanity in Christ, where the old order of sin and death gives way to renewal. Paul describes this as, "If anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation," emphasizing incorporation into the Last Adam's redemptive reality that initiates personal and cosmic restoration.^[51] This new humanity participates in Christ's life-giving spirit, reversing Adam's legacy of spiritual death and fostering justification that extends to eternal life.^[50] Turning to eschatology, the Last Adam promises the ultimate transformation of believers, who "will bear the image of the man of heaven" at the resurrection, shifting from the earthly image of the first Adam to an imperishable, spiritual form.^[51] This future-oriented hope culminates in the destruction of death as the final adversary, declared in Paul's triumphant words: "Death is swallowed up in victory... thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ."^[50] Theological analysis highlights how Christ's role as the life-giving spirit ensures this eschatological conformity, clothing believers with his heavenly image.^[52] In the broader eschatological vision, the Last Adam inaugurates a new creation free from the curse of death and decay, where God declares, "He will wipe away every tear from their eyes, and death shall be no more."^[51] This renewal fulfills the redemptive trajectory from Adam's fall, consummating in a restored cosmos under Christ's headship, with no lingering effects of the primordial curse.^[50]

Historical Developments

Patristic Era

In the Patristic Era, early Church Fathers developed the concept of Christ as the Last Adam through the doctrine of recapitulation, particularly as articulated by Irenaeus of Lyons in his work Against Heresies (c. 180 AD). Irenaeus portrayed Christ as the "second Adam" who sums up and restores all stages of human life corrupted by the first Adam's disobedience, sanctifying infancy, childhood, youth, and adulthood through his own obedience and incarnation.^[53] By assuming human nature at every phase—from being born as an infant to living as an elder—Christ reverses the effects of Adam's fall stage by stage, transforming disobedience into obedience and death into life, thereby recapitulating humanity in himself to achieve redemption.^[54] This framework emphasized the unity of God's economy of salvation, where the Word of God enters history to heal the entirety of human existence marred by sin.^[55] Other Fathers built upon this typology. Justin Martyr, in his Dialogue with Trypho (c. 155 AD), presented Christ as the second Adam who reconciles humanity to God, contrasting Adam's fall under death with Christ's restoration through obedience unto death, thereby fulfilling the promise of eternal life.^[56] Similarly, Athanasius of Alexandria, in On the Incarnation (c. 318 AD), explained that the eternal Word assumed full human nature—precisely the form corrupted by Adam—to conquer death and corruption from within, rendering the body capable of incorruption and restoring humanity's divine image.^[57] Athanasius stressed that without this assumption of corruptible flesh by the incorruptible Word, humanity would remain enslaved to decay, underscoring the incarnation as the pivotal act of healing Adam's legacy.^[58] The Last Adam typology also influenced liturgical practices and polemical theology in the Patristic period. In baptismal rites, the font symbolized a return to paradise and rebirth as the new Adam, where initiates were immersed in water to enact Christ's victory over death, emerging renewed in the image of the second Adam and incorporated into the new creation.^[59] This imagery reinforced the sacrament's role in personal recapitulation, mirroring Christ's descent into human corruption for renewal. Against Gnostic heresies, which denied the reality of the incarnation and viewed matter as inherently evil, Fathers like Irenaeus employed the Last Adam doctrine to affirm Christ's full humanity, arguing that only by truly becoming the second Adam could he redeem the material body and refute docetic denials of bodily salvation.^[60] This anti-Gnostic emphasis highlighted the incarnation's necessity for the integrity of creation, ensuring that salvation encompassed the whole person rather than an abstract spiritual escape.^[61]

Medieval and Modern Theology

In the medieval period, Anselm of Canterbury developed the satisfaction theory of atonement in his Cur Deus Homo (1098), arguing that Adam's disobedience created an infinite debt of honor owed to God, which only Christ, as both fully divine and fully human—the Last Adam—could satisfy through his obedient death and resurrection.^[62] This framework positioned Christ as the restorer of humanity's relational order disrupted by the first Adam's sin. Building on this, Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologica (c. 1265–1274) integrated the Last Adam motif with distinctions between nature and grace, asserting that Adam was originally endowed with sanctifying grace to maintain obedience and immortality, a state forfeited through sin but supremely fulfilled and elevated in Christ, who infuses grace to enable human perseverance toward beatitude.^[63] Aquinas emphasized that Christ's grace not only repairs the wound of original sin but perfects human nature beyond Adam's prelapsarian condition.^[64] The Reformation era saw Martin Luther and John Calvin advance federal theology, framing Adam as the federal head under a covenant of works where perfect obedience would have secured eternal life, but his failure imputed sin and death to humanity; in contrast, Christ as the Last Adam serves as the federal head of the covenant of grace, imputing his righteousness through faith alone.^[65] Calvin particularly highlighted in his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536–1559) how Adam's representative role underscores the totality of human corruption, making Christ's mediatorial obedience the sole ground for justification and renewal.^[66] This federal paradigm profoundly influenced Puritan theology in the 17th century, where thinkers like John Owen and the Westminster divines elaborated on Adam's headship to explain the imputation of sin and the parallel imputation of Christ's merit, shaping doctrines of total depravity and union with Christ in works like Owen's The Doctrine of Justification by Faith (1677).^[67] In modern theology, Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics (1932–1967) reinterprets the Last Adam christologically, presenting Christ not as a mere reversal of Adam but as the originary true human whose obedient existence in the covenant of grace reveals humanity's authentic telos, with Adam's story serving as a shadow of this primal reality in Christ.^[68] Barth insists that Jesus, as the electing God and elected man, embodies perfect humanity free from abstract ideals, grounding soteriology in his vicarious representation.^[69] Twentieth- and twenty-first-century scholarship has extended these ideas to ecological theology, with articles in Themelios (e.g., vol. 49, no. 2, 2024) exploring how Christ's role as Last Adam implies a new creation stewardship that redeems humanity's dominion over earth, transforming exploitative rule into harmonious care amid environmental crises.^[70] Minor scholarly debates persist regarding the sinless state of the first Adam relative to Christ's perfection, with some questioning whether pre-fall Adam possessed inherent immortality or merely probationary grace, impacting interpretations of the Last Adam's elevation of fallen human nature without implying an originally flawless anthropology.^[71] These views, often framed within federalism versus realist models of original sin, underscore ongoing tensions in relating Pauline typology to contemporary anthropology and soteriology.^[72]

Interreligious Contexts

Islamic Parallels

In Islamic theology, the Qur'an draws a parallel between the creation of Adam and Jesus (known as Isa) to emphasize divine power without implying divinity for either figure. According to Quran 3:59, "Indeed, the example of Jesus to Allah is like that of Adam. He created him from dust; then He said to him, 'Be,' and he was," highlighting that both were brought into existence by Allah's command alone, without human fathers—Adam from clay and Jesus through the virgin Mary. This similitude serves to affirm tawhid, the absolute oneness of God, countering claims of Jesus's divinity by equating his miraculous birth to Adam's original creation.^[73] Adam is regarded as the first prophet and human in Islam, with his story detailed in Quran 2:30-39, where Allah announces his creation to the angels, who question humanity's potential for corruption, and appoints Adam as vicegerent on earth. Tempted by Iblis (Satan), Adam and his wife eat from the forbidden tree, leading to their descent from Paradise, but Allah teaches Adam words of repentance, accepts it, and forgives him without transmitting original sin to descendants. Unlike Christian interpretations of inherited guilt, Islamic doctrine views Adam's lapse as a personal error resolved through sincere tawbah (repentance), preserving human accountability and innate purity (fitrah).^[74] Hadith traditions further elaborate on Adam's creation, such as a narration in Sahih al-Bukhari stating that Allah created him 60 cubits tall, symbolizing an ideal form diminished over generations as humanity spread on earth. Jesus, referred to as Isa ibn Maryam, is honored in the Qur'an as a prophet and messenger, born miraculously as "a word from Allah" (Quran 3:45) and "His Word bestowed on Mary, and a spirit proceeding from Him" (Quran 4:171), yet he remains a created being and servant of God, sinless like all prophets but not a divine redeemer. Islamic sources emphasize his prophethood in the chain from Adam, performing miracles by Allah's permission (Quran 5:110), while rejecting any incarnation or atonement role that would compromise tawhid.^[75] The Qur'an contains no equivalent to the Christian "Last Adam" typology for Jesus, instead presenting both figures as exemplars of direct divine creation to underscore monotheism over redemptive parallels.^[76]

Other Traditions

In Jewish traditions, Adam serves as a primordial archetype, with midrashic and pseudepigraphic texts portraying him as having a heavenly counterpart, such as the prelapsarian Adam depicted as a luminous celestial being or second angel in 2 Enoch.^[77] Certain rabbinic interpretations, including the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Genesis 3:15, present a messianic figure who will prevail over enmity between the seeds of the woman and the serpent, evoking themes of restoration but without explicitly framing the messiah as a "new Adam."^[78] Unlike Christian typology, Judaism lacks a direct "Last Adam" concept, instead emphasizing Adam's role in highlighting universal human potential and ethical responsibility within creation.^[79] The Bahá'í Faith incorporates Adam-Jesus parallels within its doctrine of progressive revelation, viewing Adam as the inaugural Manifestation of God who initiated divine guidance for humanity, followed by Jesus as a later Manifestation advancing spiritual truths suited to his era.^[80] This chain underscores an unfolding unity of religions, where each figure builds upon predecessors without supplanting them as a redemptive "second Adam." Gnostic literature, such as the Apocryphon of John, reinterprets Adam's creation through the lens of a flawed demiurge named Yaldabaoth who fashions the material Adam as an imperfect imitation of the divine anthropos, with Christ subsequently revealed as the savior who imparts gnosis to liberate the spiritual element trapped within humanity.^[81] This inversion contrasts sharply with orthodox portrayals, positioning Christ not as a restorative Adam but as an illuminator exposing cosmic deception.

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[20]
[PDF] A TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF ISAIAH 65:17-25 - ACJOL.Org
... new conditions in nature exist and reversal of curses into blessings becomes a norm. This is the description given by Isaiah in our pericope. On the other ...Missing: 43:18-19 | Show results with:43:18-19
[21]
Genesis 9:1-17 - A Fresh Start, A Promise, A Responsibility
Sep 4, 2024 · God blesses Noah and his sons, telling them to be fruitful, multiply, and fill the earth. This echoes God's original command to Adam and Eve ( ...
[22]
[PDF] Noah as a New Adam in the Narrative Substructure of Romans 5:12 ...
Noah as a New Adam. 79. The basis for this study of typology comes from the explicit reference to typology when Paul identifies Adam as a “type” (τύπος) of ...
[23]
[PDF] Typological Connections between Adam, Joseph, Mordecai, and ...
The inclusion of Adam's failure into one typological paradigm along with his prior triumphs sets the typological pattern itself as one of ultimately rejecting ...
[24]
(PDF) Exegesis of "He will Justify" in Isaiah 53:11 - Academia.edu
... suffering as the prophets indicated was because of disobedience (42: 2, 18-25) unlike the servant who was suffering in obedience on behalf of others. 5 ...
[25]
http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1010-36212014000200004
[26]
[PDF] Reinterpretation of Ezekiel 28:12 - Fr. Silviu Bunta
the LXX version of Ezek 28:12 reflects this shift in exilic Judahite ideology. I. Text. Ezekiel 28 describes an Adamic figure, namely, the king of Tyre, as םתֵוֹח.
[27]
[PDF] adam reigns in eden: genesis and the origins of kingship
69 Notably, Ezekiel 28:1-19 (cf., Isa. 14:13-23) draws upon the story of Adam's fall in Eden to issue a charge against the king of Tyre in his own day.
[28]
Old Testament Essays - SciELO South Africa
This article explores the oracles against Tyre, particularly Ezek 28:1-19, from the perspective of honour and shame in an ancient Mediterranean context.
[29]
[PDF] š in Romans 5:12-21: Comparison, Contrast, or Both?
Apr 18, 2007 · Many scholars view Adam only as an antithesis of Christ. Was Adam just a contrast to Christ? Is Paul referring to. Adam's pre-fallen state when ...
[30]
Romans 5:12–21 against the Background of Torah-Theology and ...
Nov 5, 2007 · In this article I will consider a source of Rom 5:12–21, in which Paul contrasts Adam and Christ. I will try to demonstrate that Paul's ...
[31]
[PDF] THE ADAM-CHRIST TYPOLOGY IN PAUL AND ITS ...
Adam-Christ typology views Christ as the second Adam, where Paul links Christ's death to Adam's sin, but early church fathers expanded this to include sinless ...
[32]
Christ as Second Adam: Girardian Mimesis Redeemed
Jan 1, 2024 · Since a number of scholars, including James D.G. Dunn, have identified Phil 2:6–11 as a key piece of Second Adam Christology, I examine this ...
[33]
Irenaeus and the Adam-Christ Typology in the Gospel of John
This article throws doubt on that assumption by tracing key elements of Irenaeus's “new Adam” teaching to John the Evangelist.
[34]
John's Portrayal of Jesus as the Divine-Adamic Priest and What It ...
John portrays Jesus as executing his priestly role to purify the temple, contrasting Adam's failure to guard Eden, highlighting Jesus' authoritative response.
[35]
[PDF] The Old Testament Background of “Ecce Homo” in John 19:5
An argument in favor of the existence of Adamic imagery in John 19:5 is the presence of the Adam typology elsewhere in the Fourth Gospel.62 Its presence in the ...
[36]
None
### Summary of Arguments on Reversal of Genesis 1-3 in John’s Passion Narrative
[37]
Jesus, Light of the World (John 8:12) - Biblical Foundations
Feb 22, 2023 · What John tells us is that, naturally, our sin nature causes us to hide from Jesus's presence, just as Adam and Eve did when they hid from God ...
[38]
The New Heaven and New Earth - The Gospel Coalition
The new heavens and new earth is the culmination of the biblical story, when Christ accomplishes God's original purposes for creation, reverses Adam's curse, ...
[39]
https://www.crossway.org/articles/a-biblical-theology-of-the-city-of-god/
[40]
Bible Gateway passage: Hebrews 2:6-9 - English Standard Version
### Exact Text of Hebrews 2:6-9 (ESV)
[41]
“Made Lower than Angels”: A Fresh Look at Hebrews 2:5–9
The following essay takes up this latter question and argues that Hebrews reads Psalm 8 as a description of what humanity lost in the fall.Missing: Last sources
[42]
Bible Gateway passage: Matthew 4:1-11 - English Standard Version
### Summary of the Three Temptations in Matthew 4:1-11 (ESV)
[43]
Bible Gateway passage: Genesis 3 - English Standard Version
### Summary of the Temptation of Adam and Eve in Genesis 3 (ESV)
[44]
Bible Gateway passage: Luke 4:1-13 - English Standard Version
### Summary of the Three Temptations in Luke 4:1-13
[45]
[PDF] The Intertextual Construction of 'Adam-Christ Typology' in the Lucan ...
Oct 28, 2019 · This paper is a study of the intertextual relationship between the Gospel of Luke and Genesis, focuses on a close reading of the crucial ...
[46]
Bible Gateway passage: Luke 3:23-38 - English Standard Version
### Summary of Luke 3:23-38 (ESV)
[47]
The Two Genealogies of the Son of Man - Modern Reformation
Aug 8, 2022 · Only Luke traces Jesus' genealogy back from Abraham to Adam. ... theological significance of Luke's genealogy and why it differs from Matthew's.
[48]
Bible Gateway passage: 1 Timothy 2:13-14 - English Standard Version
### Exact Text of 1 Timothy 2:13-14 (ESV)
[49]
What Must She Do to Be Saved? A Theological Analysis of 1 ...
Apr 20, 2020 · ... Adam and Eve continued from 1 Timothy 2:13 ... Adam and Eve as intrinsically related to the salvation achieved through Christ's coming.
[50]
None
### Summary of Key Theological Points on the Last Adam
[51]
[PDF] The Figure of Adam in Rom 5:12-21 and 1 Cor 15:21-22, 45-49
Aug 29, 2011 · 12 The contrast between Adam and Moses resembles Paul's contrast between Adam and Christ found in Rom 5:12-21, but instead of Moses Paul ...
[52]
[PDF] An Investigation of the Connection between Adam as a Type of ...
The study investigates the connection between Adam and Christ using structural analysis of Romans 5:12-19, showing a correspondence based on similarity.
[53]
CHURCH FATHERS: Against Heresies, III.23 (St. Irenaeus)
Against Heresies (Book III, Chapter 23) · In Adam we all die; 1 Corinthians 15:22 ignorant, however, that · where sin abounded, grace did much more abound.
[54]
[PDF] Irenaeus Of Lyons: A Defense of Recapitulation
Apr 1, 2015 · He felt it his job as bishop to dispel this heretical sect and refute their claims. This was the impetus for his writing “Against Heresies” and ...
[55]
Irenaeus and Recapitulation - Credo Magazine
Feb 3, 2012 · Recapitulation stresses Christ's role as the Last Adam, the one who came to undo the curse brought upon humanity and the world by the first Adam's sin.
[56]
The Doctrine of Atonement, The First Period, 80-254 A.D. (3)
Justin Martyr was a Gentile, but born in Samaria, near Jacob's well. The ... second Adam we have been reconciled again, having become obedient unto death” .
[57]
St. Athanasius: On the Incarnation of the Word - Christian Classics ...
For once having put on corruption, it could not rise, unless it put on life instead; and besides this, death of its very nature could not appear otherwise than ...
[58]
God the Word Offered His Own Body - Athanasius
Jun 6, 2016 · God the Word of the great and good Father did not abandon human nature as it was falling into corruption and decay. By offering his own body ...
[59]
The Sacraments and the History of Salvation - Catholic Culture
This theme of baptism as a return to paradise[6] is as essential to the liturgy as is the paschal theme. Christ is the new Adam, the first to re-enter paradise; ...<|separator|>
[60]
Irenaeus and Redemptive History - The Orthodox Presbyterian Church
Or to put it succinctly (as he does), Christ Jesus as second Adam undoes what the first Adam did. ... Christ, Luke 3:38; see Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.22.3, in ...Deity And Humanity Of Christ · Recapitulation · Redemptive-Historical...<|separator|>
[61]
Church Fathers: St. Irenaeus of Lyon, Champion of the Incarnation
Jul 25, 2022 · In this work, divided into five books, Irenaeus took on the monumental task of describing the beliefs of various Gnostic sects and then refuting ...Missing: anti- Last
[62]
Cur Deus Homo - EWTN
Anselm: Every wish of a rational creature should be subject to the will of God. Boso: Nothing is more true. Anselm: This is the debt which man and angel owe ...
[63]
Question 95. Things pertaining to the first man's will—namely, grace ...
... Adam was made into a living soul; the last Adam into a quickening spirit." But the spirit is quickened by grace. Therefore Christ alone was made in grace.
[64]
St. Thomas Aquinas: Nature and Grace
But Adam received what enabled him to persevere. Much more, then, does the grace of Christ restore to us the ability to persevere. Hence a man does not stand in ...
[65]
[PDF] Calvin's Understanding of Adam's Relationship to His Posterity:
1. The question that has occasioned dispute regarding Calvin's doctrine is whether or not he perceived Adam to sustain a representative (or federal).<|separator|>
[66]
Luther On The Covenant Of Works | The Heidelblog
Sep 30, 2014 · The argument is true that eternal life is in the given to him who keeps the law without Christ, because whoever keeps the law is righteous.
[67]
Adam and Federal Headship | Monergism
The two stand or fall together. If there had been no covenant of works there could have been no death in Adam, there could have been no life in Christ. “By one ...
[68]
Barth on "Adam and Christ" vs. "Christ and Adam"
Jun 11, 2016 · In this Barth argues that the proper order we have to think through is not “Adam and Christ” but “Christ and Adam”. That is to say, Christ first then Adam.
[69]
Adam Neder, Participation in Christ: An Entry in Karl Barth's Church ...
Neder aims to bring Barth's theology of participation in Christ to the fore by unpacking it from within the four volumes of the Church Dogmatics.Missing: Last | Show results with:Last
[70]
[PDF] Volume 49 Issue 2 August 2024 - The Gospel Coalition
Themelios is an international, evangelical, peer-reviewed theological journal that expounds and defends the historic. Christian faith. Its primary audience is ...
[71]
Ecological challenges from Genesis 3 14 20 and Romans 8 18 25
Aug 8, 2025 · This work employs a comparative study of the theologies of Genesis 3:14-20 and Romans 8:18-25 as it relates to the problem of ecological ...Missing: Themelios | Show results with:Themelios
[72]
The Relation between Adam's Sin and Death - Reasonable Faith
May 24, 2020 · So for Paul, Adam is created with a sōma psychikon; he does not obtain one by sinning. Paul thus implies that physical mortality is the natural ...Missing: non- | Show results with:non-
[73]
Are we born guilty of Adam's sin? (Sin 1) - Restitutio
Mar 15, 2022 · The advantage of federalism is how well it lines up the parallel between Adam and Christ.1. Realism · 2. Federalism · 3. Corruption-Only
[74]
https://www.islamicstudies.info/tafheem.php?sura=2&verse=30-39
[75]
https://yaqeeninstitute.org/read/paper/finding-and-following-jesus-the-muslim-claim-to-the-messiah
[76]
Finding and Following Jesus: The Muslim Claim to the Messiah
Dec 24, 2018 · Jesus is awarded many Jewish titles that are acceptable to Muslims. The Qur'an rejects any relationship to God that would move someone beyond ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[77]
https://www.marquette.edu/maqom/divinebody.pdf
[78]
[PDF] The Tradition of the Divine Body in 2 (Slavonic) Enoch
According to 2 Enoch 30:12, the prelapsarian Adam was a very special celestial being. The Slavonic apocalypse defines him as a second angel who was great (Slav.
[79]
Is it he, she, they or we who crush the serpent's head? (Gen 3:15)
Dec 20, 2016 · Interestingly, the Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan (AKA Jerusalem Targum) of Genesis 3:15 contains a messianic prophecy that indicates there will be ...
[80]
The Heavenly Counterpart Traditions in the Pseudepigrapha about ...
Scholars previously have suggested that the traditions about Jacob's image as his heavenly archetype appear to be profoundly shaped by early Adamic lore. Thus, ...
[81]
Adam - Bahaipedia, an encyclopedia about the Bahá'í Faith
Apr 7, 2025 · Adam is regarded as the first Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. ... progressive Revelations which were concluded by the Prophet Muhammad.Missing: Jesus | Show results with:Jesus
[82]
The Secret Book of John (Apocryphon of John) - The Gnosis Archive
The Secret Book of John is a complex developmental mythology that has been made more complicated because, over the years, versions of it have been “improved”