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Last rites

Last rites, formally known as the sacraments of the dying in the Roman Catholic Church, are a series of sacramental rites administered to individuals facing imminent death to provide spiritual comfort, forgiveness of sins, and preparation for eternal life. These rites typically encompass three key sacraments: Penance (also called Reconciliation or Confession), which involves confessing sins and receiving absolution; the Anointing of the Sick, involving the anointing with blessed oil and prayers for healing and strength; and Viaticum, the reception of the Eucharist as the final Holy Communion, symbolizing the passage from earthly life to union with God.^[1]^[2] The purpose of these rites is to unite the dying person's suffering with Christ's Passion, offer grace for the forgiveness of sins if not already absolved, and impart strength for the journey to the heavenly homeland, even if physical recovery does not occur.^[3] The rite of Anointing of the Sick, once commonly referred to as Extreme Unction and reserved primarily for those at the point of death, was broadened following the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) to emphasize its role in supporting the seriously ill at any stage of grave illness, not solely the dying.^[2] Administered exclusively by priests (bishops or presbyters), the sacrament involves a communal or individual celebration that may include a Liturgy of the Word, an act of repentance, the laying on of hands, prayers invoking the Holy Spirit, and anointing on the forehead and hands with oil of the sick, preferably blessed by a bishop.^[4] Its biblical foundations trace to New Testament passages, such as James 5:14–15, which instructs the faithful to call elders to pray over and anoint the sick with oil in the name of the Lord, and Mark 6:13, where the apostles anointed many sick people with oil and healed them.^[5] The effects include union with Christ's redemptive suffering, restoration of bodily and spiritual health if conducive to salvation, preparation for death, and, in cases of perfect contrition, forgiveness of sins.^[3] While the term "last rites" is most closely associated with Catholicism, similar practices exist in other Christian traditions, such as the Lutheran Church's Commendation of the Dying, which involves prayers, scripture readings, and sometimes the Eucharist to comfort the dying and commend their soul to God. In these rites across denominations, the focus remains on affirming faith, offering pastoral care, and invoking divine mercy during the transition to death, reflecting Christianity's emphasis on the sanctity of life and hope in resurrection.

Overview and Significance

Definition

Last rites refer to religious or spiritual rituals administered to individuals who are dying, aimed at providing comfort, forgiveness, and preparation for the afterlife. These rites are particularly prominent in Christianity, where they serve as a final sacramental ministry to the soul, often involving prayers, blessings, and acts of reconciliation to ease the transition from life to death.^[6]^[7] Key components of last rites typically include confession or absolution of sins, anointing with holy oil (known as unction), and prayers commending the soul to the divine, sometimes accompanied by the Eucharist as viaticum (provision for the journey). In Catholic tradition, this combination ensures spiritual healing and strength, potentially including physical recovery if it aligns with divine will. These elements emphasize forgiveness, peace, and the soul's safe passage, often an intimate, personal encounter, though it may also involve communal elements.^[8]^[9] The term "last rites" derives from the Latin extrema unctio, or "extreme unction," where "extreme" signifies the final or utmost anointing in a sequence of sacramental oils used throughout a believer's life, originally administered only in extremis (at the point of death). Over time, the phrase has evolved to encompass a broader set of end-of-life rituals beyond just anointing, reflecting its application in various Christian denominations and, more generally, similar practices in other faiths.^[10]^[11] Unlike funerals, which are post-mortem ceremonies focused on communal mourning, burial or cremation, and remembrance of the deceased, last rites occur at or immediately before death to address the individual's spiritual state in their final moments. This timing underscores their role in aiding the dying person directly, rather than honoring the departed after the fact.^[12]

Cultural and Religious Importance

Last rites serve as a profound source of psychological comfort for the dying and their families, alleviating fears associated with death by providing ritualistic assurance of spiritual continuity and an afterlife. These rituals offer solace through structured prayers and ministrations that foster a sense of peace and acceptance, helping individuals confront mortality without overwhelming anxiety. For instance, participation in end-of-life prayer rituals maintains a sense of control and identity during crisis, delivering emotional structure and meaning that buffers against despair.^[13] Beyond individual relief, last rites fulfill essential social functions by strengthening community bonds and facilitating collective closure in the face of loss. Clergy or elders presiding over these rites create support networks, enabling shared grief that reinforces familial and communal ties during vulnerable moments. Cross-culturally, such deathbed rituals promote social cohesion by allowing participants to process emotions together, reducing isolation and affirming group solidarity in mourning.^[14]^[15] Symbolically, last rites represent the pivotal transition from earthly life to the afterlife, embodying themes of forgiveness, inner peace, and enduring legacy. These ceremonies often incorporate elements like anointing or final blessings to signify purification and release, marking the soul's journey toward redemption or eternal rest. In various traditions, they underscore reconciliation with the divine and loved ones, transforming death into a meaningful culmination rather than an abrupt end.^[16]^[17] The prevalence of last rites as a rite of passage extends across monotheistic and polytheistic traditions, highlighting their universal role in navigating mortality. From Christian sacraments to Hindu antyesti rituals, these practices universally guide the deceased through liminal spaces, ensuring spiritual preparation and communal honoring of the transition. This cross-cultural commonality underscores their enduring significance in human societies for affirming life's continuity beyond physical death.^[18]^[19]

Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Religions

In ancient Egyptian religion, last rites centered on elaborate funerary rituals designed to prepare the deceased for the afterlife, with the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony serving as a pivotal practice. This ritual, performed by priests on the mummified body at the tomb entrance, involved touching the mummy's mouth, eyes, and other orifices with ritual tools to symbolically restore the senses, enabling the deceased to eat, drink, see, and speak in the realm of the dead. Dating back to the Old Kingdom around 2500 BCE, the ceremony was integral to mummification processes that preserved the body as a vessel for the soul's journey, guided by spells from texts like the Pyramid Texts to navigate dangers in the Duat, the underworld.^[20]^[21]^[22] Mesopotamian death rituals, influenced by fears of the underworld known as Irkalla, emphasized offerings and prayers to appease chthonic deities and prevent the restless dead from returning to haunt the living. Families performed the kispum rite, a monthly cycle of libations—pouring water, flour, or beer—and incantations at graves or household shrines to nourish ancestral shades and secure their peaceful existence below. These practices appear in literary works like the Epic of Gilgamesh, composed around 2100 BCE, where themes of mortality culminate in funerary laments and offerings following Enkidu's death, underscoring the need for ritual intervention to ease passage to the shadowy realm ruled by Ereshkigal.^[23]^[24]^[25] Ancient Greek customs similarly involved libations and prayers during the prothesis and ekphora stages of funerals, where mourners poured wine or milk mixed with honey over the body or into the earth to honor Hades and Persephone, the rulers of the underworld. These acts, often accompanied by invocations for the soul's unhindered transit across the Styx, reflected a belief in the deceased's need for divine favor to avoid eternal wandering as a shade. Roman traditions echoed these with the body's ritual washing and anointing using olive oil and perfumes during the pompa procession, a practice that purified the corpse and prepared it for cremation or burial while family members recited final testaments or prayers to ensure the spirit's repose among the Manes, ancestral shades.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29] Across these ancient civilizations, last rites shared core motifs of purification through cleansing and anointing, divine intercession via prayers and offerings to underworld powers, and safeguards for safe passage, such as symbolic revivification or provisions to avert peril in the beyond. These elements highlighted a universal concern with transitioning the soul intact, mitigating chaos, and maintaining cosmic order.^[23]^[26]

Evolution in Christianity

In the early Christian era, from the 1st to 4th centuries, last rites emerged as a pastoral response to the dying, drawing on the biblical exhortation in James 5:14-15 for church elders to pray over the sick and anoint them with oil in the name of the Lord, a practice that provided spiritual comfort and healing. This anointing, often combined with the Eucharist administered as viaticum—meaning "provision for the journey"—reflected the community's belief in Christ's presence sustaining the soul through death, influenced by the Jewish roots of communal meals and scriptural precedents for caring for the afflicted. Early texts like the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus (c. 215 AD) describe the blessing of oil for anointing the sick, emphasizing faith and restoration.^[30] The administration of the Eucharist as viaticum to the dying was affirmed in Canon 13 of the Council of Nicaea (325 AD).^[31] During the patristic period (4th-8th centuries), these elements were further formalized in theological writings and liturgical practices, with viaticum and unctio (anointing) becoming distinct rites for the gravely ill. Church Fathers such as Augustine of Hippo (354-430 AD) routinely visited the sick to lay hands on them, pray, and offer sacramental support, viewing these acts as extensions of Christ's healing ministry that fortified the soul against despair. Other patristic sources, including Ambrose of Milan, reinforced viaticum as essential spiritual nourishment for the dying, integrating it into broader rituals of penance and commendation to prepare the faithful for eternity. By the 8th century, these practices were embedded in monastic and episcopal customs, evolving from ad hoc responses to more structured liturgies.^[32] In the medieval period (12th-15th centuries), last rites underwent codification amid growing sacramental theology, with extreme unction gaining prominence as a rite reserved for those in imminent danger of death, often administered alongside confession and viaticum. The term "extreme unction" emerged around the late 12th century to denote this final anointing, symbolizing the completion of Christian life and preparation for judgment. The Council of Trent (1545-1563), responding to Reformation challenges, authoritatively defined extreme unction as one of the seven sacraments instituted by Christ and promulgated through James, intended to remit venial sins, comfort the soul, and sometimes restore bodily health.^[8]^[33] Following the Reformation, Protestant traditions diverged significantly, rejecting the sacramental framework of extreme unction in favor of simpler pastoral ministrations, such as prayers, scripture reading, and commendation of the dying to God's mercy, without ritual anointing or viaticum as obligatory rites. Reformers like Martin Luther emphasized direct reliance on faith and God's providence over elaborate ceremonies, viewing deathbed practices as opportunities for consolation rather than sacramental efficacy, a shift that contrasted sharply with the Catholic emphasis on ritual mediation. This reduction reflected broader Protestant critiques of medieval sacramentalism, prioritizing personal piety and scriptural simplicity.^[34]^[35]

Practices in Christianity

Catholic Tradition

In the Roman Catholic Church, the last rites, often referred to as the sacraments for the dying, encompass a structured sacramental practice aimed at providing spiritual strength and forgiveness to those facing serious illness or death. Central to this tradition is the Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick, formerly known as Extreme Unction, which was renamed and reformed following the Second Vatican Council in the 1960s to emphasize its role in healing rather than solely as a final preparation for death.^[36] This sacrament can now be administered to any baptized Catholic in danger of death due to illness or advanced age, and it may be repeated if the sick person recovers and later faces renewed danger. The theological foundation of the Anointing of the Sick draws directly from Scripture, particularly the Epistle of James 5:14-15, which instructs: "Is any among you sick? Let him call for the presbyters of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven." In Catholic doctrine, this rite is viewed as a channel of Christ's healing grace, offering forgiveness of sins if not already sacramentally absolved, strengthening the soul against temptation, and potentially restoring bodily health if aligned with God's will, while ultimately preparing the recipient for eternal judgment. The sacrament underscores the Church's belief in the unity of body and soul, commending the ill to Christ's redemptive suffering. Administered exclusively by ordained priests, the full rite of last rites typically integrates three main components: the Sacrament of Penance (confession and absolution for any unrepented sins), the Anointing of the Sick itself, and Viaticum, the final reception of the Eucharist as "food for the journey" to eternal life.^[37] The anointing rite begins with prayers of faith and the laying on of hands by the priest, followed by the application of the Oil of the Sick—blessed by the bishop—on the forehead and hands of the recipient, accompanied by the words: "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit. May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up."^[37] If the person is in imminent danger of death, the rite concludes with the Apostolic Pardon, a special plenary indulgence granting full remission of temporal punishment due to sin, pronounced as: "By the authority which the Apostolic See has given me, I grant you a full pardon and the remission of all your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit."^[38] This comprehensive approach ensures spiritual reconciliation and comfort in the face of mortality.^[39]

Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Traditions

In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic traditions, last rites encompass a sequence of sacramental acts and prayers designed to offer spiritual healing, forgiveness, and preparation for eternal life, drawing deeply from the Byzantine liturgical tradition. These practices view the moment of death not merely as an end but as a passage to paradise, emphasizing the believer's mystical union with Christ's suffering and resurrection.^[40] The core element is the rite of Holy Unction (Euchelaion), a sacrament of anointing performed for the healing of soul, body, and mind, regardless of the illness's severity. This rite features a sevenfold structure, including seven readings from the Epistles and Gospels, seven special prayers, and seven anointings with oil applied to the forehead, nostrils, mouth, ears, chest, hands, and feet—symbolizing the restoration of the senses and overall well-being. The oil used is olive oil mixed with wine, blessed specifically for this purpose, often during a communal service on Holy Wednesday in Holy Week, though it can be freshly blessed by the priest at the start of an individual rite. Performed ideally by seven priests to evoke the fullness of the Church's intercession, the anointing invokes the Holy Spirit's power to alleviate suffering and forgive sins overlooked in confession.^[40]^[41]^[42] For those nearing death, the last rites typically follow a deliberate sequence: first, the sacrament of Confession to unburden the soul; second, reception of the Holy Eucharist as Viaticum to fortify the journey to God; and third, Holy Unction for comprehensive healing and prayers seeking divine forgiveness and peaceful departure. Additional prayers commend the soul to God, often recited in a communal gathering of family and faithful to underscore the ecclesial support in this transition. This approach highlights the holistic preparation for eternity rather than a singular "extreme" anointing.^[43]^[40] Theologically, these rites stress mystical healing as an encounter with divine mercy, where physical ailment becomes a path to spiritual purification and entry into paradise, profoundly shaped by the poetic and symbolic depth of Byzantine liturgy. Unlike views in other Christian branches, the emphasis here is on therapeutic restoration through the Church's mysteries, uniting the individual's trial with the communal body of Christ.^[40]^[41] Eastern Catholic churches, maintaining the Byzantine rite while in communion with the Bishop of Rome, administer Holy Unction in a manner closely aligned with Orthodox practice, including the sevenfold anointing and scriptural readings. Adaptations are minimal, primarily in the oil's blessing prayer, which may incorporate references to papal authority to reflect their ecclesial unity, yet preserving the rite's ancient form for healing and forgiveness.^[44]^[45]

Protestant Variations

In Protestant traditions, last rites are generally approached as non-sacramental pastoral care rather than ritual acts conferring grace, emphasizing comfort through Scripture, prayer, and assurance of faith in Christ alone. This stems from Reformation principles that limit sacraments to baptism and the Lord's Supper, rejecting additional rites like anointing as means of salvation.^[46] Practices vary by denomination but commonly involve clergy visitation to offer spiritual support, focusing on the dying person's reconciliation with God and loved ones. Lutheran practice centers on pastoral visitation known as the "Commendation of the Dying," which includes prayers, Scripture readings such as Psalm 23 or John 14, and pronouncement of absolution to assure forgiveness through Christ's work. This rite, outlined in resources like the Lutheran Service Book's Pastoral Care Companion, provides consolation without anointing the sick as a sacrament, aligning with the Augsburg Confession's affirmation of only two sacraments and the advisory nature of other church rites for good order.^[47] The focus remains on proclaiming the Gospel to foster peace, often involving family in shared devotions near death. Anglican traditions feature the "Ministration at the Time of Death" from the Book of Common Prayer, first compiled in 1549 and revised in subsequent editions, which offers commendatory prayers commending the soul to God, litanies for the dying, and optional anointing with oil for comfort rather than sacramental efficacy. This service, available in the 1979 Book of Common Prayer, encourages clergy presence for readings from Psalms or the Gospels, emphasizing Christ's victory over death to provide hope.^[48]^[49] In Reformed and Baptist contexts, last rites are eschewed as formal sacraments in favor of informal, Scripture-centered ministry guided by sola scriptura, prioritizing personal and family-led prayers, Bible readings (e.g., Romans 8 on assurance), and pastoral encouragement to trust in Christ's atonement. Presbyterian resources, such as those from the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, stress spiritual tasks like remembrance of God's promises and reconciliation, conducted through bedside visits without ritual elements.^[50] Baptist approaches, as described in evangelical pastoral guides, similarly emphasize comforting the dying with assurances of eternal life through faith, often involving congregational support but rejecting any priestly mediation beyond preaching the Word.^[51] Contemporary Evangelical trends highlight informal bedside services that reinforce assurance of salvation by faith alone, drawing from Reformation emphases like those in Luther's writings on dying well, where comfort derives from meditating on Christ's cross rather than rituals. These gatherings typically include spontaneous prayers, Scripture exhortations on eternal security (e.g., John 10:28), and communal singing to affirm hope in resurrection, adapting to hospital or home settings for broader accessibility.^[52]^[53]

Practices in Other Religions

Judaism

In Judaism, last rites emphasize spiritual preparation and comfort for the dying, centering on repentance and familial support rather than sacramental rituals. The primary practice is the Vidui, a confessional prayer recited at the deathbed to facilitate teshuvah, or repentance, allowing the individual to acknowledge sins and seek atonement for a peaceful passing.^[54] This personal confession differs from communal Yom Kippur recitations, focusing on the dying person's imperfections and final opportunity for spiritual reconciliation.^[54] The Vidui is typically recited by the dying individual if possible, or prompted by family members or a rabbi if they are unable; it includes a general admission of faults followed by specific prayers such as the Shema Yisrael, affirming God's unity.^[55] This act underscores the theological importance of teshuvah in Judaism, where repentance—encompassing confession, regret, and resolve not to repeat transgressions—prepares the soul for the afterlife without the use of anointing oils or other physical sacraments found in other traditions.^[56] Accompanying the Vidui, the dying may also recite Psalms or other prayers to invoke divine mercy and ease.^[57] Another key element is the ethical will, or tzava'ah, a verbal or written transmission of personal values, life lessons, blessings, and practical instructions to heirs, often shared at the bedside to provide emotional closure.^[58] Rooted in Talmudic precedents, it serves as a legacy of wisdom rather than legal directives, helping the dying reflect on their life while comforting loved ones.^[58] While post-death rites such as the taharah—ritual washing and shrouding of the body by the Chevra Kadisha—follow immediately to honor the deceased, Jewish last rites primarily focus on pre-death spiritual comfort and repentance to ensure a dignified transition.^[59] These practices highlight Judaism's view of death as a natural process integrated with ongoing ethical and spiritual life.^[54]

Islam

In Islamic tradition, last rites emphasize preparation for Barzakh, the intermediate realm between death and the Day of Judgment, where the soul awaits resurrection and faces initial accountability based on faith and deeds. This preparation underscores tawhid, the oneness of God, as the core of a Muslim's belief, ensuring the deceased enters Barzakh affirmed in monotheism to ease trials like the questioning in the grave by angels Munkar and Nakir.^[60] The rites focus on spiritual affirmation and ritual purity rather than sacramental intermediaries, drawing from Quranic descriptions of Barzakh as a barrier (Quran 23:100) and Hadith emphasizing prompt action after death.^[61] A key practice for the dying is talqin, the recitation of the Shahada—"La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammadur rasul Allah" (There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger)—into the person's ear to prompt and affirm their final declaration of faith. This Sunnah act, recommended without requiring clergy, helps the soul depart in a state of tawhid, potentially lightening the transition to Barzakh by reminding the dying of core beliefs and warding off whispers of doubt from Satan.^[62] Family members or those present perform it gently, as the Prophet Muhammad instructed prompting the dying with these words to make them their last utterance.^[63] Accompanying talqin are family-led supplications (du'a) for the dying, seeking Allah's forgiveness, mercy, and a good end. These informal prayers, such as "O Allah, forgive him, have mercy on him, and make his reckoning easy," are made by relatives without need for imams or priests, reflecting Islam's emphasis on direct supplication to God.^[64] Post-death, immediate preparations include ghusl, the ritual washing of the body an odd number of times (three, five, or seven) with water scented by lote-tree leaves or camphor, performed by same-gender Muslims to purify the deceased, as per the Hadith: "Wash the dead body an odd number of times."^[65] Following ghusl, kafan shrouding occurs with simple white cotton sheets—three for men (izar, ridā', and lifafah) and five for women—symbolizing equality in death and readiness for Barzakh, based on the Prophet's shrouding in three Yemeni sheets.^[66] These rites, rooted in Hadith from Sahih Bukhari and Muslim, must begin promptly to honor the soul's swift journey.

Hinduism and Buddhism

In Hinduism and Buddhism, last rites are performed to prepare the soul or consciousness for its transition, emphasizing the karmic cycle of death, rebirth, and ultimate liberation from samsara. These rituals reflect shared beliefs in reincarnation, where actions in life influence future existences, and aim to facilitate a peaceful departure while aiding the deceased in achieving moksha (liberation) in Hinduism or favorable rebirth toward nirvana in Buddhism. Unlike Abrahamic traditions focused on judgment, Eastern practices prioritize ritual purification and guidance to mitigate negative karma and support spiritual evolution.^[67] Hindu last rites, known as Antyesti or the "last sacrifice," constitute the final samskara (life-cycle rite) and center on cremation to release the soul from the physical body, promoting its journey toward moksha and freedom from the reincarnation cycle. The process begins at the bedside with the dying person receiving sips of Ganges water, symbolizing purification, accompanied by the chanting of mantras from sacred texts like the Garuda Purana to invoke divine protection and ease the soul's departure.^[68] The body is then bathed, dressed in white, and adorned with sandalwood paste before being carried in a procession to the cremation ground, where family members perform rites including the lighting of the pyre by the eldest son to symbolize the soul's fiery transformation and return to the five elements.^[69] Post-cremation, ashes are immersed in sacred waters like the Ganges to dissolve earthly attachments, with subsequent shraddha ceremonies offering pinda (rice balls) to nourish the soul during its 13-day journey through pretaloka (the realm of spirits).^[70] In Tibetan Buddhism, last rites often incorporate phowa, a tantric practice of "transference of consciousness" designed to eject the mind at death toward a pure realm like Sukhavati, bypassing unfavorable rebirths and aligning with karmic purification for enlightenment. Performed by a lama or trained practitioner, phowa involves guided visualizations of the deceased's consciousness as a drop of light rising through the central channel of the body, exiting the crown, and merging with Amitabha Buddha, accompanied by chants such as the Amitabha mantra (Om Ami Dewa Hrih) to invoke blessings and ensure a serene transition.^[71] This ritual, rooted in Vajrayana texts like the Phowa Tantra, emphasizes meditation on impermanence and compassion, with the dying encouraged to focus on bodhicitta (enlightened mind) to generate positive karma in the bardo (intermediate state) between death and rebirth.^[72] Hindu and Buddhist last rites share elements such as family-led processions involving circumambulation of the body or pyre to honor the deceased, offerings of flowers, incense, and food to appease spirits, and priestly (purohita in Hinduism, lama in Buddhism) recitations of prayers to guide the soul away from samsara's illusions. These communal acts foster collective mourning and karmic merit-making, reinforcing interdependence in the cycle of rebirth. Variations highlight Hinduism's emphasis on agni (fire) rites for elemental dissolution and moksha, contrasting with Buddhism's focus on meditative practices like phowa for conscious navigation of the bardo toward nirvana.^[73]

Modern Adaptations and Controversies

Secular and Interfaith Approaches

In contemporary multicultural societies, secular approaches to last rites emphasize non-theistic ceremonies that honor the deceased's life without invoking religious doctrines. Humanist funerals, led by trained celebrants, typically involve a review of the individual's achievements, expressions of gratitude from family and friends, and discussions of legacy planning to ensure the person's values endure through storytelling, music, and personal tributes. These ceremonies, offered by organizations like Humanists UK, focus on celebrating human connections and providing emotional closure for attendees, often held at crematoriums or natural burial sites to align with environmental or personal preferences.^[74]^[75] Interfaith models adapt last rites for diverse families by blending neutral elements from multiple traditions, such as shared moments of silence, inclusive readings, or universal blessings that avoid specific dogma. These hybrid services, facilitated by interfaith chaplains, allow participants from varied backgrounds to contribute rituals like lighting candles or exchanging symbols of peace, fostering unity in grief. Academic proposals for such interventions in palliative settings highlight their role in addressing spiritual needs across beliefs, promoting dignity through collaborative planning that respects all participants' identities.^[76]^[77] Within modern palliative care, particularly since 20th-century advancements in hospice models, secular rituals integrate into chaplaincy services to support dignity and closure without religious framing. Neutral practices, such as guided life reflections, sensory experiences like holding meaningful objects, or communal gratitude exercises, help patients and families process emotions in a structured yet flexible manner. These approaches, emphasized in secular hospice guidelines, prioritize patient autonomy and emotional support, often coordinated by multidisciplinary teams to complement medical care.^[78]^[79] Globally, secular death doulas provide personalized end-of-life rites tailored to individual preferences, facilitating non-dogmatic ceremonies like vigil-keeping, legacy letter-writing, or nature-based farewells. Trained through organizations such as the International End-of-Life Doula Association (INELDA), these professionals offer holistic support, including practical guidance on home vigils and emotional accompaniment, ensuring rites reflect the dying person's worldview. In regions like North America and Europe, death doulas have gained recognition for bridging gaps in traditional care, enabling customized transitions that emphasize peace and personal meaning.^[80]^[81]

Ethical and Legal Issues

One significant ethical challenge in administering last rites arises from consent dilemmas, particularly when patients are unconscious or incapacitated, requiring reliance on advance directives or surrogate decision-makers to ensure alignment with the individual's wishes. In such cases, healthcare providers and clergy must navigate potential conflicts between family requests for religious rites and prior expressions of patient preferences, such as directives explicitly refusing spiritual interventions to avoid imposition of beliefs. For instance, advance healthcare directives can specify religious or spiritual care preferences, including the desire or refusal of sacraments like the Anointing of the Sick, emphasizing patient autonomy as a core ethical principle in end-of-life care. Failure to honor these can lead to legal challenges under patient rights laws, highlighting the need for clear documentation and communication among medical teams, families, and chaplains to prevent ethical breaches. Access to last rites has been hampered by clergy shortages, especially in remote rural areas and during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, creating barriers to timely spiritual care. In rural regions, declining priest numbers—exacerbated by an aging clergy and fewer ordinations—often leave communities without immediate access to sacraments, with some areas reporting no resident priests for extended periods, forcing families to delay or forgo rites altogether. The pandemic intensified these issues post-2020, as infection risks led to restricted hospital visits, remote adaptations like video conferenced blessings, or outright denials of in-person anointing, affecting thousands of dying patients and raising ethical concerns about equitable access to religious comfort. These shortages underscore broader systemic challenges in pastoral care distribution, prompting calls for innovative solutions like trained lay ministers to bridge gaps without compromising sacramental validity. In jurisdictions permitting euthanasia, such as the Netherlands under the 2002 Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide Act, tensions emerge between last rites and assisted dying, as clergy face dilemmas over providing sacraments to patients planning euthanasia, which the Catholic Church views as incompatible with Christian teaching. Vatican guidance has directed priests to deny Viaticum or Anointing of the Sick to those who freely choose euthanasia, prioritizing doctrinal integrity over accommodation, though some Dutch priests have administered rites beforehand at family requests, sparking debates on pastoral mercy versus moral complicity. This conflict illustrates evolving legal-ethical intersections, where secular laws enabling assisted dying challenge traditional religious practices, potentially leading to interfaith or institutional policies to mediate such cases. Inclusivity debates surrounding last rites center on accommodating non-religious patients and LGBTQ+ individuals in traditionally faith-based settings, where refusals or conditional access can violate principles of non-discrimination and patient dignity. Reports document instances where priests have denied last rites to gay Catholics or those in same-sex marriages, citing church teachings on sexual orientation, prompting criticism from advocacy groups for exacerbating marginalization at vulnerable moments. For non-religious patients, ethical issues arise when hospitals' default spiritual care protocols assume religiosity, potentially imposing unwanted rites unless explicitly opted out via advance directives, emphasizing the need for inclusive policies that respect secular or diverse identities without proselytizing. These debates highlight ongoing reforms in healthcare chaplaincy to ensure equitable, culturally sensitive end-of-life support.

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Oct 2, 2020 · A commonality across cultures is that death rituals help with the grieving process. Based on responses from our study participants, death ritual ...
[15]
Culture and grief: Ethnographic perspectives on ritual, relationships ...
Dec 4, 2020 · Anthropological studies attended primarily to the social functions of ritual, and individual actors and their grief were largely invisible.
[16]
Full article: Unpacking ritual last words as 'rituals' and 'words'
Jul 21, 2025 · Ritual last words are prescribed sounds, words, or phrases at the end of life, used to ward off evil, usher to the next stage, reflect virtue, ...
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[PDF] A Literature Review of the Development, Purposes, and Religious ...
Apr 28, 2017 · This paper reviews funeral rituals, their history, purposes, benefits, and religious variations, arguing they are beneficial for the living.
[18]
[PDF] Death in world religions - terje oestigaard
Death unites humans, but responses vary. Religions address what death is, what happens after, and the soul's release from the body. The way the corpse is ...
[19]
[PDF] Rituals of Grief Across Cultures - IDOSR JOURNALS
Rituals following the death of a loved one serve an important function for individuals, families, and cultures in times of mourning.
[20]
Egyptian Mummies | Smithsonian Institution
The most important part of the ceremony was called the "Opening of the Mouth." A priest touched various parts of the mummy with a special instrument to "open" ...
[21]
Funerals in ancient Egypt - The Australian Museum
A funeral procession with dancers and mourners took the embalmed body to the tomb where the 'Opening of the Mouth' ritual was performed at the tomb's entrance.
[22]
Performance and Ritual in Ancient Egyptian Funerary Practice
Apr 29, 2021 · One of the best documented Egyptian rituals—occurring in both cultic and funerary contexts—is known as the Opening of the Mouth ritual.Missing: ceremony | Show results with:ceremony
[23]
[PDF] Performing Death - Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures
Jun 2, 2014 · Death Rituals, Ideology, and the Development of Early Mesopotamian Kingship: To- ward a New Understanding of Iraq's Royal Cemetery of Ur ...<|separator|>
[24]
[PDF] Death Attitudes and Perceptions of Death and Afterlife in Ancient ...
In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh admits that he is afraid of death, although it may be an admission of fear of early or tragic death. Ut-napishtim ...
[25]
[PDF] THE GILGAMESH EPIC AND OLD TESTAMENT PARALLELS
The Gilgamesh Epic is a meditation on death, in the form of a tragedy. To ... we shall see in connection with the Mesopotamian burial customs. Here we ...
[26]
[PDF] Imagining the Afterlife in Greek Religion
Funeral rituals and cultural expectations regarding the tendance of tombs make clear that the ancient Greeks generally assumed that the dead retained some ...Missing: deities | Show results with:deities
[27]
[PDF] Unknown Gods and Nameless Altars - IDEALS
... ritual, as opposed to the unmarked worship of the Olympian gods. According to Graf, wineless libations accompanied "marginal" rituals relating to death ...
[28]
[PDF] The Development of the Early Christian Concept of Death and Burial ...
Burial Rites from Greco-Roman. Culture. In this paper I set out to describe ... anointing it with oil, dressing it, and adorning it with flowers and.
[29]
[PDF] Reading Death in Ancient Rome - Knowledge Bank
(2000): “Playing Dead: Death Ritual and the Dead in the Roman Theatre”;. York ... burned: incense, ritual meal and bowls filled with olive oil. After ...Missing: unction | Show results with:unction
[30]
Anointing of the Sick - Church Fathers
“As often as some infirmity overtakes a man, let him who is ill receive the body and blood of Christ; let him humbly and in faith ask the presbyters for blessed ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[31]
What are Anointing of the Sick and Extreme Unction?
Augustine (d. 430) wrote that he “was accustomed to visit the sick who desired it in order to lay his hands on them and pray at their bedside,” ...
[32]
General Council of Trent: Fourteenth Session - Papal Encyclicals
–If any one saith, that Extreme Unction is not truly and properly a sacrament, instituted by Christ our Lord, and promulgated by the blessed apostle James; but ...
[33]
The Protestants' attitude towards death - Musée protestant
The Reformation changed the attitude towards death : the dead being in God's hand, the living cannot influence their fate, so there is no need to pray for them.Missing: simpler | Show results with:simpler
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https://museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-protestants-attitude-towards-death/
[35]
The Sacrament Of Anointing Of The Sick - Papal Encyclicals
The sacrament of the anointing of the sick is administered to those who are dangerously ill, by anointing them on the forehead and hands with olive oil.
[36]
Anointing of the Sick | USCCB
In the Church's Sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, through the ministry of the priest, it is Jesus who touches the sick to heal them from sin – and sometimes ...
[37]
Indulgences at the Point of Death | EWTN
"By the authority which the Apostolic See has given me I grant you a full pardon and the remission of all your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son ...
[38]
Anointing of the Sick | Catholic Answers Guide to the Sacraments
The most important part of the last rites is the reception of the Lord in one's final Communion, also called “Viaticum” (Latin: that which you take on the ...
[39]
The Orthodox Faith - Volume II - The Sacraments - Holy Unction
Holy unction is the sacrament of the spiritual, physical, and mental healing of a sick person whatever the nature or the gravity of the illness may be.
[40]
Holy Unction - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
On Great and Holy Wednesday, the Orthodox Church offers the Sacrament of Holy Unction for the healing of body and soul and the forgiveness of sins.
[41]
What Is Holy Unction? - Saint John the Evangelist Orthodox Church
Apr 19, 2022 · The rite calls for seven priests, seven epistle and gospel readings, seven prayers and seven anointings with oil specifically blessed for the ...
[42]
Holy Unction - Russian Orthodox Church of Three Saints
Last Rites, or Extreme Unction in the Eastern Orthodox Church actually consists of three Sacraments. First, Confession and Absolution, Second, Holy Communion, ...
[43]
The Mystery of the Holy Oil according to Byzantine Rite practice
The actual anointing of sick is preceded by a short prayer, invoking the power of the Holy Spirit to descend upon the blessed oil and make it for the sick ...Missing: Unction adaptations
[44]
[PDF] I – The Triodion - Melkite | Eparchy of Newton
In the same spirit Byzantine. Churches today offer the Mystery of Holy Unction on Holy Wednesday. People are anointed for the healing of their spiritual ...
[45]
The Augsburg Confession
### Summary of Sacraments and Rites in Lutheran Tradition (Augsburg Confession) Regarding Last Rites or Anointing of the Sick
[46]
[PDF] Pastoring the Dying and Funeral Preparation
Scripture and prayer, along with the. “Commendation of the Dying” rite in the. Pastoral Care Companion, are a pastor's best tools for continuing to minister ...
[47]
Ministration at the Time of Death
When a person is near death, the Minister of the Congregation should be notified, in order that the ministrations of the Church may be provided.
[48]
Table of Contents - The Online Book of Common Prayer
... Ministration to the Sick 453 · Ministration at the Time of Death 462 · Burial of the Dead: Rite One 469 · Burial of the Dead: Rite Two 491 · An Order for Burial ...
[49]
Pastoral Care for the Dying, Part II - The Orthodox Presbyterian Church
The importance of facing death as a pastor, and several common spiritual tasks relating to dying: remembering, reassessing, and reconciliation.Missing: rites | Show results with:rites
[50]
How Can I Serve the Dying? - Desiring God
Mar 26, 2021 · My answer is this: Spare the dying as much pain as you can. Use the prayer-soaked word of God to keep Christ before the dying, to help them fight the fight of ...Missing: deathbed | Show results with:deathbed
[51]
[PDF] A Treasure Above All Treasures: Martin Luther on Dying Well
By applying Reformation doctrines to the deathbed, Luther helped the dying discover assurance of salvation not in their own efforts but through faith in the ...
[52]
7 Ways to Shepherd the Terminally Ill - The Gospel Coalition
Jun 11, 2019 · Phil Newton, a pastor suffering from a terminal illness, discusses seven ways pastors and other elders should care for the dying.Missing: deathbed | Show results with:deathbed
[53]
Viddui: The Deathbed Confession - My Jewish Learning
The Viddui recited at the end of life is very different; personal rather than communal, it acknowledges the imperfections of the dying person and seeks a final ...
[54]
Jewish Prayers At Times Of Serious Illness or Death - Ematai
One of the clearest expressions of this belief is the recital of a vidui confession and Shema Yisrael prayer. ... died, and many did not confess and died.
[55]
Teshuvah, or Repentance - My Jewish Learning
The process of repentance, as laid out by Maimonides, includes three stages: confession, regret and a vow not to repeat the misdeed.Selichot prayers · The Dimensions of... · The 10 Days of Repentance
[56]
Instructions for Those Present at the Passing - Chabad.org
Once death seems imminent, one should not leave the person alone, and those remaining should recite Psalms and pray for the recovery of the person.
[57]
Jewish Ethical Wills (Tzava'ot) | - MJHS.org
Jewish ethical wills contained a number of items, including burial instructions, debts and obligations to be paid, requests that family members carry on ...
[58]
Jewish Traditions Regarding Death | Sinai Memorial Chapel
Taharah (washing): This is the ritual preparation and purification of the body to prepare it for burial. Psalms and prayers are recited as the body is bathed in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
Understanding the 3 Questions in the Grave | IQRA Network
Oct 21, 2023 · Learn how to prepare for the transitory life of Barzakh with Islamic knowledge and the 3 questions in the grave in this blog post.
[60]
Barzakh (Purgatory) - The Stage Between this World and the Hereafter
The literal meaning of 'Barzakh' is a veil or a barrier that stands between two things and which does not allow the two to meet. For example, that part or ...
[61]
Is it sufficient to prompt the dying person to say the shahaadah or ...
Sep 19, 2022 · It is Sunnah to prompt a dying person to say Laa ilaaha illa Allah (there is no god worthy of worship except Allah), so that these will be the last words he ...
[62]
Death Related Duas.org
It is Mustahab (1-3)to: 1.Help the dying person recite and understand the Kalima, the names of the 12 Aimma, and other beliefs. 2.Recite Sura 36 ...
[63]
Du'a for the deceased at the funeral prayer - My Islam
Jun 5, 2023 · O Allah, forgive him and have mercy on him, and give him strength and pardon him. Be generous to him, and cause his entrance to be wide, and ...
[64]
Fiqh-us-Sunnah Hadith 4.29 | Volume 4 - Alim.org
According to a sahih hadith, the Prophet, peace be upon him, said: "Wash the dead body an odd number of times, that is, three, five, or seven, or more if you ...
[65]
Fiqh-us-Sunnah, Volume 4: Al-Kafan (The Shroud)
-3- The shroud should be scented and perfumed. The hadith is cited by Ahmad and by Al-Hakim, who regards it as sound, in accordance with Jabir's narration that ...
[66]
[PDF] Death, Identity, and Enlightenment in Tibetan Culture
Jan 1, 2001 · Karma is described by Thurman as a process of psychobiological evolution, and Buddhist practice as the evolutionary technology needed to die.
[67]
(PDF) Indian death rituals - Academia.edu
They also strew the way to the cremation ground with Ganges water, saying ... mantras accompanying the normal funeral rites are replaced by the three great ...
[68]
Antyeshti: Funeral Rites – Heart Of Hinduism
The funeral rites are almost universally performed and follow similar patterns. Most Hindus cremate their dead.The exceptions are small children and saints.
[69]
[PDF] the survival of hindu cremation myths and rituals
The intent of the Antyesti ritual is to convert the body into substances that formed the body at birth – water, air, fire, earth, and ether – so that they can ...
[70]
Commentary on Transference of Consciousness - Lotsawa House
When performing transference for yourself, if all the signs of death are fully present, perform the ritual for deceiving death[10] three times. If even this ...
[71]
Phowa - the transference of consciousness - Sherab Chamma Ling
Sep 6, 2022 · Phowa is a Tibetan word that means the ejection/transfer of consciousness-mind from the pain body. The transference is from samsara to nirvana or from ordinary ...Missing: rites | Show results with:rites
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Funeral Rites of the Hindus and the Buddhists - webhealing.com
Unlike the Buddhists, who prefer immediate dispersal of the ashes over the river, the Hindus collect them in an urn for disposal in a special year-end ceremony.
[73]
Humanist funerals and memorials
A humanist non-religious funeral is led by a celebrant, rather than a religious official. ... Humanists UK. 39 Moreland Street. London EC1V 8BB. 020 7324 3060.Funeral ceremony ideas and... · Organisations we work with · FAQs
[74]
What is a humanist funeral?
A humanist funeral is a non-religious, personal ceremony led by a celebrant, focusing on the life of the deceased and their relationships.
[75]
Addressing spiritual needs in palliative care: proposal for a narrative ...
19 Dec 2021 · We therefore propose an interfaith chaplain-led spiritual care intervention for home-based palliative care that addresses patients' spiritual needs.
[76]
Spirituality and Religion in End-of-Life Care Ethics - ResearchGate
09 Aug 2025 · Through these cases highlighting interfaith and cross-generational family issues, we identify different ways social workers may become involved ...
[77]
Organization-level principles and practices to support spiritual care ...
Apr 11, 2017 · Another way to reflect on reorienting hospice palliative care in chiefly secular settings is to explore whether valuable lessons may be learned ...<|separator|>
[78]
Reclaiming ritual in palliative care: A hermeneutic narrative review
Jan 27, 2025 · Objectives: To explore the potential of incorporating personally meaningful rituals as a spiritual resource for Western secular palliative ...
[79]
What is an End of Life Doula?
An end-of-life doula is a nonmedical companion providing personalized support to individuals and families navigating death, loss, and mortality.
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Death Doulas: End-of-Life Services and Support - CaringInfo
Jul 10, 2024 · Death doulas provide non-medical emotional, spiritual, and physical support to individuals who are transitioning to death, and their loved ones.