Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Laurus

Laurus is a genus of evergreen shrubs and trees belonging to the laurel family, Lauraceae, native to the Mediterranean Basin and Macaronesia, and comprising three accepted species: L. azorica, L. nobilis, and L. novocanariensis.^[1] These species are characterized by their aromatic, lanceolate leaves, dioecious flowers, and drupaceous fruits, typically growing in warm temperate to subtropical climates with well-drained soils.^[2] The genus is distinguished within Lauraceae by its high chemical variability, particularly in essential oils with antimicrobial properties.^[2] The most prominent species, Laurus nobilis (bay laurel), is a slow-growing, multi-stemmed shrub or small tree reaching 10–18 meters in height, with glossy, dark green leaves that are elliptic to lanceolate and emit a spicy fragrance when crushed.^[3] Native to the Mediterranean region, it has been widely cultivated worldwide for culinary, medicinal, and ornamental purposes; its leaves are a staple herb in flavoring soups, stews, and sauces due to their aromatic compounds like cineole and eugenol.^[4] L. azorica, endemic to the Azores, and L. novocanariensis, found in the Canary Islands, share similar morphological traits but are less commonly cultivated and primarily of ecological interest in their insular habitats.^[1] Ecologically, Laurus species contribute to laurel forests (laurisilva), supporting biodiversity in humid, forested environments, though they face threats from habitat loss and invasive species.^[5]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Laurus derives from the ancient Latin term laurus, which denoted the bay laurel tree and was in use by Roman authors as early as the 1st century CE.^[6] This word has no established Indo-European etymology and is believed to stem from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean substrate language, reflecting the plant's deep-rooted cultural importance in the region.^[7] Similarly, the related Greek term dáphnē (δάφνη), meaning "laurel," lacks a clear linguistic origin and is thought to share a comparable ancient Mediterranean provenance.^[7] The Greek dáphnē gained prominence through mythology, where the nymph Daphne was transformed into a laurel tree to escape the pursuit of Apollo, leading to the plant's association with the god and its use in victory wreaths at events like the Pythian Games.^[7] This symbolic role influenced the adoption of laurus in Roman culture, where the plant symbolized triumph, purification, and divine favor; laurel wreaths crowned victorious generals and emperors.^[8] In binomial nomenclature, Carl Linnaeus formalized Laurus as the genus name in 1753, drawing directly from this classical Latin tradition to encompass the bay laurel and its relatives.^[6] Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder extensively documented laurus in his Natural History (Book 15, chapters 127–138), describing various cultivars such as the Delphic and Cyprian laurels, and emphasizing its sacred status as a plant immune to lightning and dedicated to Apollo.^[8] He noted its role in rituals, including triumphs and purification ceremonies, underscoring how the name encapsulated the tree's revered position in Mediterranean society long before its scientific classification.^[8]

Phylogenetic position

The genus Laurus is classified within the kingdom Plantae, clade Tracheophytes, clade Angiosperms, clade Magnoliids, order Laurales, family Lauraceae, where it was established by Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum in 1753.^[1] This hierarchical placement reflects the current consensus from the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG IV) system, which integrates morphological and molecular data to define major clades of flowering plants. Molecular phylogenetic studies confirm the position of Laurus within the Magnoliidae clade, a basal group of angiosperms characterized by shared apomorphies such as ethereal oil cells—specialized secretory structures containing aromatic compounds—and unilacunar nodes, where a single leaf trace departs from the stem.^[9]^[10] These traits are widespread across Laurales families, including Lauraceae, and support the monophyly of the order, with divergence estimates placing Laurales in the Early Cretaceous around 125 million years ago.^[11] Within Magnoliids, Laurales is sister to Magnoliales, highlighting the ancient lineage of these woody angiosperms adapted to tropical and subtropical environments.^[12] In the family Lauraceae, which comprises over 50 genera and nearly 3,500 species, Laurus belongs to the tribe Laureae, one of five main monophyletic lineages identified through mitogenomic analyses.^[11] This tribe is sister to Cinnamomeae (including Cinnamomum), while Laureae itself encompasses genera like Persea (e.g., avocado) and Laurus, forming part of the core Laureae-Cinnamomeae clade that diverged around 84.9 million years ago in the Late Cretaceous.^[11]^[13] Laurus is distinguished from close relatives such as Persea and Cinnamomum by its strictly dioecious inflorescences—separate male and female flowers on different plants—and drupaceous fruits with a single seed enclosed in a fleshy pericarp.^[14] These features, combined with low genetic variability across its species, underscore Laurus as a relict genus within the diverse Lauraceae.^[14]

Description

Morphology

Plants of the genus Laurus are evergreen shrubs or trees that typically grow to heights of 10–18 meters, though they are often maintained smaller through pruning, with a pyramidal to rounded form and dense canopy.^[6]^[3] They exhibit a slow growth rate, adding approximately 20–40 cm annually under optimal conditions.^[15] The bark is smooth and gray to olive-green on younger stems, becoming slightly fissured with age.^[16]^[17] The leaves are alternate, simple, and leathery, measuring 5–15 cm in length and 2–4 cm in width, with an ovate to lanceolate shape, entire margins that may be slightly wavy, and a glossy dark green upper surface.^[3]^[18] They are glabrous and emit a characteristic aromatic fragrance due to essential oils, primarily composed of 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol), along with sabinene, linalool, and traces of methyl eugenol.^[19]^[20] Laurus species are dioecious, with small, yellowish-white flowers (5–12 mm in diameter) borne in axillary umbels of 4–5 flowers each, typically appearing in spring.^[21]^[18] Male flowers feature 8–12 stamens arranged in whorls, while female flowers possess 4 staminodes surrounding a single carpel.^[22]^[23] Pollinated female flowers develop into ovoid to ellipsoid black drupes about 1–1.5 cm long, each containing a single seed.^[6]^[17] These plants form a dense, compact habit suitable for hedging or topiary and are frost-hardy to approximately -10°C (USDA zones 8–10), though they thrive best in mild, Mediterranean-like climates with well-drained soil.^[6]^[17] The aromatic foliage may contribute to deterring certain herbivores in natural settings.^[19]

Reproduction

Laurus species, including the widely studied L. nobilis, are dioecious, meaning individual plants are either male or female, with fruit production on female plants requiring proximity to male plants for pollination. Flowers typically bloom in early spring, from March to May in their native Mediterranean range, emerging in axillary umbels that are pale yellow and inconspicuous. Male flowers contain functional stamens that produce pollen, while female flowers feature a superior ovary and staminodes; this sexual dimorphism ensures cross-pollination between plants.^[24] Pollination in Laurus is primarily entomophilous, facilitated by insects such as bees (Hymenoptera) and flies, which are attracted to the nectar secreted by both male and female flowers. Male flowers provide abundant pollen as a reward, with anthers opening via a humidity-sensitive valve mechanism to release pollen grains that are sticky and adapted for insect transfer. Although wind may play a minor role in pollen dispersal under certain conditions, insect vectors predominate, promoting genetic diversity across populations.^[25]^[24] Following successful pollination, female flowers develop into single-seeded drupes that ripen in autumn, typically September to October, turning from green to glossy black with a fleshy pericarp. These fruits, measuring 1-1.5 cm in length, are primarily dispersed by frugivorous birds, such as thrushes (Turdus spp.) and robins (Erithacus rubecula), which consume the aril-like pulp and excrete viable seeds away from the parent plant, aiding in colonization of new areas. This ornithochorous dispersal is crucial for the species' regeneration in fragmented habitats.^[24]^[26]^[27] Seed germination in Laurus requires overcoming physiological dormancy imposed by the hard seed coat and potential chemical inhibitors in the pericarp; fresh seeds exhibit low viability without pretreatment. Optimal germination, reaching up to 94%, occurs after cold stratification for 70-90 days (approximately 2-3 months) at 4°C, often combined with chemical treatments like gibberellic acid or polystimulins to enhance embryo growth. Vegetative propagation via semi-hardwood cuttings, taken in late summer and rooted under mist with hormonal aids, provides an alternative method, though success rates are generally lower than seed-based approaches and better suited for clonal reproduction.^[28]^[29]

Distribution and ecology

Native distribution

The genus Laurus is native to the Mediterranean Basin and Macaronesia, encompassing countries such as Albania, Algeria, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Lebanon-Syria, Libya, Morocco, Palestine, Tunisia, and Turkey, as well as the archipelagos of the Azores, Canary Islands, and Madeira.^[1] Its distribution reflects a pattern of isolated refugia shaped by historical climate fluctuations, with populations concentrated in humid, subtropical zones. While Laurus nobilis is the most widespread species, occurring across the Mediterranean maquis from southwestern Europe (including Portugal, Spain, and Italy) through North Africa to the eastern Mediterranean and southern Black Sea coasts, the other species exhibit narrower endemism.^[1]^[6]^[30] Laurus azorica is endemic to the Azores archipelago in the North Atlantic, where it forms part of the laurel forests on all nine islands.^[31] Similarly, Laurus novocanariensis is restricted to Macaronesia, native exclusively to Madeira and the Canary Islands, thriving in cloud forests at mid-elevations.^[32] These distributions highlight the genus's biogeographic fragmentation, with L. nobilis bridging continental and insular populations. Phylogeographic analyses indicate that Laurus underwent post-Pleistocene expansion from glacial refugia in Iberia, North Africa, the Aegean region, and Macaronesian islands, driven by interglacial warming that allowed northward and eastward recolonization.^[33] However, the current range remains constrained by aridity and cold intolerance, limiting suitable habitats to areas with adequate moisture and mild temperatures (optimal 15–30°C).^[33] Fossil evidence suggests a broader Tertiary distribution across Europe, now relictual due to aridification and glaciation.^[33] Although naturalized in regions like California, Australia, and New Zealand, these are outside the native range.^[1]

Habitat and ecological role

Species of the genus Laurus primarily inhabit coastal maquis shrublands and laurel forests (laurisilva) in the Mediterranean Basin and Macaronesian islands, favoring well-drained, calcareous soils in mild, humid climates with annual rainfall of 600–1000 mm and temperatures ranging from 10–25°C.^[34]^[35] These environments provide the necessary moisture and protection from extreme conditions, allowing the evergreen trees and shrubs to thrive in subtropical to temperate zones with stable, fog-influenced microclimates.^[36] In ecosystems, Laurus species often dominate sclerophyllous woodlands and laurisilva, forming dense canopies that offer shade and habitat for diverse understory flora and fauna, while their deep root systems contribute to soil stabilization in erosion-prone coastal and mountainous areas.^[37] The aromatic leaves, rich in volatile oils such as 1,8-cineole, release compounds that deter herbivores and repelling insects, enhancing plant defense and indirectly supporting biodiversity by reducing grazing pressure on associated species.^[38] Additionally, Laurus engages in symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which facilitate nutrient uptake, particularly phosphorus, in nutrient-poor soils, thereby bolstering ecosystem productivity.^[39] However, these plants serve as hosts to pests including scale insects (Coccus spp.), which can weaken foliage and spread diseases.^[22] Laurus populations face threats from increasing drought intensity, which induces embolism in xylem vessels, reducing hydraulic efficiency and survival rates.^[40] Frequent fires, exacerbated by climate change, degrade habitats by favoring invasive species and fragmenting laurel forests, while invasive plants further compete for resources in these vulnerable ecosystems.^[37]^[41] In 2024, a new pathogenic fungus, Talaromyces lauri, was reported causing stem blight and internal necrosis in L. nobilis in Italy.^[42]

Species

Accepted species

The genus Laurus includes three accepted species, according to the authoritative database Plants of the World Online.^[1] Laurus nobilis L. (bay laurel) is an evergreen tree reaching 10–18 m in height with a trunk up to 1 m in diameter, native to the Mediterranean basin. It features elliptic to ovate leaves 5–10 cm long and 2–4 cm wide that are glabrous and aromatic, along with ovoid drupes 1–2 cm long.^[6]^[43] Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco is an endemic shrub or small tree of the Azores, typically 5–10 m tall (up to 18 m in optimal conditions), with a trunk 0.6–0.9 m in diameter. Its leaves are elliptic to ovate, 6–12 cm long and 4–8 cm wide, dark green above and paler beneath, with young shoots bearing a purplish-brown downy indumentum; drupes are smaller, around 1 cm long. A 2025 study revealed an XY chromosome system in L. azorica, estimated to have originated 5–10 million years ago.^[44]^[45]^[46] Laurus novocanariensis Rivas Mart. et al. is a Macaronesian species (endemic to the Canary Islands and Madeira) resembling L. azorica in habit but growing as a tree to 10–20 m tall. It is distinguished by narrower, lanceolate leaves 6–12 cm long and 1.5–3 cm wide, with small secretory glands at the junctions of the midvein and secondary veins, and drupes similar in size to those of L. azorica.^[32]^[47] All three species share a dioecious breeding system and evergreen habit but differ in leaf width, fruit size (L. azorica possessing the broadest leaves and L. nobilis the largest drupes), and density of leaf glands (higher in the Macaronesian species).^[48] In terms of synonymy, L. nobilis has numerous historical synonyms, though none directly relevant to the other accepted species; L. azorica includes Persea azorica Seub. as a basionym; and L. novocanariensis encompasses the illegitimate L. canariensis Webb & Berthel. (1844) and was formerly subsumed under L. azorica.^[31]^[50] Genetic studies indicate unresolved hybridization in Macaronesia, particularly between L. azorica and L. novocanariensis, complicating infrageneric boundaries.^[30]

Infrageneric variation

Within the genus Laurus, infrageneric variation manifests primarily through morphological differences in leaf shape and size, as well as genetic patterns influenced by geographic distribution. Laurus nobilis exhibits notable intraspecific variation, including a narrow-leaved form known as L. nobilis f. angustifolia, characterized by willow-like leaves measuring 3.8–8.9 cm long and 0.6–2.2 cm wide, which is adapted to drier Mediterranean habitats.^[51] This form contrasts with the typical broader leaves of the species and is recognized in botanical descriptions rather than as a formal subspecies. In contrast, the endemic species L. azorica and L. novocanariensis lack formally recognized subspecies, with variation limited to minor local adaptations in leaf texture and branching patterns across their respective island ranges.^[1] Potential interspecific hybrids occur in Macaronesia, particularly between L. nobilis and L. azorica, where intermediate morphological traits such as undulated leaf margins and brown tomentum on young shoots have been observed in Azorean populations.^[30] Genetic analyses using microsatellites indicate high admixture and gene flow, with low genetic differentiation (global F_ST = 0.098) supporting the possibility of past hybridization events, though no confirmed hybrids have been identified due to chromosomal barriers (2n=48 in L. nobilis vs. 2n=36 in related taxa).^[30] These intermediates highlight the close phylogenetic relationships within the genus, with haplotype sharing in chloroplast regions like trnD-trnT.^[52] Genetic diversity varies significantly across Laurus species, reflecting their distributional ranges. L. nobilis displays high diversity, with studies reporting up to 196 alleles across 37 genotypes using SSR markers, attributed to its broad Mediterranean and anthropogenic distribution.^[53] In contrast, endemic species like L. azorica show lower diversity (9.75 alleles per locus across 21 populations) and elevated differentiation among islands (F_ST = 0.01–0.24), increasing vulnerability to inbreeding in isolated populations despite no significant inbreeding detected globally (F = -0.237).^[30] Island endemics face threats from hybridization and invasive species, potentially reducing local genetic variation further.^[30] Cultivars such as 'Angustifolia' derive from wild narrow-leaved variants of L. nobilis, emphasizing ornamental selection based on natural morphological diversity rather than extensive breeding.^[51]

Human uses

Culinary and medicinal

The dried leaves of Laurus nobilis, commonly known as bay leaves, are widely used in culinary applications to impart a subtle, aromatic flavor to dishes such as soups, stews, roasts, casseroles, and sauces, where they are typically added during slow cooking and removed before serving due to their indigestibility and potential to cause choking or intestinal irritation.^[16]^[17] These leaves are often combined with other herbs like thyme, parsley, and pepper in preparations such as bouquet garni or for pickling and marinades.^[4] Additionally, the essential oil extracted from L. nobilis leaves is employed in the perfume and soap industries for its distinctive fragrance.^[19] In traditional medicine, infusions of L. nobilis leaves have been used to alleviate digestive issues, including epigastric bloating, impaired digestion, diarrhea, and peptic ulcers.^[54] The plant's eugenol content contributes to its anti-inflammatory properties, which have been noted in historical remedies for conditions like rheumatism and hemorrhoids.^[4] Modern studies have explored the antimicrobial potential of L. nobilis essential oils and extracts, demonstrating activity against various bacteria, including some strains of Escherichia coli, though efficacy can vary by concentration and bacterial resistance.^[55] These bioactivities are attributed to phenolic compounds and volatiles like 1,8-cineole.^[38] Similar aromatic leaves of L. azorica and L. novocanariensis are used locally in traditional medicine for ailments like rheumatism, though commercial cultivation is minimal.^[56] While L. nobilis leaves are generally non-toxic in small culinary amounts, fresh leaves ingested in large quantities can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal discomfort in humans due to their essential oil content.^[17] The berries can cause gastrointestinal upset, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, if ingested in large quantities by humans and pets.^[15]^[57] In pets, even leaves may induce gastrointestinal distress from eugenol and other oils.^[58] Harvesting of L. nobilis leaves for culinary and medicinal purposes emphasizes sustainability, with practices involving selective picking from wild populations or cultivated plants to avoid overexploitation, typically targeting inner and underside branches on mature shrubs.^[59] In regions like Turkey, wild harvesting is managed to yield up to 5 tons per hectare of dried leaves annually under intensive management and irrigation, balancing frequency with plant health.^[21]^[60]

Ornamental and cultural

Laurus nobilis is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant in gardens and landscapes, particularly for its evergreen foliage and versatile growth habit. It is commonly used for hedging, topiary shapes, and as a specimen tree or container plant, providing year-round structure and aromatic interest. In European street plantings and formal gardens, it serves as a favored choice for clipped forms due to its dense branching and tolerance for shaping.^[61]^[16] The plant thrives in full sun with well-drained soil, avoiding waterlogged conditions to prevent root rot. Propagation is typically achieved through semi-hardwood cuttings taken in late summer, which root readily when treated with hormone and kept in a humid environment. In suitable climates, it forms a pyramidal crown up to 12 meters tall, enhancing Mediterranean-style landscapes.^[62]^[61] Culturally, L. nobilis holds profound symbolic significance rooted in ancient traditions. In ancient Greece and Rome, laurel wreaths fashioned from its leaves crowned victors in athletic competitions, poets at the Pythian Games, and military commanders during triumphs, representing victory, honor, and divine favor. The plant was sacred to Apollo, embodying purification and poetic inspiration, a symbolism that influenced later European customs including the use of laurel in ceremonial garlands. Today, it appears in holiday decorations such as Christmas wreaths, evoking its historical prestige.^[63]^[64] Horticulturally, L. nobilis is suited to USDA hardiness zones 8 through 10, where it withstands temperatures down to about -7°C but requires protection from severe frosts in cooler areas. Regular pruning during the growing season maintains shape for hedges or topiaries, promoting bushy growth and preventing legginess. Common pests include the bay sucker (Trioza alacris), a psyllid that causes leaf curling; management involves organic methods such as removing infested foliage or applying insecticidal soap, as the pest rarely impacts overall plant vigor.^[17]^[62]^[65] Economically, the ornamental trade in L. nobilis plants and wreaths remains minor but steady, supporting nursery production and seasonal decor markets in temperate regions. Live plants are propagated and sold for garden use, while harvested branches contribute to artisanal garlands, though the sector is overshadowed by culinary leaf demand.^[66]^[67]

Fossil record

Historical distribution

During the Tertiary period, particularly the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, Laurus formed part of extensive laurel forests that were widespread across the Mediterranean Basin, southern Europe, North Africa, and adjacent regions. Fossil records document Laurus presence in temperate latitudes, extending northward to areas such as Germany and Hungary in the Miocene, with 36 Pliocene sites indicating broad distribution under warmer (4–5°C higher) and moister climatic conditions that supported large suitable habitats in central and southeastern Europe.^[33] Ancestral populations occupied the Tethys Sea region during the Palaeogene and early Neogene, but range reductions began in the middle Miocene due to progressive aridification and tectonic uplift, confining laurel forests primarily to the Mediterranean and Macaronesian areas by the early Pliocene.^[68] The Pleistocene ice ages imposed severe constraints on Laurus distribution through recurrent cycles of cooling and aridification, leading to widespread regional extinctions and range contractions. At the Last Glacial Maximum approximately 21,000 years ago, suitable habitats diminished by a factor of eight due to temperature drops (5°C lower) and reduced precipitation (35% less), forcing populations into isolated refugia in the Iberian Peninsula, southern Italy, North Africa, the Aegean region, Transcaucasia, and the Macaronesian islands.^[33] These refugia, characterized by relatively stable microclimates, preserved genetic diversity amid fragmentation driven by glacial advances and associated arid conditions.^[68] Post-glacial warming beginning around 10,000 years ago enabled recolonization from these refugia, with Laurus nobilis expanding northward and reoccupying Mediterranean lowlands to form contemporary laurel woodlands.^[33] This expansion involved westward dispersal from eastern Mediterranean sources, diversifying into distinct haplotypes that now characterize western populations.^[68] Biogeographic patterns of Laurus reflect vicariance primarily through climate-induced fragmentation and tectonic influences since the Neogene, rather than ancient continental drift, resulting in three major chloroplast DNA lineages: eastern (Turkey and Near East), Aegean, and western (including Macaronesia and the western Mediterranean).^[68] Macaronesian endemism, exemplified by Laurus azorica, arose from long-term persistence in island refugia with conserved niches for warm, humid, low-seasonality environments, linking populations across the Canary Islands, Madeira, and southern Morocco via shared haplotypes.^[33]^[68]

Paleobotanical evidence

Paleobotanical evidence for the genus Laurus primarily consists of leaf impressions, fruits, and pollen grains preserved in Eocene to Oligocene deposits across Europe, with additional records from Miocene sites in the Mediterranean region. Leaf fossils, often assigned to form genera such as Laurophyllum, exhibit Laurus-like venation and epidermal features, including smooth margins and alternate arrangement, from early Oligocene lignite (brown coal) deposits in central Europe. For instance, Laurophyllum abchasicum, interpreted as belonging to Laurus, has been documented from the Flörsheim flora in the Mainz Basin, Germany, representing one of the earliest reliable records of the genus.^[69] These foliage remains suggest adaptation to warm, humid subtropical environments typical of the Paleogene.^[70] Fossil fruits of Lauraceae, including drupes morphologically similar to those of modern Laurus, occur in European Tertiary sediments, though specific assignments to the genus are tentative due to limited diagnostic characters. These permineralized or mummified specimens from Oligocene and Miocene layers preserve a conserved drupe structure with a single seed enclosed in a fleshy pericarp, indicating morphological stability within the family since the Paleogene.^[71] Pollen evidence is sparser, as Laurus pollen is poorly preserved and anemophily-limited, but triporate grains attributable to the genus appear in Miocene floras from the Mediterranean Basin, often associated with laurel-palm (Lauraceae-Arecaceae) assemblages in coastal wetland deposits. Key sites include early Miocene localities in northeastern Iberia and western Turkey, where such pollen reflects thermophilic, hygrophilous vegetation.^[68]^[72] Paleobotanical studies confirm no fossil species can be unambiguously assigned to extant Laurus taxa, with most pre-Pleistocene records remaining at the generic or familial level due to overlapping traits among Lauraceae.^[70] This evidence points to the diversification of Laurales beginning in the Late Cretaceous, with Laurus emerging during the Paleogene amid global warming phases that favored laurel forest expansion across Eurasia.^[13] The persistence of drupe morphology underscores evolutionary conservatism in reproductive structures, supporting Laurus as a relict lineage from Tethyan laurel forests that contracted during Miocene cooling.^[73] Earlier paleobotanical assignments of "fossil Laurus" species, such as those from Eocene North American or scattered European sites, have been largely rejected following cuticular and anatomical re-examinations, which revealed misidentifications with other Lauraceae genera like Persea or Litsea.^[74] These revisions highlight the challenges in distinguishing Laurus from congeners based solely on gross morphology, emphasizing the need for epidermal data in taxonomic placements.^[70]

References

[1]
Laurus L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science
Classification · Kingdom Plantae · Phylum Streptophyta · Class Equisetopsida · Subclass Magnoliidae · Order. Laurales. View Order Tree opens in a new tab · Family.
[2]
Laurus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Laurus is defined as a genus within the Lauraceae family, known for its high chemical variation and the presence of essential oils with potential antimicrobial ...
[3]
Laurus nobilis | Landscape Plants | Oregon State University
Broadleaf evergreen shrub, grows slowly to 12-40(60) ft (4-12(18) m) tall, multi-stemmed, broad-based with a gradually tapering cone.
[4]
Bay Leaf - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
It has been used for thousands of years for food flavoring, essential oil applications, and in traditional medicine.
[5]
Laurus L. - World Flora Online
Included Species · Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco · Laurus nobilis L. · Laurus novocanariensis Rivas Mart., Lousã, Fern.Prieto, E.Días, J.C.Costa & C.Aguiar.Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[6]
Laurus nobilis - Plant Finder - Missouri Botanical Garden
It is a pyramidal, aromatic, evergreen tree or large shrub that grows to as much as 60' tall, but is usually seen much smaller (10-30' tall). For garden ...
[7]
Herbs in History: Laurel - American Herbal Products Association
Its ancient Greek and Latin names attest to a remote Mediterranean past: dafnê in Greek and laurus in Latin. Both terms have no identified etymology, indeed, ...
[8]
LacusCurtius • Pliny the Elder's Natural History — Book 15
### Extracted Sections on 'Laurus' or Laurel
[9]
Molecular Phylogenetics of the Magnoliidae - jstor
The ethereal oil cells could be a potential synapomorphy for the mono- sulcates; they occur in all component lineages (at least in some basal members) of this ...
[10]
Circumscription and phylogeny of the Laurales
Sep 1, 1999 · ... unilacunar nodes, opposite leaves, and inaperturate ... The molecular phylogeny implies that disporangiate two-valvate anthers in Lauraceae ...
[11]
New insights into the phylogenetic relationships within the ...
Oct 23, 2024 · Both phylogenetic analyses identified five main lineages in the Lauraceae. The first-diverging lineage, Cryptocaryeae (ML-BS = 100%, BI-PP = ...
[12]
Phylogeny and taxonomy of Cinnamomum (Lauraceae) - PMC - NIH
Oct 1, 2022 · The Lauraceae constitute the largest family of the order Laurales which is sister to the Magnoliales (The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, 2016).
[13]
Global advances in phylogeny, taxonomy and biogeography of ...
Our understanding of Lauraceae, a large family of woody plants, has undergone significant advances in phylogeny, taxonomy, and biogeography.
[14]
Late Neogene history of the laurel tree (Laurus L., Lauraceae ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Results The phylogenetic tree revealed monophyly for Laurus. Overall sequence variability was low within Laurus, but six different haplotypes ...
[15]
Laurus nobilis (Bay Laurel) - Gardenia.net
Bay Laurel (Laurus nobilis) is an evergreen shrub or tree widely cultivated for its aromatic leaves, culinary uses, and ornamental appeal.Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[16]
Sweet Bay, Laurus nobilis - Wisconsin Horticulture
The smooth bark is olive green to gray in color. The plants are dioecious ... To stay up to date on the latest information and upcoming learning opportunities ...
[17]
Laurus nobilis - North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox
Attributes: Genus: Laurus; Species: nobilis; Family: Lauraceae; Uses (Ethnobotany):: It is used in herbal medicine and in massage therapy. Life Cycle: Woody ...
[18]
Laurus nobilis BAY LAUREL - Jepson Herbarium
Chromosomes: 2n=36,42,48,54,60,66,72. ; Ecology: Rich, well-drained soil; ; Elevation: < 10 m. ; Bioregional Distribution: SCo (Orange Co.); ; Distribution Outside ...
[19]
Laurus nobilis: Composition of Essential Oil and Its Biological Activities
1,8-Cineole (31.9%), sabinene (12.2%), and linalool (10.2%) were the main components. Antimicrobial and antifungal activities of EO and 1,8-cineole were ...
[20]
Essential Oils of Laurus nobilis L.: From Chemical Analysis to ... - MDPI
The major oil components were 1,8-cineol (43.52–31.31%), methyl-eugenol (14.96–4.07%), α-terpinyl acetate (13.00–8.51%), linalool (11.72–1.08%), sabinene (10.57 ...
[21]
Laurus nobilis (sweet bay) | CABI Compendium
Aromatic, usually dioecious, evergreen tree or shrub, 2-15 m tall, in cultivation usually pruned to less than 3 m; bark blackish-brown. Branchlets terete, young ...
[22]
Laurus nobilis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
This genus comprises more than one hundred species widely distributed throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe, and many of these have been used to treat a wide ...
[23]
Laurus nobilis | SpringerLink
The male flower usually has 10–12 stamens, the female has 4 staminoids. The ovary is short-stemmed with 1 chamber with a hanging ovule, a short style and a ...Missing: carpel | Show results with:carpel
[24]
Floral biology of the dioecious species Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae)
Aug 6, 2025 · The plant morphology reveals hardy that is a dioecious (unisexual) plant with separate male and female trees, the pollination is entomophilous.Missing: drupes | Show results with:drupes
[25]
Floral biology of the dioecious species Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae)
The various phases of floral phenology and the insect pollinators were observed. We used cytological methods to determine anther, pollen and nectary structure.
[26]
Frugivory in European Laurel: How extinct seed dispersers have ...
Aug 8, 2025 · In both areas fruits were mainly eaten bySylvia warblers, Robin (Erithacus rubecula) and thrushes (Turdus sp.). At the stopover site birds spent ...
[27]
Frugivory in European Laurel: how extinct seed dispersers have ...
The observed high site fidelity of Blackbirds suggests that Laurel seeds are rarely dispersed more than a few dozen metres from the mother tree. Blackbirds thus.
[28]
https://doi.org/10.15258/sst.2018.46.2.09
[29]
(PDF) Dormancy, germination and seedling growth in bay laurel ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The study explored seed germination and propagation through cutting in Laurus nobilis L. with a focus on in vitro and in vivo regeneration ...
[30]
Microsatellites reveal high levels of genetic admixture in the natural ...
Jan 16, 2024 · Laurus (Lauraceae) species are currently restricted to isolated refugia in the southern Black Sea, Mediterranean Basin, southern Morocco, ...
[31]
Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco | Plants of the World Online
The native range of this species is Azores. It is a shrub or tree and grows primarily in the subtropical biome.
[32]
Laurus novocanariensis Rivas Mart., Lousã, Fern.Prieto, E.Días, J.C. ...
The native range of this species is Madeira, Canary Islands. It is a tree and grows primarily in the subtropical biome.
[33]
[PDF] climate-driven range dynamics of Laurus since the Pliocene
Climatic scenarios for the end of this century would favour an expansion of the species's range towards northern latitudes, while severely limiting southern ...
[34]
https://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=laurus+nobilis
[35]
Laurus - L. - PFAF.org
It is in leaf all year, in flower from April to May. The species is dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on ...
[36]
Laurisilva of Madeira - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
These forests display a wealth of ecological niches, intact ecosystem processes, and play a predominant role in maintaining the hydrological balance on the ...
[37]
Garajonay National Park | World Heritage Outlook
Laurel forest habitat very much depends on particular climatic and orographic conditions. Reduced forest cover and degradation increases the vulnerability to ...
[38]
A Review of the Botany, Volatile Composition, Biochemical and ...
Apr 29, 2022 · The genus Laurus consists of two species: Laurus azorica and Laurus nobilis. ... The fruits of this dioecious plant species are olive-like ...
[39]
[PDF] Potential Role of Native Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) in the ...
Jul 22, 2020 · AMF live in symbiosis with the roots of most terrestrial plants, increasing the update of water and nutrients, especially phosphorus, in ...
[40]
An inconvenient truth about xylem resistance to embolism in the ...
Sep 13, 2018 · nobilis L. is a highly resistant species to drought-induced embolism and that refilling of embolized vessels at relatively high water potentials ...
[41]
Fire as a Selection Agent for the Dissemination of Invasive Species
... Laurus nobilis arborescent forests” [63]. However, the recurrence of rural fire favors a vegetation cover dominated by heliophilous shrubs and, when there ...
[42]
laurel - Virginia Tech Dendrology Fact Sheet
Flower: Species is dioecious; small but quite showy, both male and females are bright yellow-green, borne on short racemes appearing in early to mid-spring.Missing: genus distinction
[43]
Laurus azorica - Trees and Shrubs Online
Native of the Canary Islands and the Azores. This fine evergreen is hardy in the southern and western maritime counties and in localities with a similar climate ...Missing: range | Show results with:range
[44]
Arthropods and other biota associated with the Azorean trees and ...
May 10, 2022 · azorica (Magnoliophyta, Magnoliopsida, Laurales, Lauraceae), the Azorean laurel, is a dioecious evergreen tree that grows up to 15 m height. The ...<|separator|>
[45]
Canary Laurel (Laurus novocanariensis) - JungleDragon
It is native of rich soils in the cloud zone of always moist spots in subtropical climate with a high air-humidity, on the Canary and Madeira islands.Missing: range | Show results with:range
[46]
On the taxonomy of recent and fossil species of Laurus (Lauraceae)
The only characters for which absolute differences could be demonstrated were the leaf tomentum and chromosome number. The fossil record is discussed. None of ...
[47]
Seed oil/laurel fruit: Laurus nobilis L., Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Seed oil/laurel fruit: Laurus nobilis L., Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco, Laurus novocanariensis Rivas Mart., Lousã, Fern. ... differences ...
[48]
Laurus canariensis Webb & Berthel. - Plants of the World Online
Laurus canariensis Webb & Berthel. First published in Hist. Nat. Iles Canaries 3(2; 3): 229 (1844), nom. illeg. This name is a synonym of Laurus novocanariensis.
[49]
Laurus nobilis - Trees and Shrubs Online
Lauraceae. Genus. Laurus. Common Names. Bay Laurel. Species Links. Infraspecifics. 'Aurea' · f. angustifolia · f. crispa. Other taxa in genus. Laurus azorica.Missing: synonymy | Show results with:synonymy
[50]
Screening for potential hybrids reveals new insights about Laurus ...
azorica is the possible hybridisation with Laurus nobilis as intermediate forms are sometimes found. However, species delimitation within the genus Laurus ...<|separator|>
[51]
Genetic Diversity and Phylogenetic Analyses of Laurus nobilis L ...
Dec 30, 2019 · In this study, genetic diversity and phylogenetic analyzis based on cpDNA trnL intron and trnL-F sequences of L. nobilis L. populations were made.
[52]
Biomedical effects of Laurus nobilis L. leaf extract on vital organs in ...
Traditionally bay leave extract have been used orally to treat the symptoms of gastrointestinal problems, such as epigastric bloating, impaired digestion, ...
[53]
Biological, phytochemical and molecular docking characteristics of ...
Jun 8, 2024 · nobilis leaves are used to treat hemorrhoids, diarrhea, peptic ulcers, gastrointestinal disorders, jaundice, psoriasis, mouth ulcers, throat ...Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
[54]
Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Laurus nobilis L ...
Feb 22, 2019 · Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 9027 and Escherichia coli ATCC 8739 were the bacterial strains that showed the highest resistance to the laurel EO.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
[55]
[PDF] Poisonous Plants - ANR Catalog
Ingesting concentrated extracts of the plant or berries may produce serious poisonings with symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, confusion, ...
[56]
These 25+ plants are toxic to pets | CAES Field Report - UGA
Sep 5, 2022 · Bay laurel or sweet bay (Laurus nobilis). Bay laurel contains eugenol and other essential oils that can cause gastrointestinal distress. 4 ...Missing: humans | Show results with:humans
[57]
Sustainable Wild Harvesting of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
Laurel leaves are harvested for export or essential oil production in most parts of Turkey, however, in İçel and Hatay provinces, fruits are harvested and an ...
[58]
Spotlight on Bay Laurel, Laurus nobilis | Under the Solano Sun
Mar 22, 2022 · The aromatic leaves are used in cooking soups, pasta sauces, fish, chicken and beef dishes and pickles. It has separate male and female plants ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[59]
Bay Laurel: An Attractive Culinary Addition for Your Landscape
Feb 11, 2021 · Cajun cuisines use bay leaves to flavor rice and seafood. Bay is a primary element of bouquet garni, a bouquet of herbs, used in French cuisine.
[60]
How to Grow and Care for Bay Laurel Trees | Gardener's Path
Aug 16, 2023 · If there is a male plant nearby for pollination, the female plants will produce berrylike drupes. ... (Laurus nobilis) is a different species, so ...Laurus Nobilis · What Is Bay Laurel? · Pruning And Maintenance
[61]
Laurus nobilis, Grecian laurel, sweet bay - Trees of Stanford
" In any case, by the time of Pliny (23–79 AD), according to his Natural History, the laurel was still dedicated to Apollo. The leaves, which need scrubbing ...Missing: Elder | Show results with:Elder
[62]
Roman laurel wreath | National Museum of Australia
Laurels were worn at the Olympic Games as a symbol of victory and honour. Roman emperors such as Julius Caesar wore laurels to show importance and godly status.
[63]
Bay sucker / RHS Gardening
Bay sucker can affect the appearance of bay but does not usually reduce the vigour of bay plants and so control is not necessary.
[64]
[PDF] Socio-Economic Drivers of Non-Timber Forest ... - BioResources
This study aimed to assess the economic efficiency of laurel harvesting. (Laurus nobilis L.) in Andırın, Kahramanmaraş, Türkiye. To achieve this, a household ...
[65]
Fresh Bay Leaf Foliage (Laurus Nobilis, Laurel) – Premium Greenery
$$12.65 In stock Rating 5.0 (3) Glossy, aromatic leaves with deep green color. Long-lasting cut foliage – strong and durable. Ideal for garlands, wreaths, floral arrangements, and event décor.<|separator|>
[66]
[PDF] Late Neogene history of the laurel tree (Laurus L., Lauraceae ... - idUS
The species may have persisted at small, isolated refugia in the Mediter- ranean Basin and Macaronesia during Pleistocene glaciations. Here we attempt to ...
[67]
Revisions to the Early Oligocene flora of Flörsheim (Mainz Basin ...
The Early Oligocene (Rupelian) flora of Flörsheim in the Mainz Basin, Germany (NP 23 zone) has been revised with the aid of leaf anatomical study.Missing: Laurus | Show results with:Laurus
[68]
On the taxonomy of recent and fossil species of Laurus (Lauraceae ...
... Kondraskov et al. (2015) showed that island divergence during the Pleistocene resulted in low support distinctions between the three taxa, with L. nobilis ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[69]
Anatomy and development of fruits of Lauraceae from the Middle ...
Mar 1, 2009 · Numerous lauraceous fossil fruits are known from Europe (41, 25, 6; 13). These fruits are often permineralized or lignified/mummified, and many ...
[70]
Early Miocene climate and biomes of Turkey: Evidence from leaf ...
A general feature of early Miocene palynofloras in Turkey is the high diversity and relatively great abundance of conifer pollen, including Cupressaceae and ...
[71]
[PDF] Cenozoic climate changes and the demise of Tethyan laurel forests
The onset of the Pleistocene glaciations drastically reduced the areas suitable for the persistence of Laurus, particularly at northern latitudes (central and ...
[72]
Eocene plants from Tennessee - Palaeontologia Electronica
The assignment of these specimens is questionable because the affinity of these specimens to Laurus is based upon limited morphological characters. We propose a ...Missing: misidentification | Show results with:misidentification<|separator|>