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Levantine corridor

The Levantine corridor is a narrow terrestrial land bridge connecting northeastern Africa to western Asia via the Sinai Peninsula and the Levant region, encompassing modern-day Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, and serving as a critical pathway for faunal exchanges, early human migrations, and later cultural interactions between continents.^[1] Throughout prehistory, it facilitated the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa into Eurasia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene, particularly during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (approximately 129,000 to 71,000 years ago), when the southern Levant supported savannahs, grasslands, and wetlands conducive to travel.^[1] Archaeological evidence, including Levallois stone tools and wetland sediments dated to around 84,000 years ago at sites like Wadi Gharandal in Jordan, underscores its viability as a northern migration route across the arid Sinai and into Arabia.^[1] Key early modern human occupations in the corridor are evidenced by fossils and artifacts from the Skhul and Qafzeh caves in Israel, dating to 130,000–90,000 years ago, marking one of the earliest successful expansions beyond Africa.^[1] Subsequent dispersals occurred around 104,000–97,000 years ago and 82,000–77,000 years ago, with genetic lineages such as E3b1-M78 and R1*-M173 indicating bidirectional gene flow during the Upper Paleolithic (approximately 45,000–10,000 years ago) and Mesolithic periods.^[1]^[2] These movements not only colonized the Levant but also enabled further spread into Europe and Asia, contrasting with the less prominent role of the southern Horn of Africa route in Eurasian gene flow.^[2] In historical contexts, the corridor functioned as a transit route linking Africa, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and the Mediterranean, influencing trade networks, conquests, and the rise of civilizations from the Neolithic period onward (approximately 10,000–5,000 years ago).^[3] Neolithic expansions via the Levant introduced agriculture and domesticated species to the region, while later eras saw it as a crossroads for empires like the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, and Romans, who controlled key nodes for commerce in goods such as incense, spices, and metals.^[3] Its strategic geography continues to shape geopolitical dynamics in the modern era.

Geography and Environment

Location and Boundaries

The Levantine corridor is a narrow strip of land in Western Asia that functions as a land bridge, extending from the Sinai Peninsula in the south to southern Anatolia in the north. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Syrian Desert to the east, creating a confined pathway that has historically facilitated exchanges between continents.^[2]^[4] This corridor encompasses the territories of modern-day Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and western Syria, with its southern terminus sometimes including parts of the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Approximately 500 km in length and 50-100 km in width, it forms an integral component of the broader Fertile Crescent region, characterized by its relatively habitable terrain amid surrounding arid zones.^[2]^[5]^[6] Historically, the Levantine corridor has been referred to as the Near East land bridge or the Suez-Levant route, underscoring its role in linking northeastern Africa to Eurasia. It connects to larger African-Eurasian migration pathways, serving as a primary conduit for biotic and cultural dispersals over millennia.^[4]^[2]

Geological and Climatic History

The Levantine corridor, a critical land bridge spanning from the Sinai Peninsula through modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, began forming during the Miocene-Pliocene epochs through a combination of tectonic uplift and regional geodynamic processes associated with the separation of the African and Arabian plates. The northward drift of the Arabian plate, initiating around 25 million years ago, led to the development of the Dead Sea Transform fault system, which facilitated the uplift of surrounding structures and the subsidence of rift basins. This tectonic activity, peaking in the late Miocene (approximately 11–5.3 million years ago), elevated the coastal and inland regions, creating a viable terrestrial pathway between Africa and Eurasia.^[7] A pivotal event influencing the corridor's early connectivity was the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC), which indirectly enhanced land connections in the region around 6.2 million years ago. During the early phase of the MSC, the Mediterranean Sea's precursor began evaporating due to restricted Atlantic inflow, and the Red Sea, connected via a shallow sill in the Gulf of Suez, underwent desiccation, exposing its basin floor and temporarily linking the African mainland directly to the Arabian Peninsula by dry land. This brief episode of subaerial exposure, marked by an angular unconformity known as the S-reflector and extensive evaporite deposition, preceded the Red Sea's reflooding from the Indian Ocean via a catastrophic breach at the Hanish sill, restoring marine conditions shortly thereafter. While the Sinai isthmus remained a persistent land bridge, this MSC-related desiccation widened the effective traversable area before the Red Sea's post-crisis refilling.^[8] Key geological features shaped the corridor's topography as natural migration routes during this period. The Jordan Rift Valley, part of the larger Dead Sea Rift system, formed through sinistral strike-slip faulting starting in the late Miocene, resulting in a north-south depression flanked by uplifted shoulders that funneled pathways along its length. Mount Carmel, an anticlinal structure in northern Israel, experienced differential uplift from the late Miocene onward, rising as a rugged carbonate ridge up to 500 meters above sea level and providing a elevated coastal barrier with passes suitable for passage. Adjacent coastal plains, including the Sharon and Acre valleys, developed as low-lying alluvial and aeolian deposits in subsiding basins, offering relatively flat terrains amid the tectonic complexity.^[9]^[10] During the Pleistocene (2.58 million to 11,700 years ago), the corridor's habitability was profoundly influenced by climatic oscillations tied to global glacial-interglacial cycles, characterized by alternating pluvial (wetter) and interpluvial (drier) phases. Pollen records from Lake Lisan sediments in the Dead Sea basin reveal expanded Mediterranean woodlands and steppe vegetation during pluvials, such as Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 (around 57,000–29,000 years ago), indicated by elevated Quercus pollen (up to 24%) and reduced arid taxa like Artemisia, reflecting increased winter precipitation from enhanced Atlantic storms. In contrast, interpluvials like early MIS 4 (around 71,000–59,000 years ago) show dominance of drought-tolerant chenopods and low pollen influx, correlating with gypsum-rich lake levels signaling aridity. Complementary evidence from lake sediment varves and speleothems confirms these fluctuations, with pluvial lake highstands reaching 200 meters above modern Dead Sea levels during wetter intervals.^[11] Sea level changes during Pleistocene ice ages further modulated the corridor's usability by altering coastal and adjacent marine barriers. Global eustatic drops of up to 120 meters during glacial maxima, such as MIS 2 (Last Glacial Maximum, ~26,500–19,000 years ago), narrowed the southern Red Sea entrance and exposed continental shelves, effectively widening the land bridge's southern extent and reducing water crossings for terrestrial dispersals. Conversely, interglacial rises submerged lowlands, constricting pathways along the eastern Mediterranean coast but maintaining the core rift valley and inland routes as viable corridors. These dynamics, evidenced by submerged karst features and terrace records along the Levantine margin, underscore the corridor's variable permeability without fully severing connectivity.^[12]

Biological Dispersal

Plant Migration Pathways

The Levantine corridor serves as a primary biogeographic route for the natural dispersal of plant species between Africa and Eurasia, recognized by botanists for facilitating the exchange of Mediterranean flora such as wild olives (Olea europaea var. sylvestris), figs (Ficus carica), and wild cereals like einkorn wheat (Triticum boeoticum) and barley (Hordeum spontaneum). This corridor, spanning the Sinai Peninsula, Jordan Rift Valley, and coastal Levant, enabled bidirectional movements of flora during climatic fluctuations, contributing to the region's unique botanical diversity. Key mechanisms of plant dispersal through the corridor included wind, animal-mediated transport, and riverine pathways, particularly during the wetter phases of the Pleistocene. Wind dispersal carried lightweight seeds and pollen across the relatively narrow land bridge, while animal vectors—such as migrating ungulates and birds—facilitated endozoochory and epizoochory for fleshy-fruited species. Riverine systems in the Jordan Valley and seasonal wadis during interglacials and humid intervals provided hydrological corridors for hydrochory, allowing propagules to travel along watercourses amid expanded wetlands and lakes. These processes overlapped briefly with animal migration routes, where fauna inadvertently aided seed transport northward and southward.^[11] Palynological evidence from fossil pollen records in the southern Levant, such as the Dead Sea's Lake Lisan sediments (ca. 88,000–14,000 years BP), documents the northward migration of African savanna species, including Acacia (e.g., Acacia tortilis), indicative of Sudanian vegetation expanding into the Jordan Valley during moist phases like late Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 4 to MIS 3 (ca. 62,600–34,700 years BP). Conversely, pollen assemblages reveal southward incursions of Eurasian steppe elements, such as Chenopodiaceae-Amaranthaceae and Artemisia, reflecting dry, open grasslands from northern Eurasia penetrating the Levant amid arid glacial conditions. These records highlight dynamic vegetation mosaics, with African biomes extending into Eurasia during interglacials.^[11] The corridor's role was instrumental in shaping the Fertile Crescent as a biodiversity hotspot, where biotic exchanges fostered high endemism rates of 20–30% in certain plant genera, such as those in the Asteraceae and Fabaceae families, through hybridization and adaptation in refugia like the Jordan Valley woodlands. This convergence of African and Eurasian elements during Pleistocene climatic oscillations established the region's rich temperate flora, underpinning its status as a center of plant diversification.^[13]

Animal and Faunal Exchanges

The Levantine corridor functioned as a primary conduit for faunal exchanges between Africa and Eurasia, enabling the bidirectional movement of animal species during periods of climatic favorability in the Pleistocene. Large mammals, including proboscideans like straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon spp.), hippopotamids (Hippopotamus spp.), and various bovids such as antelopes and buffalo, migrated northward from Africa into the Levant starting in the Late Pliocene and intensifying during the Early Pleistocene around 2.5–1.5 million years ago. These dispersals occurred via terrestrial routes through the corridor's coastal and inland plains, which provided suitable habitats during humid intervals when vegetation and water sources were abundant. Fossil assemblages from sites like Dmanisi in Georgia and 'Ubeidiya in Israel document the arrival of these taxa, highlighting the corridor's role in mixing Afro-Eurasian faunas and promoting evolutionary diversification.^[14]^[15] Fossil records from the Early Pleistocene reveal significant faunal turnover in the Levant, particularly around 1.5 million years ago, when African immigrant taxa were gradually replaced by Eurasian forms. At 'Ubeidiya, dated to ~1.5–1.0 million years ago, excavations uncovered diverse assemblages including African bovids (Pelorovis oldowayensis) alongside incoming Eurasian deer and equids, indicating a dynamic replacement driven by climatic shifts toward cooler and drier conditions that altered habitat suitability. Similar patterns appear at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov (~0.8 million years ago), where the decline of thermophilous African species and rise of temperate Eurasian ones reflect competitive exclusion and adaptive filtering by the corridor's variable environments. This turnover underscores the Levant's position as a biogeographic crossroads, where selective pressures shaped continental faunal compositions without complete isolation.^[16]^[17] Avian and small mammal dispersals through the Levantine corridor further enhanced genetic diversity and ecological connectivity across the Old World. Seasonal migrations of birds, such as galliforms including rock partridges (Alectoris spp.), exploited the corridor as a stable flyway, with phylogeographic analyses showing elevated haplotype diversity in Levantine populations due to recurrent gene flow from African and Eurasian sources during interglacial periods. Small mammals, particularly rodents like early murines (Apodemus and Mastomys spp.), dispersed northward via opportunistic pathways, as evidenced by fossils from Tabun Cave and other Late Pleistocene sites, where these taxa exhibit morphological and genetic signatures of Afro-Eurasian admixture. These movements, often tied to shared environmental drivers like pluvial episodes that paralleled plant dispersals, bolstered biodiversity by introducing novel lineages and facilitating hybridization.^[18]^[19] In the Late Pleistocene, the corridor's arid phases created dispersal bottlenecks that contributed to megafauna die-offs by fragmenting habitats and restricting mobility. During hyper-arid intervals, such as Marine Isotope Stage 4 (~71–59 thousand years ago) and the Last Glacial Maximum (~26–19 thousand years ago), reduced precipitation led to steppe-desert expansion, isolating populations of large herbivores like equids and rhinoceroses and exacerbating extinction pressures through resource scarcity and demographic bottlenecks. Faunal records from southern Levantine sites, including Nahal Ein Gev II, show a marked decline in megafaunal abundance and diversity by ~20 thousand years ago, with surviving taxa exhibiting dwarfism or local extirpations linked to these climatic constraints rather than uniform continental patterns. This role of the corridor as a vulnerability hotspot highlights how episodic aridity amplified extinction risks for range-dependent species.^[20]^[21]

Human Prehistory and Migrations

Early Hominin Dispersals

The Levantine corridor served as a primary route for the initial dispersal of hominins out of Africa, known as Out of Africa I, which involved Homo erectus populations migrating from East Africa into Eurasia approximately 1.8 to 1.5 million years ago.^[22] This movement marked the first significant expansion of the genus Homo beyond the African continent, facilitated by the corridor's position between the African Rift Valley and the Eurasian landmass.^[23] Archaeological evidence from the region indicates that these early hominins adapted to diverse environmental conditions during their passage, with the corridor acting as a transitional zone between savanna-like African habitats and more variable Eurasian landscapes.^[24] A key site providing direct evidence of this dispersal is 'Ubeidiya in the Jordan Valley, Israel, dated to around 1.4 million years ago, where Acheulean hand axes and other bifacial tools have been recovered in association with faunal remains.^[25] These tools, characterized by their symmetrical, teardrop-shaped forms, represent an advanced lithic technology originating in Africa and demonstrate hominin capability for processing a range of resources, including large mammals, in the corridor's lacustrine and riparian environments.^[24] The faunal assemblages at 'Ubeidiya, including hippopotamids, cervids, and suids, reflect a mosaic of wooded, grassy, and aquatic habitats that supported hominin foraging and indicate behavioral flexibility in exploiting varied terrains during migration.^[26] Fossil evidence from 'Ubeidiya includes a juvenile vertebra (UB 10749) and a hominin tooth (UB 335), both attributed to early Homo and exhibiting morphological affinities to East African H. erectus specimens, underscoring the African origins of these Levantine populations.^[27]^[25] These remains suggest that the hominins traversing the corridor were large-bodied individuals capable of long-distance movement, with skeletal features bridging African and early Eurasian forms without evidence of significant local derivation.^[28] Paleoclimatic conditions in the Levantine corridor played a crucial role in enabling or impeding these dispersals, with wet phases creating vegetated "green corridors" that supported faunal and hominin passage, while arid intervals posed barriers by desertifying the route.^[29] The 'Ubeidiya occupation coincides with a relatively humid period in the early Pleistocene, characterized by lake formations and increased precipitation, which likely facilitated H. erectus access to water and resources essential for crossing the region.^[24] In contrast, preceding or subsequent dry phases may have temporarily halted migrations by expanding arid zones across the Sinai and Jordan Rift, highlighting the corridor's sensitivity to orbital-driven climate fluctuations.^[30]

Paleolithic and Mesolithic Human Movements

The Levantine corridor played a pivotal role in the dispersal of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) from Africa into Eurasia during the Upper Paleolithic. The earliest evidence of such migrations comes from the sites of Skhul and Qafzeh in present-day Israel, where fossils dated to 120,000–90,000 years BP represent an initial "Out of Africa" excursion that established a temporary presence but did not result in lasting populations across the continent.^[31] These remains, associated with Levallois-Mousterian tool technologies, underscore the corridor's function as an early bridge between African and Eurasian ecosystems.^[31] The successful Out of Africa II migration, which led to the widespread colonization of Eurasia, transpired through the Levant approximately 50,000–40,000 years ago, coinciding with the onset of the Upper Paleolithic. This wave introduced advanced blade-based technologies and symbolic behaviors, enabling modern humans to adapt to diverse environments beyond Africa.^[32] Key fossil evidence from this period includes the remains at Ksar Akil in Lebanon, where the maxilla fragment "Ethelruda" (dated 42,400–41,700 BP) from Initial Upper Paleolithic layers and the juvenile skeleton "Egbert" (dated 40,800–39,200 BP) from Early Upper Paleolithic (Ahmarian) contexts demonstrate sustained occupation and possible burial practices.^[33] These finds, predating similar evidence in Europe, affirm the Levant's centrality in the rapid dispersal of modern humans carrying Upper Paleolithic toolkits.^[33] Alongside these migrations, the Levantine corridor facilitated interactions between modern humans and Neanderthals, including episodes of interbreeding supported by genomic analyses. Genetic studies reveal that non-African modern populations carry 1–3% Neanderthal ancestry, likely resulting from admixture events in the Levant during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition, where overlapping territories created a persistent contact zone.^[34] Archaeological records of alternating tool industries and fossil distributions in the region further indicate competitive coexistence and gene flow, with modern human incursions around 54,000 years ago pressuring Neanderthal ranges.^[35] ^[34] In the subsequent Mesolithic (or Epipaleolithic in Levantine terminology), hunter-gatherer groups recolonized the corridor following the Last Glacial Maximum around 15,000 BP, adapting to post-glacial environmental warming through heightened mobility and resource exploitation. These populations, exemplified by the Natufian culture, employed seasonal foraging strategies across varied landscapes, relying on microlithic tools for hunting and gathering to navigate fluctuating climates and ecosystems.^[36] Such mobility patterns, characterized by high residential relocation and logistical forays, sustained foraging economies amid the Bølling-Allerød interstadial's increased precipitation and vegetation.^[37] Post-LGM recolonization thus reinforced the corridor's role as a dynamic conduit for human adaptation.^[36]

Cultural and Archaeological Developments

Neolithic Revolution Origins

The Natufian culture, spanning approximately 12,500 to 9,500 BC, represents a pivotal proto-agricultural phase in the Levantine corridor, where communities transitioned toward sedentism through intensive exploitation of wild resources. These groups established semi-permanent hamlets in the Mediterranean woodland belt, often near perennial springs such as those in the Jordan Valley, facilitating access to abundant wild cereals like barley and emmer wheat precursors. Evidence from sites like Ain Mallaha reveals the use of sickles with embedded microliths for harvesting wild cereals, alongside bedrock mortars and pestles for processing, indicating a reliance on seasonal stands that supported year-round occupation without full cultivation.^[38] The domestication of key crops originated in this corridor within the broader Fertile Crescent around 10,000 BC, marking the onset of the Neolithic Revolution. Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) underwent critical genetic changes, such as non-shattering rachises for easier harvesting, first evidenced in Levantine sites during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period. From here, these domesticates spread eastward to Mesopotamia and northward to Anatolia by approximately 9,000 BC, enabling the expansion of farming practices across the region and laying the foundation for surplus production.^[39] Demographic pressures in the Levant, driven by post-Ice Age climatic stabilization and resource intensification, spurred population growth that necessitated permanent settlements. This shift culminated in the establishment of Jericho around 9,600 BC as one of the earliest known walled villages, housing several hundred inhabitants reliant on managed wild and proto-domesticated resources. Such growth, estimated to have increased regional populations by factors of 10-20 compared to Paleolithic levels, underscored the corridor's role in fostering social complexity.^[40] Cultural innovations during the Natufian period, including advanced ground stone tools like portable mortars and mullers for grain processing, reflected the abundance of the Fertile Crescent's oak-pistachio parklands, which provided over 100 edible plant species and diverse game. Symbolic expressions, such as incised stone slabs with geometric patterns, animal figurines, and shell bead ornaments used in burials and headdresses, suggest emerging social identities and ritual practices tied to this resource-rich environment. These developments prefigured Neolithic advancements in communal organization.^[38]

Key Archaeological Sites and Findings

Natufian sites in the Levant, exemplified by Ain Mallaha (also known as Eynan) in northern Israel, date to around 12,000–11,000 BC and demonstrate the transition toward sedentism with semi-permanent circular dwellings constructed from stone foundations and mud-plastered walls, some exceeding 5 meters in diameter.^[41] Faunal assemblages at Ain Mallaha reveal intensive gazelle hunting, with mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) comprising over 80% of the identifiable remains, processed using microlithic tools for harvesting and storage, indicative of seasonal aggregation strategies that supported year-round habitation.^[42] Burials within these structures, often with grave goods like shell beads, further illustrate social complexity in this pre-agricultural phase.^[41] Recent ancient DNA analyses from Levantine sites in the 2020s have corroborated multiple pulses of human migration through the corridor, with genomic data from Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) contexts showing gene flow from southeastern Anatolia into the southern Levant around 8,500–8,000 BC, involving distinct population movements rather than a single wave.^[43] Isotope and aDNA studies integrate mobility patterns, revealing multiscale exchanges that align with archaeological evidence of repeated dispersals over millennia.^[44]

Contemporary Significance

Ecological and Conservation Issues

The Levantine corridor, encompassing the Fertile Crescent, faces severe habitat fragmentation driven by rapid urbanization and intensive agriculture, which have eroded natural landscapes and diminished biodiversity across the region. These activities have converted vast areas of grasslands, woodlands, and riparian zones into fragmented patches, isolating populations of flora and fauna and disrupting ecological connectivity essential for species survival. For instance, agricultural expansion and urban development have contributed to the degradation of key wetlands; in the late 20th century, up to 90% of the Mesopotamian marshlands—integral to the eastern Fertile Crescent—were lost primarily through drainage and irrigation practices, though restoration efforts recovered portions in the 2000s; however, recent assessments indicate ongoing degradation due to climate change and water diversion, with much of the remaining area facing poor conditions as of 2025.^[45]^[46]^[47]^[48] This fragmentation exacerbates genetic isolation and increases vulnerability to local extinctions, particularly in semi-arid zones where remaining habitats are under pressure from land-use changes. Climate change is intensifying aridity in the Levant, with rising temperatures and reduced precipitation patterns echoing the fluctuations of the Pleistocene but at an accelerated rate, posing acute threats to endemic species adapted to marginal environments. Increased drought frequency and severity are altering water availability and vegetation cover, which directly impacts herbivores and their dependent ecosystems. The Syrian wild ass (Equus hemionus hemippus), once endemic to the region and now extinct since the early 20th century, exemplifies how such climatic shifts compound habitat loss; contemporary analogs like onager populations in adjacent areas face similar risks from desertification, with models projecting further range contraction under ongoing warming scenarios. These changes not only threaten biodiversity but also undermine the corridor's role as a transitional zone between Mediterranean and desert biomes. As of 2025, efforts continue amid new threats like oilfield expansion impacting marsh restoration.^[49]^[50] The Levant serves as a critical biodiversity hotspot within the broader Mediterranean Basin, which harbors approximately 25,000 vascular plant species, over half endemic; the Levant itself supports around 2,800 species, many endemic and classified as vulnerable or endangered by IUCN assessments due to habitat pressures and invasive species.^[51]^[52] This floral diversity, including genera like Allium and Ferula, supports a rich faunal assemblage, but conservation prioritization focuses on protecting these species amid escalating threats. Historical patterns of plant and animal dispersal through the corridor provide baselines for identifying resilient ecosystems and guiding restoration to maintain genetic diversity. Conservation efforts in the Levantine corridor emphasize protected areas and habitat restoration to safeguard its ecological integrity. UNESCO World Heritage designation for sites like Ancient Jericho/Tell es-Sultan in 2023 has bolstered management plans integrating biodiversity protection with sustainable tourism, focusing on preserving archaeological landscapes that overlap with sensitive habitats. Complementary reforestation initiatives, such as Lebanon's Reforestation Initiative planting native species across degraded areas and Jordan's community-led afforestation in the Jordan Valley, aim to reconnect fragmented habitats and restore migration corridors for birds like the Levant sparrowhawk and mammals such as the Nubian ibex. In Israel, approvals for ecological corridors in July 2025 further enhance connectivity for endangered species, including the mountain gazelle, by linking protected zones across urban interfaces. These targeted actions, supported by international frameworks, seek to mitigate losses and promote resilience against ongoing environmental stressors.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56]

Ongoing Research and Debates

Recent genomic studies have revised the understanding of Out of Africa II migrations through the Levantine corridor, proposing multiple pulses of Homo sapiens dispersal between approximately 130,000 and 50,000 years before present (BP), rather than a single event around 60,000 BP. These findings, drawn from ancient DNA and archaeological evidence, indicate initial dispersals during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS 5, ~130–90 ka) via a northern route through the Sinai Peninsula, with subsequent pulses during MIS 3 (~54 ka), supported by fossils and artifacts from sites like Skhul and Qafzeh caves.^[57] This challenges earlier models by highlighting repeated, environmentally driven movements facilitated by wetter conditions in the Jordan Rift Valley.^[1] Advancements in methodologies have enhanced investigations of the corridor's role in prehistoric exchanges. Ancient DNA analysis from Bronze and Iron Age individuals in the southern Levant has revealed genetic continuity and admixture patterns, linking early populations to later groups and informing migration dynamics.^[58] LiDAR technology has been employed for site detection in Jordan, enabling high-resolution mapping of ancient landscapes like the city of Jerash, uncovering hidden structures beneath modern terrain.^[59] Climate modeling reconstructs the corridor's habitability, simulating paleohydrological conditions during MIS 5 to demonstrate wetland and paleolake presence that supported faunal and human passage.^[60] Significant gaps persist in knowledge, particularly for southern Levant sites in politically unstable regions like Gaza and the West Bank, where ongoing conflict as of 2025 has destroyed or damaged over 300 heritage locations, hindering systematic excavations.^[61] Scholars advocate for interdisciplinary paleoecology, integrating geological, botanical, and faunal data to better model ecosystem changes along the corridor.^[62] Future research directions include leveraging AI for fossil and artifact analysis, such as machine learning models to predict original dimensions of fragmented flint blades from Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B sites in the southern Levant, improving interpretive accuracy.^[63] Additionally, AI-enhanced climate simulations are being developed to forecast impacts on cultural heritage, assessing risks like erosion and flooding to prioritize conservation in the corridor region.^[64]

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Feb 2, 2022 · In the Levant, the only site from this time-period with hominin remains is 'Ubeidiya at the western escarpment of the Jordan Valley which is a ...Missing: associations | Show results with:associations
[30]
Palaeohydrological corridors for hominin dispersals in the Middle ...
Here we evaluate the palaeoenvironmental setting for hominin dispersals between, and within, northeast Africa and southwest Asia during Marine Isotope Stages ( ...
[31]
Possible paleohydrologic and paleoclimatic effects on hominin ...
This paper explores the impact of major glacial/interglacial paleohydrologic variations in the Middle-Paleolithic Levant on hominin migration and occupation.
[32]
The earliest modern humans outside Africa - Science
Jan 26, 2018 · To date, the earliest modern human fossils found outside of Africa are dated to around 90,000 to 120,000 years ago at the Levantine sites of ...
[33]
New chronology for Ksâr 'Akil (Lebanon) supports Levantine route of ...
The Levantine corridor hypothesis suggests that modern humans from Africa ... The site, about 10 km north of Beirut, lies about 3 km from the present day coast ( ...
[34]
Chronology of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) and Implications for the ...
Sep 11, 2013 · 'Egbert', a now-lost AMH fossil from the key site of Ksar Akil (Lebanon) and 'Ethelruda', a recently re-discovered fragmentary maxilla from the ...
[35]
Disease transmission and introgression can explain the long-lasting ...
Nov 1, 2019 · Our main proposition is that a persistent Modern–Neanderthal front of interaction in the Levant can be explained by disease burden that prevented each species ...
[36]
Modern human incursion into Neanderthal territories 54,000 years ...
Feb 9, 2022 · ... interbreeding between Neanderthal and modern humans. Nat. Ecol. Evol ... Levant, in Learning Among Neanderthals and Palaeolithic Modern Humans, Y.
[37]
Climate change, adaptive cycles, and the persistence of foraging ...
We propose that the reactions of Levantine hunter–gatherers are consistent with α-, r-, K-, and Ω-phases of mesoscale adaptive cycles throughout the LGM, B/A, ...
[38]
The Early Epipalaeolithic in the Eastern Levant (Chapter 72)
The Wadi al-Hasa region EEPI sites exemplify one strategy available to hunter-gatherer-foragers during the LGM and its aftermath: high mobility engaged in by ...
[39]
[PDF] The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of ...
A map of the Levant showing the distribution of known Pre-Pottery Neolithic A sites, the area of the Levantine Corridor, and the presence of other socio- ...
[40]
How did the domestication of Fertile Crescent grain crops increase ...
The Fertile Crescent in western Asia was one of the major centres of plant domestication, and a number of cereals, including wheat and barley, and several ...
[41]
The Origins of Agriculture in the Near East | Current Anthropology
A focus on the southern Levant as the core area for crop domestication and diffusion has been replaced by a more pluralistic view that sees domestication of ...Missing: recognition flora
[42]
The origins of the Acheulean: past and present perspectives on a ...
This paper discusses the evidence for the origins of the Acheulean, a cornerstone in the history of human technology, from two perspectives.
[43]
The limestone spheroids of 'Ubeidiya: intentional imposition of ...
Sep 6, 2023 · Acheulean bifaces like cleavers and handaxes represent early evidence of hominins imposing a geometric shape and symmetry on their stone tools.
[44]
Qafzeh: Oldest Intentional Burial - Smithsonian's Human Origins
Jan 3, 2024 · At Qafzeh, Israel, the remains of as many as 15 individuals of modern humans (Homo sapiens) were found in a cave, along with 71 pieces of red ocher and ocher- ...Missing: Skhul BP Levallois sources
[45]
Skhul lithic technology and the dispersal of Homo sapiens into ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We present an analysis of the Skhul stone tool assemblage to describe its characteristics, to evaluate the lithic results against the fossil and chronological ...
[46]
Qafzeh Cave and Terrace (Chapter 28) - Quaternary of the Levant
The uncovered human remains are 25 including complete or almost complete skeletons and isolated teeth. Qafzeh humans, considered as Archaic modern and similar ...<|separator|>
[47]
The dentition of the Early Upper Paleolithic hominins from Ksâr 'Akil ...
The best-known fossil is Ksâr 'Akil 1 (also known as 'Egbert') recovered during 1937–1938/1947–1948 excavation campaigns. Ksâr 'Akil 1 is represented by the ...
[48]
The Palaeolithic Sequence of Ksar 'Akil, Lebanon (Chapter 30)
Another human specimen recovered in the Initial Upper Palaeolithic levels, Ethelruda (Ksar Akil 2), is 42,400–41,750 or 42,850–41,550 cal BP (1σ or 2σ, ...
[49]
Eynan/Ain Mallaha (10000–8200 B.C.)
Oct 1, 2000 · The site of Eynan/Ain Mallaha, situated between the hills of Galilee and Lake Hula in the Levant, was inhabited during the Natufian period.Missing: semi- 11000
[50]
[PDF] Eynan (Ain Mallaha) - HAL-SHS
May 20, 2020 · Eynan (Ain Mallaha) attracted prehistoric people due to resources and was a main Natufian settlement, with Early Natufian occupation around 14, ...Missing: 11000 BC
[51]
Isotopic and DNA analyses reveal multiscale PPNB mobility and ...
Jan 24, 2023 · Isotopic and DNA analyses reveal multiscale PPNB mobility and migration across Southeastern Anatolia and the Southern Levant · Abstract.
[52]
(PDF) Isotopic and DNA analyses reveal multiscale PPNB mobility ...
Jan 17, 2023 · Isotopic and DNA analyses reveal multiscale PPNB mobility and migration across Southeastern Anatolia and the Southern Levant. January 2023 ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[53]
The Fertile Crescent, One Of The World's Most Important Wetlands ...
Around 90 per cent of the Mesopotamian marshlands, known since time immemorial as the fertile crescent, have been lost mainly as a result of drainage and ...
[54]
[PDF] Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent: continuity and change under ...
Sep 4, 2017 · The Fertile Crescent (FC) is a high biodiversity region where most temperate-zone agricultural species originated and were first ...
[55]
Biodiversity, climate change, and adaptation in the Mediterranean
Apr 24, 2022 · The Mediterranean basin is a mosaic of biodiversity-rich ecosystems long affected by human influence, whose resilience is now questioned by ...
[56]
[PDF] Mediterranean Basin Biodiversity Hotspot
action will be those species listed as globally threatened (i.e., Critically. Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) on the IUCN Red List, as well as species.
[57]
UNESCO adds ruins near ancient Jericho to list of World Heritage ...
Sep 17, 2023 · A UN conference voted Sunday to list prehistoric ruins near the ancient West Bank city of Jericho as a World Heritage Site in Palestine.
[58]
Restoring Lebanon's forests | US Forest Service
May 31, 2024 · The Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI) has been trying to counter deforestation and nurture a new generation of conservation leaders.
[59]
Reforestation in Jordan | Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Apr 12, 2022 · In Jordan, environmentalists have transformed a large swath of the Jordan Valley into a lush oasis through collaboration with local communities.
[60]
Israel approves ecological corridors to protect wildlife
Jul 29, 2025 · Landmark plan aimed at establishing safe pathways for endangered species like the mountain gazelle, caracal and Arabian bustard, ...
[61]
Human dispersals out of Africa via the Levant - PMC - PubMed Central
Oct 4, 2023 · Recent studies suggest that dispersal routes were associated with well-watered corridors that facilitated hominins to move into Eurasia (4, 17– ...Missing: botanists | Show results with:botanists
[62]
The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant
May 28, 2020 · We report genome-wide DNA data for 73 individuals from five archaeological sites across the Bronze and Iron Ages Southern Levant.
[63]
Scientists Use Lasers To Map An Ancient City In Jordan - NPR
May 29, 2018 · ... Jordan. It ... archaeology by allowing scientists to map large areas with unprecedented speed and accuracy. Recently, scientists using LiDAR ...
[64]
Harnessing Paleohydrologic Modeling to Solve a Prehistoric Mystery
Nov 8, 2019 · The area has no water resources yet it has long been a focus of inquiry into the transition from mobile hunter-gatherer to sedentary agriculture ...
[65]
A 'cultural genocide': Which of Gaza's heritage sites have been ...
Jan 14, 2024 · Nearly 200 sites of historical importance have been destroyed or damaged in Israeli air raids on the Palestinian enclave in the past 100 days.
[66]
Destruction of Heritage and Memory in Gaza - IEMed
The Gaza Strip, a region of profound archaeological and historical significance, has long endured the consequences of war, political instability, ...
[67]
a case study from MPPNB sites in the Southern Levant - Nature
Nov 29, 2024 · This study was aimed at introducing a new method for predicting the original metrics of fragmented standardized artifacts, specifically of flint blades.
[68]
AI Is the Next Tool to Protect Heritage Sites from War and Climate ...
Feb 12, 2025 · Cultural heritage sites will soon be armed with new artificial intelligence-powered tools to help protect them against natural disasters and the ravages of war.