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Limax

Limax is a genus of large, air-breathing terrestrial slugs in the family Limacidae, order Stylommatophora, class Gastropoda, phylum Mollusca.^[1] These hermaphroditic pulmonate gastropods lack an external shell and are characterized by their elongated, muscular bodies, often reaching lengths of 10–20 cm in adulthood, with a distinct mantle covering the visceral mass and a prominent keel along the posterior dorsal surface.^[2] The generic name derives from Latin for "slug," and the type species is Limax maximus Linnaeus, 1758, designated by subsequent authority.^[1] Comprising over 30 accepted species—though estimates vary up to 54 including subspecies—the genus is primarily native to the Palearctic region, particularly Europe, with a few species extending into North Africa and western Asia.^[2]^[1] Many species, such as Limax maximus (leopard slug) and Limax cinereoniger (ash-black slug), have been widely introduced to other continents, including North America, Australia, New Zealand, and parts of South America, often via human-mediated transport in soil or plants.^[3] These slugs inhabit moist, shaded environments like forests, gardens, and urban areas, where they are nocturnal herbivores and detritivores, feeding on fungi, decaying vegetation, and occasionally living plants using a radula for rasping.^[4] Reproduction involves mutual exchange of spermatophores during courtship, followed by laying clutches of gelatinous eggs in damp soil; development is direct without a larval stage.^[2] Notable for their size and distinctive patterns, species in Limax often exhibit dark spots or stripes on a grey or brown background, aiding camouflage in leaf litter.^[4] Limax maximus, the largest European slug at up to 20 cm, is recognized for its spotted mantle resembling a leopard and its clear, non-irritating mucus, which contrasts with the opaque slime of some pest species.^[2] Limax cinereoniger, reaching 30 cm, is Europe's biggest slug and prefers woodland habitats.^[1] While generally beneficial in ecosystems by aiding decomposition, introduced Limax species can occasionally damage crops or ornamentals, though they are less destructive than other slug genera like Arion.^[3] Ongoing taxonomic research, including molecular phylogenetics, continues to refine species boundaries within the genus, revealing cryptic diversity in alpine and Mediterranean regions.^[5]

Introduction

Overview

Limax is a genus of air-breathing land slugs belonging to the family Limacidae within the order Stylommatophora.^[2] These slugs are characterized by their large size, often exceeding 10 cm in length, and a distinctive keel—a raised ridge—along the posterior dorsal surface of their body.^[3] Native primarily to the Palearctic region, including Europe (particularly the Mediterranean, Alps, and Balkans), with some species extending into North Africa and western Asia, species of Limax have been introduced to other continents, including North America, where they thrive in moist environments such as gardens and woodlands.^[6]^[1] The genus comprises approximately 50 recognized species (including fossils) and is considered likely monophyletic, supported by both morphological traits, such as genital anatomy, and molecular phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear markers.^[2]^[7] Ecologically, Limax species play a key role as detritivores and fungivores, consuming decaying organic matter, fungi, lichens, and algae, which aids in nutrient recycling within ecosystems.^[8] Unlike some pestiferous slugs, many Limax species, such as Limax maximus, prefer dead plant material over live vegetation, making them beneficial in gardens by promoting decomposition and occasionally preying on smaller, more damaging slug species.^[8]

Etymology

The genus name Limax derives from the Latin word limax, meaning "slug" or "snail," a term rooted in the Proto-Indo-European (s)lei-, signifying "slime," reflecting the animal's moist, viscous nature.^[9] This nomenclature was first established by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, where he introduced Limax as a genus under the class Vermes (worms), encompassing soft-bodied, creeping invertebrates including various pulmonate gastropods characterized by an oblong body advancing on a flat ventral disc and a lateral aperture for genital and excretory functions.^[10]^[11] Linnaeus's original classification grouped Limax with other terrestrial pulmonates, emphasizing their shared limbless locomotion and pulmonate respiration, a framework that has proven enduring in malacology.^[10] The generic name has maintained nomenclatural stability since its inception, with no major revisions altering its validity under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, though debates persist regarding the elevation of subgenera such as Limacus—originally proposed by Lehmann in 1864—to full genus status based on morphological and phylogenetic distinctions in genitalia and mantle features.^[12]^[1]

Taxonomy

Classification

Limax is classified within the kingdom Animalia, phylum Mollusca, class Gastropoda, order Stylommatophora, family Limacidae, and genus Limax.^[2]^[1] The type species for the genus Limax is Limax maximus Linnaeus, 1758, designated by subsequent designation by Férussac in 1819.^[2]^[1] The family Limacidae, commonly referred to as the keeled slugs or Limacoidae, comprises medium- to large-sized terrestrial pulmonates distinguished from other slug families by their prominent dorsal keel extending from the mantle to the tail tip and by their pulmonate respiratory system, which features a lung-like structure accessed via a pneumostome.^[13]^[14] Molecular phylogenetic analyses, including DNA sequencing of mitochondrial and nuclear markers conducted in the 2000s and early 2010s, have supported the monophyly of the genus Limax within Limacidae, resolving it as a distinct clade separate from related genera such as Limacus.^[12]^[7]

History and Synonyms

The genus Limax was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 as part of his Systema Naturae, encompassing large terrestrial slugs within the pulmonate gastropods.^[15] The type species, Limax maximus, was formally designated by André Étienne Justin Pascal Joseph François d'Abbadie Férussac in 1819, solidifying the genus's scope amid early efforts to organize slug taxonomy.^[2] In the 19th century, significant revisions occurred through works by Férussac and contemporaries like Georges Marie Moquin-Tandon and Charles Bourguignat, who described numerous species and varieties, often leading to nomenclatural instability and a proliferation of synonyms due to morphological similarities among keeled slugs.^[16] For instance, Férussac's Tableaux systématiques des animaux mollusques (1821–1822) contributed to species-level delineations, while later authors like Boettger and Lehmann proposed subgeneric divisions that influenced subsequent classifications.^[17] The genus Limax itself has no major synonyms, though occasional misplacements of species into families like Arionidae appeared in older regional faunal accounts owing to overlapping external traits such as body shape and mucus production.^[18] At the species level, numerous historical names have been synonymized; examples include Limax ecarinatus Boettger, 1881, now regarded as a junior subjective synonym of Limacus maculatus (Kaleniczenko, 1851), and Limax flavus Linnaeus, 1758, the basionym for Limacus flavus.^[19] Similarly, variants of Limax cinereoniger Wolf, 1805, such as Limax alpinus Simroth, 1891, have been resolved as heterotypic synonyms based on genital anatomy and distribution overlaps.^[20] Twentieth- and twenty-first-century molecular studies, including sequence analyses of mitochondrial genes like COI, have further refined subgeneric boundaries within Limax, as seen in preliminary work by Klee (2006) on European lineages and integrative phylogenies by Nitz (2011).^[12] These efforts have highlighted cryptic diversity and supported elevating the subgenus *Limacus* Lehmann, 1864, to full genus status in contemporary schemes, thereby reassigning species like L. flavus and L. maculatus and altering historical synonymies.^[21]

Description

Morphology

Limax slugs exhibit an elongated, cylindrical body that is soft and extensible, typically measuring 10-20 cm in length for adults, though some species like Limax maximus can reach up to 20 cm when fully extended. A distinctive feature is the pronounced dorsal keel, or carina, which runs along the midline of the back from the mantle to the tail tip, providing structural support and aiding in locomotion over uneven surfaces; this keel is particularly prominent in the posterior region and varies slightly in sharpness among species. The mantle, a fleshy fold of skin, covers the anterior third of the body and conceals a small, internal shell remnant characteristic of pulmonate gastropods.^[2]^[12]^[22] Coloration and patterning in the genus Limax are highly variable, often ranging from pale grey to brown, with many species displaying dark spots, blotches, or leopard-like markings that serve as camouflage in leaf litter or bark; for instance, L. maximus commonly features irregular black spots on a light grey background, while other species like L. cinereoniger may show more uniform dark tones. These patterns can differ by individual, age, and environmental factors, but the overall muted palette aids in avoiding predation. The skin surface is moist and covered in a thin mucus layer that maintains hydration and facilitates movement.^[2]^[23]^[24] The external appendages include two pairs of tentacles: the upper, longer pair (optic tentacles) bears eyes at their tips for basic light detection and is retractable via retractor muscles, while the lower, shorter pair functions primarily for tactile exploration and chemosensation. The foot is a broad, muscular sole that spans the ventral surface, divided into a tripartite structure in some species, and secretes mucus to enable gliding locomotion; its color is typically uniform ash-grey or yellowish. As simultaneous hermaphrodites, Limax species display no sexual dimorphism, though size and coloration can vary with age, nutrition, and species-specific traits, with juveniles generally smaller and less patterned than adults.^[2]^[24]^[25]

Anatomical Features

Limax species exhibit a respiratory system adapted for terrestrial environments, featuring an open pulmonary cavity formed by the mantle that functions as a lung. The mantle cavity is located on the right side of the body and is accessed through a pneumostome, a respiratory aperture that allows air exchange; its roof is richly vascularized to facilitate gas diffusion, with the efferent pulmonary vessel draining the pulmonary plexus into the heart's atrium, compensating for the absence of gills in these air-breathing gastropods.^[24] The digestive system in Limax is specialized for processing detritus and plant matter, beginning with the mouth leading to a buccal mass that houses the pharynx, radula, and jaw for scraping and ingestion. The esophagus connects to a crop for temporary storage, followed by a stomach embedded among digestive ceca of the liver; the intestine forms approximately 2.5 loops, with no distinct caecum, culminating in the anus at the mantle's edge, while paired salivary glands— one dorsal on the right and one ventral on the left—duct into the pharynx to aid in lubrication and initial breakdown.^[24]^[23] As simultaneous hermaphrodites, Limax possess a complex reproductive anatomy centered on the ovotestis located at the posterior end of the body cavity, which produces both ova and sperm; the hermaphroditic duct leads to a spermoviduct that bifurcates into the oviduct for egg transport and the vas deferens for sperm, with the latter connecting to an evertible penis supported by a retractor muscle and accessory glands that secrete mucus for lubrication during mating. The gonopore, serving both systems, opens on the right side of the head behind the tentacles, and a seminal receptacle near the penis-oviduct junction stores received sperm, while the prostate gland contributes to spermatophore formation.^[24]^[23]^[2] The nervous system of Limax consists of a circumesophageal nerve ring forming a simple brain, with ganglia concentrated in the head region: cerebral ganglia process sensory input, pleural and pedal ganglia coordinate locomotion, and the visceral ganglion handles internal functions, all interconnected by commissures and nerves. Chemosensory upper and lower tentacles bear eyes and olfactory receptors, respectively, linked via optic and other nerves to the cerebral ganglia, enabling basic behaviors such as foraging and orientation in response to environmental cues.^[24]^[23]

Distribution and Habitat

Native Distribution

The genus Limax is native to the Palearctic region, primarily the European continent and adjacent parts of North Africa, with its primary range spanning from Scandinavia in the north to the Mediterranean region in the south, and extending eastward to the Caucasus.^[2]^[6]^[26] This distribution encompasses much of the Palearctic realm, where the genus originated, and includes diverse terrains from lowland forests to high-altitude zones.^[2]^[26]^[6] Species of Limax are particularly common in western and central Europe, including countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, where they occur in temperate zones. For instance, Limax maximus is widespread throughout western Europe, often found in gardens, woodlands, and urban areas within its native range. The highest diversity of Limax species is concentrated in southern Europe, especially in the Mediterranean and Alpine regions, reflecting hotspots of endemism and speciation.^[2]^[12] Biogeographic patterns indicate a Palearctic affinity for the genus, with several endemic species restricted to mountainous areas, such as those in the Balkans. Examples include recently described species like Limax pseudocinereoniger from Montenegro, highlighting the region's role as a center of Limax diversity. The native ranges of Limax species have shown relative stability over geological timescales, with origins traceable to the Pleistocene based on phylogenetic and distributional evidence, though direct fossil records for the genus remain limited.^[27]^[12]

Introduced Ranges

Limax species, most notably Limax maximus, have been introduced to regions beyond their native European distribution primarily through inadvertent human transport. The species L. maximus first appeared in North America in the mid-19th century, with initial records from Philadelphia cellars in 1867, followed by rapid spread to nearby states such as Rhode Island and New York by the 1890s.^[28] These introductions occurred via trade routes carrying soil, plants, and cargo, with no evidence of deliberate releases.^[2] In North America, L. maximus has become established in the northeastern United States (e.g., New Jersey, New York) and the Pacific Northwest (e.g., California, British Columbia in Canada), as well as more isolated areas like Hawaii and Nova Scotia.^[2] It has also been introduced to parts of South America, including Chile and Argentina, often in association with human-modified habitats. Sporadic populations exist in Australia, concentrated in southeastern mainland areas, Tasmania, and southwest Western Australia, often in urban or garden settings associated with introduced vegetation.^[29] In New Zealand, the species is more widely distributed in modified habitats, with records dating to the late 19th or early 20th century.^[30] Current status indicates stable but localized populations in these introduced ranges, classified as potential invasives yet with minimal economic impact due to their non-pest behavior compared to other slugs.^[2] Monitoring through citizen science and field surveys since the 2000s reveals gradual expansion, constrained by climatic limitations such as low moisture in drier regions.^[31]^[32]

Biology

Reproduction

Limax species are simultaneous hermaphrodites, equipped with both male and female reproductive organs, and preferentially engage in cross-fertilization, rendering self-fertilization rare.^[33] This strategy promotes genetic diversity within populations, as individuals seek partners through chemical cues in mucus trails and tactile interactions during encounters.^[34] The mating ritual is elaborate and characteristic of the genus, beginning with courtship phases of circular crawling, mutual body contacts, and slime consumption to assess compatibility.^[35] Pairs then initiate aerial copulation by climbing to an elevated surface and suspending from a mucus thread up to 1 m long, intertwining their bodies into a helix while everting translucent genitalia from the head region for direct reciprocal sperm exchange via everted penes.^[34] This suspended phase, which facilitates secure sperm transfer without ground interference, typically lasts 30 minutes to 2 hours.^[33] Post-mating, fertilized individuals deposit clutches of 20-100 spherical eggs, measuring 2-6 mm in diameter, in moist, protected sites such as soil depressions or beneath bark.^[33] Eggs are translucent and require high humidity for viability, with incubation spanning 2-4 weeks until hatching.^[35] Reproductive patterns are largely consistent across Limax species, though documentation is most comprehensive for L. maximus and L. valentianus; in the latter, self-fertilization has been observed in isolated specimens, yielding clutches of 34-57 eggs that hatch in 20-25 days.^[36] Genital anatomy, including the everted penes used in sperm transfer, supports these behaviors but varies subtly by species.^[35]

Growth and Development

The life cycle of Limax slugs begins with eggs that hatch into juveniles measuring approximately 3-5 mm in length. These hatchlings resemble miniature adults but lack full coloration and structural features, undergoing gradual ontogenetic changes without true metamorphosis.^[37] Rapid growth occurs during the initial phase, often termed the infantile stage, where individuals can increase in size significantly within the first few months under favorable conditions.^[36] By the end of the first year, juveniles typically reach 5-10 cm in length, transitioning to a slower juvenile growth phase before attaining sexual maturity.^[2] Growth in Limax species proceeds in three distinct phases: an initial rapid infantile phase, a slower juvenile phase, and a plateauing adult phase, as observed in studies of Limax taxa such as L. valentianus.^[36] Maturity is generally reached at 1-2 years of age, with individuals continuing to grow post-maturity for several months.^[38] The overall lifespan ranges from 2-3 years, varying by species; for instance, Limax maximus exhibits a biennial or plurennial cycle, while Limax flavus may complete a generation in about 5-8 months under laboratory conditions but extends longer in nature.^[37]^[39] Several environmental factors influence growth and development in Limax. Temperature plays a key role, with optimal ranges of 15-20°C promoting faster growth and development; extremes can slow rates or increase mortality.^[40] High humidity levels above 80% are essential to prevent desiccation, particularly during early stages when the body is more vulnerable.^[32] Photoperiod also affects development, with long day lengths accelerating maturation in species like Limax valentianus, while short photoperiods may enhance overall growth rates.^[36] During juvenile development, the vestigial internal shell, present from the embryonic stage, becomes fully internalized and is not resorbed but remains as a reduced structure within the mantle.^[41] The characteristic dorsal keel begins to develop prominently in juveniles, aiding in locomotion and distinguishing Limax from other slug genera as they elongate.^[2] Mortality rates are particularly high in early juvenile stages, primarily due to desiccation in low-humidity environments, which can exceed 50% survival loss before reaching the slower growth phase.^[32] This vulnerability underscores the importance of moist microhabitats for successful development across the genus.^[37]

Ecology

Diet and Feeding

Species of the genus Limax are primarily detritivores and mycophages, feeding on decaying plant matter such as leaf litter, fungi, and occasionally dead invertebrates like carrion.^[33]^[42] This diet supports their role in nutrient recycling within forest and garden ecosystems, where they consume basidiomycete fungi and organic detritus.^[33] They utilize their radula—a chitinous, toothed ribbon in the mouth—to rasp and collect food particles from substrates, facilitating the breakdown of tough materials like fungal hyphae and decomposed vegetation.^[43] While Limax species exhibit opportunistic herbivory on soft, herbaceous plants such as members of the Asteraceae family, live vegetation forms only a minor component of their diet, resulting in limited crop damage compared to more phytophagous slugs.^[33] For instance, Limax maximus exhibits selective herbivory, showing high acceptance of certain herbaceous and crop plants such as cabbage and lettuce in feeding trials, though its overall diet remains primarily detrital.^[44] This selective behavior minimizes agricultural impacts, with studies indicating higher acceptance indices for herbaceous and crop plants only under controlled conditions.^[44] Foraging in Limax occurs predominantly at night, aligning with their nocturnal activity patterns triggered by circadian rhythms.^[33] Individuals follow mucus trails deposited by conspecifics, which contain pheromones that guide movement and enhance efficiency in locating food sources within humid, shaded habitats.^[45] Daily feeding can involve substantial intake relative to body size, supporting rapid growth and reproduction, though exact rates vary with environmental conditions and prey availability. Studies on terrestrial slugs, including species in related genera, indicate that gut microbiomes aid in the decomposition of complex carbohydrates and lignocellulosic materials from detrital diets, enhancing nutrient absorption and digestive efficiency.^[46] Metagenomic analyses reveal microbial communities rich in bacteria capable of breaking down plant fibers.^[47] These symbiotic microbes, including taxa like Psychrilyobacter, contribute to the processing of fungal and decaying substrates, allowing Limax to thrive on low-nutrient foods.^[48]

Predators and Interactions

Limax slugs face predation from a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates. Birds such as thrushes (Turdus spp.) actively forage for slugs, including Limax species, particularly during nocturnal activity periods when slugs are more exposed.^[49] Small mammals like hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) and moles (Talpa europaea) consume Limax individuals as part of their diet, with hedgehogs showing a preference for softer-bodied prey.^[50] Invertebrate predators include ground beetles (Carabidae family), such as species in the genera Carabus and Pterostichus, which hunt and devour Limax slugs using their strong mandibles.^[51] To counter these threats, Limax employs several defensive strategies. The production of bitter-tasting mucus, rich in bioactive compounds, deters many predators by making the slugs unpalatable or irritating upon contact.^[52] Individuals often retract into moist hiding spots, such as under leaf litter or bark, during daylight hours to avoid desiccation and predation. Parasitic infections are common in Limax, primarily through nematodes and trematodes acquired via ingestion of contaminated food or water. Nematodes such as Angiostoma limacis reside in the slug's intestines, while Agfa flexilis targets the salivary glands, potentially impairing feeding.^[23] Trematodes, including those in the family Brachylaimidae, encyst in slug tissues after ingestion of infected eggs or larvae. Certain Limax species act as intermediate hosts for animal lungworms, such as Crenosoma vulpis in canids and potentially similar metastrongylids in livestock, transmitting larvae when ingested by definitive hosts.^[2]^[53] Ecological interactions of Limax involve both competitive and mutualistic relationships. Limax species engage in interspecific competition with other slugs, such as Arion and Deroceras, over resources like shelter and food, often displaying aggressive behaviors that influence population dynamics and distribution.^[54] Mutualistic associations occur with fungi, where mycophagous Limax consume fruiting bodies and disperse viable spores through excretion, facilitating fungal propagation in forest ecosystems.^[55] In introduced ranges, Limax populations can alter soil decomposition rates by enhancing organic matter breakdown through detritivory and mucus deposition, potentially shifting microbial activity and nutrient cycling.^[33]

Species

Diversity and Subgenera

The genus Limax encompasses over 30 valid species, with up to 54 taxa including subspecies, due to taxonomic revisions and ongoing discoveries in understudied regions.^[56]^[12]^[1] This diversity is concentrated in Europe, where the genus exhibits high endemism, particularly in montane and forested habitats of the Balkans, Alps, and Apennines. Recent molecular and morphological studies have revealed hidden lineages, such as the new species Limax pseudocinereoniger described from Montenegro in 2022, highlighting the Balkans as a hotspot for undescribed taxa.^[57]^[12] Ongoing research as of 2025 continues to uncover cryptic diversity through molecular phylogenetics. Taxonomically, Limax is divided into subgenera based primarily on anatomical features like penis morphology and keel structure, though these divisions remain fluid. The nominotypical subgenus Limax s.s. includes species with long, convoluted penes and a well-developed keel extending along the posterior dorsum, such as L. maximus and L. cinereoniger.^[12] Related genera like Limacus (formerly a subgenus) comprise species such as Limacus maculatus, characterized by shorter keels and distinct genital anatomies.^[1] Other proposed subgenera, such as Brachylimax, are based on variations in keel shape and body proportions but have not been widely adopted due to insufficient phylogenetic support.^[12] Molecular analyses, particularly using COI gene sequences, confirm the monophyly of Limax and support 2–3 major clades corresponding to these subgeneric divisions, with basal lineages tracing back to a Balkan origin influenced by Pleistocene glaciation events.^[12] These clades reveal evolutionary diversification through vicariance and dispersal, with many species showing narrow ranges that underscore regional endemism. While widespread species like L. maximus are common across Europe, montane endemics face vulnerability from habitat loss due to deforestation and climate change, emphasizing the need for targeted conservation efforts.^[12]

Notable Species

Limax maximus, commonly known as the leopard slug, is one of the most widespread species in the genus, capable of reaching lengths of up to 20 cm when fully extended, with a body typically light grey or brown adorned with dark spots resembling leopard markings.^[58] Native to Europe, it has been introduced globally through human activities, thriving in synanthropic habitats such as gardens, parks, and urban areas across North America, Asia, and beyond.^[2] Despite occasional perceptions as a garden pest, L. maximus is often beneficial, feeding primarily on decaying plant matter, fungi, and eggs of other pest slugs, thereby aiding in organic decomposition and pest control.^[8] Limax cinereoniger, the ash-black slug, stands out as the largest species in the genus and Europe's biggest terrestrial slug, attaining lengths of up to 30 cm, with a predominantly black or dark grey body and a prominent pale keel along the tail.^[59]^[60] It inhabits undisturbed ancient woodlands and mature broadleaf forests across western and central Europe, where it forages on fungi and decaying vegetation in leaf litter.^[61] Classified as Least Concern by conservation assessments, this species faces potential declines due to habitat loss and pollution, highlighting its reliance on old-growth ecosystems.^[61] Among other notable species, Limax aeolianus is a rare endemic restricted to the Aeolian Islands off Sicily, Italy, distinguished by its localized adaptation to volcanic island environments as described in its original taxonomic account.^[62] These species exemplify the genus's diversity, with variations in size from smaller forms to the massive L. cinereoniger, striking color polymorphisms from spotted greys to uniform blacks, and habitat preferences spanning urban gardens to isolated forest and island niches.^[2]

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[34]
Gastropod reproductive behavior - Scholarpedia
Oct 29, 2018 · Certain terrestrial slugs, notably in the genus Limax, mate by hanging their penes from a vertical perch, then twisting their bodies and their ...
[35]
[PDF] Courtship, Mating, and Egg-Laying Behavior in the Limacidae ...
Sep 17, 2014 · As this paper indicates, there are actually significant variations in courtship and mating behaviors among the species of a single family of ...
[36]
https://academic.oup.com/mollus/article/67/2/191/1008731
[37]
Limax - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The slug Limax flavus (Figure 2(a)) is native to Europe but has been imported throughout the world. To study memory formation in Limax flavus, an odor-avoiding ...
[38]
[PDF] SR-103: A Field Guide to the Slugs of Kentucky - Entomology
Limax maximus. Mantle with two obvious lateral bands present and a less dis- tinct median band; mucus watery; keel poorly marked; later- al bands often run full ...
[39]
[PDF] OF THE SLUG, ARION LUSITANICUS - Pure
Abeloos made some detailed studies of the growth in five Arion and three Limax species and described growth as three phases; first, an infantile phase with ...
[40]
Laboratory Observations on Biology of the Tawny Garden Slug ...
Feb 25, 2016 · Biological aspects of the terrestrial yellow garden slug (Tawny Garden Slug) Limax flavus (Linnaeus) including ovipostion, hatching, ...
[41]
GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF THE SLUG LIMAX ...
Egg clutches were smaller, and egg and slug production lower under conditions A and. B than under conditions C and D. Slugs are nocturnal, their activity ...
[42]
Evolution of Animal Photoperiodism - Annual Reviews
2001), and in the terrestrial slug Limax valentianus, photoperiod is the essential factor regulating both the initiation of reproduction and the rate of egg ...
[43]
Structure, crystallography, and morphogenesis of the cryptic shell of ...
The structure and crystallography of the internal shell of the pulmonate gastropod slug Limax maximus were studied at the levels of light and scanning ...Missing: resorption | Show results with:resorption
[44]
[PDF] Feeding habits of the exotic invasive slug Limax maximus - REABIC
Oct 14, 2022 · Additional research should examine how L. maximus influences forest vegetation structure and crop productivity in areas where it is introduced.Missing: molecular | Show results with:molecular
[45]
In slow motion: radula motion pattern and forces exerted to the ...
Jul 3, 2019 · The radula is the anatomical structure used for feeding in most species of Mollusca. Previous studies have revealed that radulae can be adapted ...Missing: Limax | Show results with:Limax<|separator|>
[46]
(PDF) Feeding habits of the exotic invasive slug Limax maximus
Aug 6, 2025 · According to the generalized linear mixed model analyses, the plants that L. maximus preferred to eat were crops, herbaceous plants, and plants ...Missing: genus | Show results with:genus
[47]
Trail following in slugs: The stimulus, its reception ... - ResearchGate
Aug 10, 2025 · Trails of the slug Limax pseudoflavus also contain two pheromone components with differing persistence that elicit different trail-following ...
[48]
Metagenomic Analysis of the Gut Microbiome of the Common Black ...
In this study we tested the hypothesis that the slug gut microbiome could contribute to digestion and nutrient cycling, especially the breakdown of complex ...
[49]
16S rRNA sequencing reveals likely beneficial core microbes within ...
Jul 10, 2018 · This could account for the remarkable efficiency of terrestrial slugs and snails in breaking down plant fibre18,19.
[50]
Bacterial Diversity Associated with Terrestrial and Aquatic Snails
Psychrilyobacter plays a significant role in the gut microbiome of gastropods, enhancing digestive efficiency [60] and potentially affecting the ecological ...
[51]
Slugs and Snails - Vegetables | University of Maryland Extension
May 7, 2024 · Adult size is reached in 3-12 months. Lifespan is up to several years. Host plants. Soft-leaved herbaceous plants, especially asparagus, leafy ...Missing: growth rate
[52]
Slugs | College of Agricultural Sciences - Oregon State University
Various species can eat algae, animal feces, carrion, centipedes, fungi, green plants, insects, lichens, worms, and other slugs.
[53]
IPM : Fruits : Slugs (Nudibranchs) - University of Illinois
Various beetles such as firefly larvae and ground beetles feed on slugs. In addition, toads, frogs, snakes, and lizards eat slugs. However, these predators may ...
[54]
The effect of biologically active compounds in the mucus of slugs ...
Sep 21, 2021 · The mucus of slugs has strong properties that reduced the survival of keratinocytes and reduced the number of melanoma cells by up to 22%. Limax ...
[55]
Multimodal Aposematic Defenses Through the Predation Sequence
Aug 15, 2021 · Using multiple lines of defense can help prey avoid predators by stimulating multiple senses and/or by acting at different stages of predation.
[56]
Nematodes and trematodes associated with terrestrial gastropods in ...
Nov 2, 2022 · A parasitological survey of terrestrial slugs and snails was conducted at popular dog walking locations across the city of Nottingham, ...
[57]
Interspecific competition among terrestrial slugs - Oxford Academic
Apr 4, 2022 · Most of the studies demonstrating interspecific effects between slug species involved interference from a few aggressive species (mainly Limax ...Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[58]
Fungal spore transport by omnivorous mycophagous slug in ...
Feb 17, 2022 · Slugs are important consumers of fungal fruiting bodies and expected to carry their spores. In this study, we examined whether slugs ...Missing: mutualism | Show results with:mutualism
[59]
Limax genus homepage - AnimalBase
Mar 22, 2012 · Limacus is included to Limax as a subgenus here, based on the classification proposed by Wiktor 1983: 144, Wiktor 1989: 172 and Wiktor 2001: 82.
[60]
A new giant keelback slug of the genus Limax from the Balkans, described by citizen scientists
### Summary of Limax Species Diversity, Subgenera, and New Discoveries
[61]
Leopard slug (Limax maximus) - The Living World of Molluscs
The leopard slug, also known as the great grey slug, is one of the best-known large domestic slug species, apart from the great black slug (Limax cinereoniger).
[62]
Ash-black Slug - Bug Directory - Buglife
The Ash-black Slug (Limax cinereoniger) is the UK's largest native slug, and is in fact the largest land slug in the world; growing up to 25cm in length!
[63]
Ash-Black Slug (Limax cinereoniger) - Woodland Trust
The ash-black slug is one of the world's largest land slugs, and it depends on the UK's remaining ancient woodlands to survive.
[64]
https://www.carnegiemnh.org/mollusks/limacus-flavus/
[65]
Limacus flavus | CABI Compendium
Jul 18, 2024 · Limacus flavus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Limacidae), formerly known as Limax flavus L., is now placed in the genus Limacus Lehmann, 1864 ( Barker, 1999 ) ...Missing: subgenus elevated post-
[66]
http://www.animalbase.uni-goettingen.de/zooweb/servlet/AnimalBase/home/species?id=2619
[67]
Seasonal reproductive cycle in relation to tolerance to high ...
Aug 14, 2007 · Abstract. Seasonal maturation of the gonad (hermaphrodic gland) was examined in the terrestrial slug Lehmannia valentiana in Osaka, Japan.