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Lithium acetate

Lithium acetate is a white, crystalline salt with the chemical formula C₂H₃LiO₂ and a molecular weight of 65.99 g/mol, consisting of lithium cations and acetate anions.^[1] It is highly soluble in water, with a solubility of approximately 40.8 g/100 mL at 20 °C, and has a melting point of 283–285 °C for the anhydrous form.^[1] The compound is often encountered as the dihydrate, C₂H₃LiO₂·2H₂O, which has a molecular weight of 102.02 g/mol and a lower melting point of 53–56 °C, making it easier to handle in laboratory settings.^[2] Lithium acetate is stable under normal conditions but incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, and it decomposes to emit acrid smoke when heated.^[1] In laboratory applications, lithium acetate serves as a buffer in gel electrophoresis for DNA and RNA analysis due to its solubility and ionic properties, and it is used to permeabilize cell membranes in yeast cells to facilitate DNA transformation.^[1] Additionally, it acts as a precursor for synthesizing other lithium-based compounds and as a catalyst or catalyst support in various organic reactions to improve efficiency and yield.^[3] In advanced materials, lithium acetate functions as an additive in "water-in-bisalt" electrolytes for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, enhancing performance and stability.^[4] Safety considerations include its classification as harmful if swallowed (H302) and an eye irritant (H319), with precautions recommended for handling to avoid ingestion, inhalation, or contact.^[1]

Chemical identity

Formula and molecular structure

Lithium acetate has the chemical formula \ce{LiCH3COO} or \ce{LiC2H3O2}, with a molar mass of 65.99 g/mol.^[5] It is an ionic salt composed of the lithium cation (\ce{Li+}) and the acetate anion (\ce{CH3COO-}), the latter derived from the deprotonation of acetic acid.^[6] The bonding within the compound arises from electrostatic attraction between the positively charged lithium ion and the negatively charged oxygen atoms of the carboxylate group in the acetate anion, forming an ion pair without covalent bonds between the cation and anion.^[7] The dihydrate form, \ce{LiCH3COO \cdot 2H2O}, adopts an orthorhombic crystal structure in space group Cmmm, with lattice parameters a = 6.82 Å, b = 10.89 Å, and c = 6.60 Å at room temperature.^[8]

Nomenclature and isomers

The IUPAC name for the compound is lithium acetate or lithium ethanoate, reflecting the acetate anion derived from acetic acid.^[5]^[6] Lithium acetate has no optical isomers due to its simple ionic structure comprising a lithium cation and an acetate anion, which lacks chiral centers.^[5] The compound exists in an anhydrous form and a dihydrate form, LiCH₃COO·2H₂O, but the latter is a solvate rather than a true structural isomer.^[9] The CAS Registry Number for the anhydrous form is 546-89-4, and for the dihydrate, it is 6108-17-4.^[5]^[9]^[10]

Physical properties

Appearance and phase behavior

Lithium acetate exists in both anhydrous and dihydrate forms, each exhibiting distinct visual characteristics. The anhydrous form appears as a white, hygroscopic crystalline powder or solid, while the dihydrate form consists of colorless or white crystals.^[11]^[12] The compound's hygroscopic nature arises from its ionic structure, readily absorbing atmospheric moisture to form the dihydrate in humid conditions.^[12] The anhydrous form has a density of 1.26 g/cm³.^[12]^[13] Upon heating, anhydrous lithium acetate melts at 283–285 °C, with no defined boiling point due to subsequent decomposition at higher temperatures.^[12]^[14] Thermal decomposition occurs above approximately 400 °C, yielding lithium carbonate and acetone as primary products.^[15]^[16]

Solubility and thermodynamic data

Lithium acetate is highly soluble in water, with a solubility of 40.8 g/100 mL at 20 °C.^[1] Its solubility increases markedly with temperature, enabling the preparation of more concentrated solutions at higher temperatures.^[17] The compound is also soluble in polar organic solvents such as ethanol and methanol, but it is insoluble in nonpolar solvents like acetone and diethyl ether.^[18] Aqueous solutions of lithium acetate are neutral to slightly basic, with pH values ranging from 7 to 9 for a 4% solution at 20 °C, attributable to the partial hydrolysis of the acetate anion producing a small amount of hydroxide.^[16] This behavior influences its applications in aqueous environments, where the mild basicity must be considered for compatibility. Key thermodynamic parameters for lithium acetate include a standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH_f°) of -909.4 ± 1.5 kJ/mol for the crystalline anhydrous form.^[19] Gibbs free energy of formation and standard entropy values are less commonly reported but can be derived from equilibrium data in solubility studies.

Synthesis and production

Laboratory preparation

Lithium acetate is commonly prepared in laboratory settings through acid-base neutralization reactions using lithium hydroxide or lithium carbonate as the lithium source and acetic acid as the acid component. The reaction with lithium hydroxide proceeds as follows:

\text{LiOH} + \text{CH}_3\text{COOH} \rightarrow \text{LiCH}_3\text{COO} + \text{H}_2\text{O}

This exothermic process generates lithium acetate and water directly.^[20] Similarly, lithium carbonate reacts with acetic acid to form lithium acetate, carbon dioxide, and water:

\text{Li}_2\text{CO}_3 + 2\text{CH}_3\text{COOH} \rightarrow 2\text{LiCH}_3\text{COO} + \text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O}

The evolution of CO₂ during this reaction facilitates the removal of the carbonate byproduct.^[21] A standard laboratory procedure begins by dissolving the lithium salt—typically lithium hydroxide monohydrate or anhydrous lithium carbonate—in distilled water to form a clear solution, often at a concentration that ensures full dissolution without saturation. Acetic acid, usually glacial or aqueous, is then added dropwise or gradually under constant magnetic stirring to control the reaction rate and prevent localized overheating. For the hydroxide route, the addition continues until a neutral pH of approximately 7–7.5 is achieved, while the carbonate reaction naturally reaches completion with gas evolution. The mixture is maintained at ambient temperature or mildly heated (40–60°C) to enhance solubility and reaction efficiency, with stirring continued for 30–60 minutes post-addition. The resulting solution is filtered to remove any insoluble impurities, then concentrated by rotary evaporation or gentle heating to reduce volume by half to one-third, promoting crystallization of the lithium acetate dihydrate. Yields for the dihydrate form routinely exceed 90%, often reaching 95% or higher with precise stoichiometric control.^[20]^[21] Purification of the crude lithium acetate dihydrate involves recrystallization from hot distilled water. The crystals are dissolved in the minimum volume of boiling water, the solution is filtered while hot to eliminate particulates, and allowed to cool slowly to room temperature or in an ice bath to yield colorless, well-formed crystals of high purity. This step leverages the compound's significantly higher solubility in hot water compared to room temperature and reduced solubility at lower temperatures. For the anhydrous form, the dihydrate crystals are subjected to vacuum drying at 110–150°C under reduced pressure (–0.08 to –0.1 MPa) for 3–10 hours, removing water of hydration without decomposition. The final product is ground and sieved to a fine powder (40–80 mesh) if needed.^[20]

Industrial synthesis

Lithium acetate is commercially produced on an industrial scale primarily through the neutralization reaction of lithium carbonate with glacial acetic acid in large reactors. Lithium carbonate, the key precursor, is obtained from brine extraction in salt lake deposits or from the processing of spodumene ore, processes that significantly influence overall production costs due to their scale and resource availability.^[22]^[23] The process employs continuous flow reactors for the neutralization step, enabling efficient control of reaction conditions such as temperature (typically 70-95°C) and pH (around 5.5-7.5) to achieve complete conversion while minimizing energy use. Post-reaction, the mixture is filtered to separate solids, and the lithium acetate solution is concentrated via multiple-effect evaporators to reduce volume and recover water. The concentrate is then spray-dried to yield the anhydrous product, often in facilities that co-produce other lithium salts like lithium hydroxide or acetate dihydrate for diversified output. Acetic acid is recycled from the process streams to enhance sustainability and cut operational expenses.^[21]^[24]^[20] Industrial yields typically exceed 95%, reflecting optimized conditions that limit side reactions and byproduct formation, such as carbon dioxide from the carbonate decomposition. This high efficiency supports cost-effective production, with lithium acetate priced at around $5-10 per kg as of 2025, closely tied to lithium carbonate market fluctuations averaging $10 per kg.^[20]^[25]

Chemical reactivity

Reactions with acids and bases

Lithium acetate reacts with strong acids through a double displacement mechanism, where the acetate ion is protonated to form acetic acid, and the lithium ion pairs with the corresponding anion. This acid-base reaction is driven by the weak nature of acetic acid, allowing the equilibrium to favor product formation in aqueous or suitable solvent conditions. Reactions with bases are limited due to the stability of the acetate ion and the similar solubility of the involved salts, resulting in equilibrium mixtures rather than complete conversion under ambient conditions. In aqueous solutions, lithium acetate exhibits partial hydrolysis of the acetate ion, acting as a weak base:

\text{CH}_3\text{COO}^- + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{CH}_3\text{COOH} + \text{OH}^-

This equilibrium imparts a basic character to the solution, with a pH typically ranging from 7 to 9 for concentrations around 40 g/L at 20 °C.^[16] Lithium acetate demonstrates thermal stability up to its melting point of 286 °C, after which it undergoes decomposition upon further heating. Pyrolysis yields lithium carbonate and acetone as primary products, with the reaction generally represented as:

$2\text{LiCH}_3\text{COO} \rightarrow \text{Li}_2\text{CO}_3 + \text{CH}_3\text{COCH}_3

The initial decomposition temperature is 444 °C.^[15]

Applications in catalysis

Lithium acetate functions as a mild Lewis base catalyst in organic synthesis, particularly facilitating carbon-carbon bond formation in aldol condensations. This catalysis extends to crossed aldol reactions, where lithium acetate enables selective addition without self-condensation of aldehydes.^[26] Additionally, it facilitates decarboxylation steps in malonic ester synthesis, where alkylated malonic esters are heated with lithium acetate in pyridine to afford substituted acetic acids via smooth loss of CO₂.^[27] This application highlights its utility in promoting enolate formation and subsequent transformations in ketone and ester reactions.^[28] The catalytic mechanism involves the lithium cation coordinating to the carbonyl oxygen of the electrophile, increasing its electrophilicity and facilitating nucleophilic attack by the enolate or silyl enolate species.^[29] The acetate anion complements this by activating silyl enolates through interaction with the silicon center, generating a more nucleophilic enolate equivalent. Compared to other metal acetates, lithium acetate offers advantages including low toxicity, making it suitable for scalable processes, and high solubility in polar solvents, which enhances reaction rates and ease of handling.^[30] Its mild nature also allows for recyclability in certain systems without significant loss of activity.^[31]

Uses

Biochemical applications

Lithium acetate serves as a key component in buffers for agarose gel electrophoresis, particularly for the separation of DNA and RNA fragments. In lithium acetate borate (LAB) formulations, it is typically used at concentrations of 5–10 mM in the 1× running buffer, enabling high-voltage runs (up to 30 V/cm) that complete in 20–30 minutes without gel melting or excessive heating. This is due to its lower ionic strength and electrical conductivity compared to traditional TAE or TBE buffers, which reduces current flow and prevents band distortion while maintaining effective ionic strength for nucleic acid migration.^[32]^[33]^[34] The mechanism involves lithium ions providing charge neutralization and mobility for nucleic acids under high electric fields, with minimal heat generation that could denature samples or warp gels. LAB buffers are compatible with DNA-intercalating stains such as ethidium bromide, allowing direct post-run visualization of bands under UV light without interference. For standard protocols, a 25× stock is prepared with 250 mM lithium acetate dihydrate and 250 mM boric acid (pH 6.5–7.0), diluted to 1× for gel casting and electrophoresis at 15–20 V/cm. Its high solubility in water facilitates the preparation of these concentrated stocks for routine lab use.^[35]^[34]^[32] Beyond electrophoresis, lithium acetate is widely utilized in yeast cell transformation protocols as a permeabilization agent to enhance DNA uptake. In the lithium acetate/polyethylene glycol (LiAc/PEG) method, yeast cells (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae) are treated with 0.1 M lithium acetate alongside single-stranded carrier DNA and 40% PEG 3350, achieving transformation efficiencies up to 10^6–10^8 transformants per microgram of plasmid DNA. This application leverages lithium acetate's role in destabilizing the cell wall and membrane, facilitating the introduction of foreign DNA for genetic engineering and functional studies. Standard recipes involve resuspending overnight yeast cultures in 100 mM lithium acetate (pH 7.5) buffer, incubating with DNA for 30–60 minutes at 30–42°C, followed by recovery in selective media.^[36]^[37]^[38] Additionally, it serves as a precursor for synthesizing lithium-containing biomolecules and pharmaceuticals, enabling the production of ultra-high-purity compounds for biochemical assays.^[12]

Industrial and material science applications

Lithium acetate serves as a valuable additive in electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries, where it enhances ionic conductivity and thermal stability. For instance, it is incorporated into water-in-bisalt electrolytes to support rechargeable lithium battery operation, leveraging its solubility and conductivity properties.^[4] In polymer-based systems, such as plasticized electrolytes, lithium acetate acts as a doping salt to improve lithium-ion transport efficiency.^[39] These applications contribute to better battery performance in energy storage devices by reducing internal resistance and extending cycle life.^[40] In the pharmaceutical sector, lithium acetate functions as an intermediate in the synthesis of lithium-based drugs. Its role stems from its ability to provide a bioavailable lithium source in formulations, aiding in the development of stable therapeutic compounds.^[41] Manufacturers employ it in pharmaceutical production processes due to its compatibility with organic synthesis routes for lithium salts.^[42] Beyond energy and pharmaceuticals, lithium acetate finds use in various industrial processes, including as a catalyst in textile dyeing. Specifically, it is added to reactive dye printing inks to enhance color fixation and print quality on fabrics, promoting efficient esterification reactions during dyeing.^[43] In organic synthesis for fine chemicals, lithium acetate operates as a Lewis base catalyst, facilitating reactions such as aldol additions, Michael acceptors, and Mannich-type condensations with high selectivity.^[44] These catalytic properties enable its brief application in targeted organic transformations within chemical manufacturing.^[45] Emerging applications as of 2025 highlight lithium acetate's potential in advanced materials. In solid-state batteries, it is integrated into carboxymethyl cellulose-based solid polymer electrolytes to boost lithium-ion conductivity and electrochemical stability, supporting the shift toward safer, higher-density energy storage.^[46] Similarly, in perovskite solar cells, lithium acetate doping at the electron transport layer-perovskite interface improves film crystallinity, grain size, and charge extraction, leading to enhanced power conversion efficiencies.^[47] These developments underscore its growing role in next-generation photovoltaic and battery technologies.^[48]

Safety and environmental considerations

Toxicity and health effects

Lithium acetate is classified under the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) as harmful if swallowed (Acute Toxicity Category 4, H302; estimated oral LD₅₀ of 300–2000 mg/kg in rats) and as an eye irritant (Category 2, H319).^[49] Direct contact with the compound can cause mild irritation to the skin, manifesting as redness or discomfort, while exposure to the eyes results in serious irritation, including pain, redness, and potential corneal damage requiring immediate rinsing and medical evaluation.^[50] Inhalation of lithium acetate dust may irritate the respiratory tract, leading to coughing or shortness of breath, and ingestion primarily causes gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.^[51] Chronic exposure to lithium acetate, through repeated low-level contact or ingestion, allows lithium ions to accumulate in the body due to the compound's high solubility and bioavailability, potentially leading to nephrotoxicity characterized by impaired kidney function and interstitial nephritis.^[52] This accumulation can also disrupt thyroid function, often resulting in hypothyroidism, and induce neurological effects similar to those from therapeutic lithium carbonate use, including tremors, ataxia, cognitive impairment, and in severe cases, cerebellar dysfunction or convulsions.^[53] Gastrointestinal symptoms like persistent vomiting and neuromuscular issues such as hyperreflexia may persist with ongoing exposure.^[51] Lithium compounds, including acetate, are subject to regulatory monitoring for environmental releases, particularly in aquatic systems and drinking water, as part of the U.S. EPA's Fifth Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule to assess potential long-term ecological and health risks.^[54]

Handling and disposal

Lithium acetate should be stored in tightly sealed containers in a cool, dry place to prevent moisture absorption, as it is hygroscopic. It is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, which could lead to hazardous reactions.^[55]^[56] During handling, appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves, safety glasses, and laboratory coats, must be worn to avoid skin and eye contact. Dust generation should be minimized, and the substance should not be inhaled; adequate ventilation is essential, with work under a fume hood recommended for the anhydrous form. General hygiene practices, such as not eating, drinking, or smoking in work areas, should be followed.^[55]^[56]^[57] For disposal, aqueous wastes should be neutralized with a dilute acid to adjust pH before discharge into the sewer system, if permitted by local regulations; solid wastes are generally classified as non-hazardous and can be disposed of accordingly, with recycling of lithium content encouraged where facilities are available to recover valuable metals. All disposal must comply with applicable environmental regulations, including those from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for chemical wastes.^[58]^[55] In the event of a spill, evacuate the area and ensure adequate ventilation while wearing appropriate protective equipment. Sweep or vacuum up the material without generating dust, collect it in suitable sealed containers for disposal, and prevent entry into drains or waterways. The affected area should then be washed thoroughly with water.^[55]^[56]^[57]

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Lithium acetate 98 6108-17-4
### Summary of Lithium Acetate (Product Code: 213195)
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Lithium acetate is an acetate salt comprising equal numbers of acetate and lithium ions. It is an organic lithium salt and an acetate salt. It contains an ...
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Lithium acetate ; Molecular formula: C2H3LiO2 ; Average mass: 65.985.
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### Crystal Structure of Lithium Acetate Dihydrate
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The crystal structure and methyl group dynamics in the room ...
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Physical State. Powder Solid. Appearance. White. Odor vinegar-like. Odor Threshold. No information available. pH. 7-9 40 g/l aq.sol. Melting Point/Range.
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Lithium Acetate. None. Lithium Acetate Dihydrate. Must be neutralized, Dilute 10:1. Lithium Carbonate. Dilute 10:1. Lithium Chloride. Dilute 20:1 (Maximum of ...