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Local Group

The Local Group is a gravitationally bound collection of over 80 galaxies, centered approximately between the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), with a diameter of nearly 10 million light-years.^[1]^[2] It includes a diverse range of galaxy types, predominantly dwarf galaxies alongside a few large spirals and irregulars, and serves as our immediate galactic neighborhood within the broader cosmic structure.^[1] The group was first identified by Edwin Hubble in the 1930s through observations of nearby "nebulae," revealing its isolation relative to larger clusters.^[2] The two dominant members, the Milky Way and M31, contain the vast majority of the group's stellar mass, with M31—the largest—located about 2.5 million light-years away and approaching the Milky Way at roughly 110 km/s. Recent studies suggest a merger is possible but uncertain, with about a 50% chance within the next 10 billion years, potentially forming an elliptical galaxy known as Milkomeda.^[2]^[3] The third-largest member is the Triangulum Galaxy (M33), a spiral about 2.7 million light-years distant, while the remaining galaxies are mostly faint dwarfs such as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, Leo I, and NGC 6822, many of which orbit the larger spirals as satellites.^[2]^[1] The total mass of the Local Group is estimated at (2.47 ± 0.15) × 10¹² solar masses, primarily in dark matter, as inferred from orbital dynamics and the timing argument applied to the Milky Way-M31 system.^[4] Positioned on the outskirts of the much larger Laniakea Supercluster, the Local Group provides a unique laboratory for studying galaxy formation, evolution, and interactions on small scales, with its members exhibiting varied star formation histories and chemical abundances that reflect the hierarchical assembly of cosmic structures.^[5] Observations from telescopes like Hubble and Gaia have refined the census of its fainter members, highlighting the role of tidal interactions in shaping dwarf galaxy populations.^[6]

Overview

Definition and Characteristics

The Local Group is a gravitationally bound aggregation of galaxies that includes the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) as its two largest members, along with roughly 50–80 confirmed smaller galaxies, primarily dwarfs.^[1]^[7] This nearest galaxy group to Earth spans a diameter of approximately 3 Mpc, encompassing systems that have sufficient mutual gravitational attraction to remain together against the expansion of the universe.^[8] Key characteristics of the Local Group include a total mass estimated at (2.47 \pm 0.15) \times 10^{12} \, M_\odot, with the majority contributed by dark matter rather than visible baryonic matter in stars and gas.^[9] Its member galaxies exhibit a low line-of-sight velocity dispersion of about 50–100 km/s, a signature of gravitational binding on group scales.^[10] The overall structure is triaxial or flattened, featuring planar alignments of satellites around the dominant spirals, rather than a symmetric spherical distribution.^[7] In the context of the Lambda cold dark matter (ΛCDM) cosmological model, the Local Group formed approximately 12–13 billion years ago through the hierarchical merging of smaller protogalactic clumps in the dense early universe.^[11] This process reflects the bottom-up assembly predicted by ΛCDM, where dark matter halos progressively coalesce to build larger structures over cosmic time.^[12] As a galaxy group, it is distinguished from more massive galaxy clusters like the Virgo Cluster by its modest size, lower total mass, and fewer members, typically hosting tens rather than hundreds or thousands of galaxies with correspondingly subdued internal dynamics.^[13]

Extent and Mass

The Local Group spans a diameter of approximately 3 megaparsecs (Mpc), equivalent to about 10 million light-years, encompassing more than 50 known member galaxies within this irregular volume.^[2]^[14] The boundaries of the group are not sharply defined but are considered fuzzy, primarily determined by the escape velocity threshold that distinguishes gravitationally bound members from those infalling due to the broader cosmic expansion.^[15] Estimates of the group's total mass, including dark matter, range from 2 to 5 × 10^{12} solar masses (M_⊙), derived primarily through applications of the virial theorem and the timing argument, which analyze the relative motions between major members like the Milky Way and Andromeda.^[16]^[4] In contrast, the stellar mass—dominated by the Milky Way, Andromeda, and their satellite dwarfs—is approximately 10^{11} M_⊙, highlighting the significant contribution of dark matter to the overall mass budget. The mass is centrally concentrated in the Milky Way-Andromeda subgroup, which accounts for the majority of the total dynamical mass.^[16] Boundary determination relies on a combination of radial velocity measurements, proper motions from missions like Gaia, and cosmological simulations to differentiate bound galaxies (those with velocities below the local escape speed) from unbound or infalling ones. For instance, galaxies with peculiar velocities relative to the Hubble flow that keep them within the group's gravitational influence are classified as members.^[17] Uncertainties in mass estimates arise from incomplete catalogs of distant or low-surface-brightness members and assumptions about the extent and shape of dark matter halos, leading to variations across different dynamical models.^[18] Recent analyses incorporating Gaia data have narrowed these uncertainties but emphasize the need for further proper motion observations of outer galaxies to refine the total mass.^[16]

Member Galaxies

Major Spiral Galaxies

The Local Group's structure is dominated by three major spiral galaxies: the Milky Way, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33). These galaxies account for the majority of the group's luminous mass and play central roles in its dynamics, with their gravitational interactions shaping the overall evolution of the system. Observations from modern surveys, such as those using the Gaia spacecraft and Hubble Space Telescope, have refined our understanding of their properties, revealing their masses, sizes, and relative motions. The Milky Way is our home galaxy, a barred spiral containing the Solar System approximately 8 kpc from its center. It has a total dynamical mass estimated at approximately $3 \times 10^{11} \, M_\odot, encompassing stars, gas, dust, and dark matter within its virial radius.^[19] Its disk diameter spans about 30–50 kpc, with a thin disk thickness of around 300 pc and a thicker stellar halo extending further. Positioned near the edge of the Local Group, the Milky Way orbits in a manner influenced by the stronger gravitational pull of M31.^[20] The Andromeda Galaxy (M31), the largest member of the Local Group, is a barred spiral with a total dynamical mass of roughly $1.5 \times 10^{12} \, M_\odot, making it approximately five times as massive as the Milky Way.^[21] Its extensive disk measures about 220 kpc in diameter, featuring prominent spiral arms and a luminous bulge, while its halo extends to over 200 kpc. M31 is approaching the Milky Way at a relative radial velocity of approximately 110 km/s, setting the stage for a future merger predicted within about 4.5 billion years. It hosts notable satellite galaxies, including the elliptical M32 and the dwarf elliptical M110, which orbit within its gravitational influence.^[22] The Triangulum Galaxy (M33), the third-largest spiral in the group, is an Sc-type galaxy with a total mass of around $4 \times 10^{10} \, M_\odot, significantly less massive than M31 or the Milky Way. Its diameter is approximately 60 kpc, characterized by loose, irregular spiral arms that exhibit distortions likely resulting from past gravitational interactions. M33 is a satellite of M31, as confirmed by proper motion analyses and evidence of interaction via neutral hydrogen streams.^[23]^[24] Among these, M31 serves as the central dominant member, exerting the strongest gravitational influence, while the Milky Way and M33 occupy more peripheral positions in the group's flattened structure. Together, these three spirals contribute about 90% of the Local Group's luminous matter, primarily in the form of stars and interstellar medium, underscoring their outsized role despite the presence of numerous smaller members.

Dwarf and Irregular Galaxies

The dwarf and irregular galaxies form the most numerous population within the Local Group, vastly outnumbering the major spiral galaxies despite contributing only a minor fraction to the group's overall mass. Over 50 such galaxies are confirmed as members, though surveys suggest the true total may exceed 100 when accounting for ultra-faint dwarfs that remain undetected due to their low surface brightness. In 2025, new discoveries including the ultra-faint satellites Carina IV, Phoenix III, and DELVE 7 have further expanded the census of Milky Way companions.^[25] Prominent examples include the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC), which are gas-rich irregular galaxies serving as close satellites to the Milky Way, each with stellar masses around $10^9 M_\odot. The Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy and Fornax Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy represent classic dwarf spheroidals orbiting the Milky Way, while the Sculptor Dwarf Spheroidal exemplifies these systems with a stellar mass below $10^8 M_\odot and minimal ongoing star formation. Irregular types like IC 10, a starburst dwarf associated with the Andromeda subgroup, display chaotic morphology and active gas dynamics, contrasting with the smoother, pressure-supported envelopes of spheroidals. Transitioning types, such as those showing mixed spheroidal and irregular features, further highlight the diversity, often resulting from environmental interactions. Many dwarf spheroidals exhibit high mass-to-light ratios exceeding 100, signaling their dominance by dark matter halos that encompass 99% or more of their total mass. This dark matter content makes them ideal probes for studying halo substructure and the group's accretion history. These galaxies are predominantly clustered around the dominant spirals, with roughly 60 confirmed satellites orbiting the Milky Way—including ultra-faint systems like Segue 1—and about 37 around M31 (Andromeda), reflecting the hierarchical assembly of their host halos. A handful, such as the Phoenix Dwarf and Tucana Dwarf, appear more isolated, potentially tracing intergalactic infall regions. Their distribution underscores the role of tidal forces in shaping the Local Group's architecture, with satellites preferentially aligned along the line connecting the Milky Way and M31. Post-2010 discoveries, including the diffuse Crater 2 (identified via the Dark Energy Survey in 2016) and the extended Antlia 2 (revealed by Gaia astrometry in 2018), have expanded the known population, emphasizing survey incompleteness especially in southern hemisphere skies obscured from northern observatories. Ongoing efforts with telescopes like Pan-STARRS, the Dark Energy Camera, and upcoming Vera C. Rubin Observatory continue to uncover fainter members, refining our understanding of the group's full extent.

Structure and Dynamics

Overall Architecture

The Local Group possesses a triaxial ellipsoid shape for its gravitational potential, characterized by axis ratios of approximately 1:0.52:0.51, indicating a prolate configuration with moderate elongation. This structure is elongated along the major axis and compressed along the minor axis, which aligns with the direction toward the M81 Group, reflecting the influence of nearby structures on its overall morphology.^[26] Unlike many galaxy groups with a dominant central member, the Local Group has no single central galaxy and is instead organized into distinct subgroups dominated by its two most massive spirals. The central M31 subgroup, centered on the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), includes M33 and several satellites such as M32 and NGC 205, forming a tightly bound core that accounts for a significant portion of the group's luminosity. The Milky Way subgroup is more peripheral, comprising the Milky Way and its close companions like the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. Loose outer members, including IC 1613 and NGC 6822, orbit independently without strong association to either major subgroup.^[27]^[17] Internally, the Local Group divides into a densely packed inner region extending to less than 500 kpc, where the majority of confirmed members and mass are concentrated around the M31 and Milky Way subgroups. Beyond this, an extended outer halo encompasses potential infalling candidates and transitional objects, with cosmological simulations indicating filamentary connections that link these components and shape the group's evolution. This arrangement exhibits asymmetry, with a higher concentration of galaxies toward the M31 side owing to its greater total mass compared to the Milky Way.^[17]^[28]

Orbital Motions and Interactions

The Local Group exhibits a coherent peculiar velocity of approximately 627 km/s toward the constellation Hydra relative to the cosmic microwave background (CMB) rest frame, reflecting the motion of its center of mass through the larger cosmic web. Internally, the velocity field is dominated by relative proper motions among major members; for instance, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) approaches the Milky Way at a radial velocity of about 110 km/s, driven by their mutual gravitational attraction within the group's potential. These motions contribute to the overall dynamics, with the Local Group's velocity dispersion estimated at around 50 km/s based on observations of satellite galaxies.^[29] Orbital models of the Local Group rely on the virial theorem to assess its binding, employing the relation v^2 = \frac{GM}{r}, where v represents the characteristic velocity dispersion, M the total mass, r the typical separation scale, and G the gravitational constant.^[30] This framework yields a total mass estimate of approximately $2.5 \times 10^{12} \, M_\odot within a radius of about 1 Mpc (as of 2025), confirming the system is gravitationally bound against the Hubble expansion.^[4] N-body simulations further illustrate that member galaxies follow chaotic, non-planar orbits embedded in an extended dark matter halo, with trajectories influenced by triaxial halo shapes and substructure accretion.^[31] Gravitational interactions among Local Group members produce prominent tidal features, such as the Magellanic Stream, a vast filament of neutral hydrogen gas spanning over 100 degrees on the sky, originating from tidal stripping of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC) during their orbital encounters with the Milky Way.^[32] Similarly, the Milky Way exhibits leading and trailing tidal arms associated with the Magellanic system's passage, where gas and stars are pulled ahead and behind the clouds' motion. Dwarf galaxy disruptions contribute additional streams, exemplified by the Sagittarius stream, a elongated structure of tidally stripped stars from the Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal galaxy, wrapping around the Milky Way's halo over multiple orbits.^[33] The extended dark matter halos of the Milky Way and M31 play a crucial role in these dynamics, with their outskirts overlapping across the intergalactic medium, enabling efficient transfer of gravitational energy and maintaining the group's cohesion against tidal dispersal.^[34] This overlap facilitates dynamical friction, which slows relative orbits and promotes interactions, as evidenced in cosmological simulations of Local Group analogs.^[35]

Location in the Cosmos

Position Relative to the Virgo Supercluster

The Local Group forms a filamentary subgroup within the Virgo Supercluster, a vast aggregation of galaxy groups and clusters spanning approximately 33 megaparsecs (Mpc) in diameter, centered on the Virgo Cluster located about 16.5 Mpc away from the Local Group's barycenter.^[36] This positioning places the Local Group on the periphery of the supercluster's gravitational influence, where it resides as one of several sparse subgroups extending outward from the denser Virgo Cluster core. The Virgo Supercluster itself is embedded within the larger Laniakea Supercluster, defined by the basin of attraction around the Great Attractor, encompassing over 100,000 galaxies and delineating the broader gravitational flow patterns that shape local cosmic structure.^[37] Relative to the Virgo Cluster, the Local Group occupies a position at the edge of its zone of influence, exhibiting a peculiar velocity of approximately 220–300 km/s directed toward the cluster, indicative of an ongoing infall driven by the cluster's mass overdensity.^[38] This motion positions the Local Group within the "Local Sheet," a flattened, sheet-like structure in the cosmic web that includes nearby groups such as the M81 Group, oriented roughly along the supergalactic plane and extending several Mpc in extent. The Local Sheet represents a filamentary extension in the local cosmic web, where the Local Group and adjacent structures like the M81 Group are loosely associated, sharing similar radial velocities relative to the cosmic microwave background.^[39] In the hierarchical context of the cosmic web, the Local Group is situated near the boundary of the expansive Local Void, a vast underdense region spanning tens of Mpc adjacent to the Local Sheet, which exerts a repulsive dynamical influence by accelerating the Local Group's motion away from it at 200–250 km/s.^[40] This void-driven outflow contributes to the overall infall pattern toward denser structures like the Virgo Cluster, embedding the Local Group in a web of filaments, walls, and voids that govern large-scale structure formation. Despite the dominance of the Virgo Cluster as the nearest rich cluster—shaping regional peculiar velocities and Hubble flow deviations—the Local Group's internal gravitational binding, arising from its total mass of (2.47 ± 0.15) × 10^{12} solar masses, ensures it remains a coherent entity unbound to the Virgo Cluster on gigayear timescales.^[37]^[4]

Distance Measurements and Redshift

The distances within the Local Group are primarily determined using the cosmic distance ladder, which relies on standard candles such as Cepheid variables for nearby galaxies like M31, where observations with the Hubble Space Telescope yield a distance of 761 ± 11 kpc based on the period-luminosity relation of 55 Cepheids with periods from 4 to 78 days.^[41] For more distant dwarf galaxies, the tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) method is widely applied, providing distances to 17 Local Group members including M31 at 785 ± 18 kpc by measuring the apparent magnitude of the TRGB in resolved color-magnitude diagrams.^[42] Surface brightness fluctuations (SBF) offer an additional approach, calibrating galaxy distances through the statistical fluctuations in surface brightness due to Poisson variations in stellar populations, often cross-checked against TRGB or Cepheid scales for consistency in the Local Group. These methods establish the group's overall extent, with the barycenter located approximately 447 ± 26 kpc from the Milky Way center, derived from the positions and velocities of peripheral dwarf galaxies.^[9] Redshift measurements for the Local Group reveal its motion relative to larger structures, with the systemic velocity of approximately 220 km/s directed toward the Virgo Cluster, indicating an infall component within the Local Supercluster.^[43] However, peculiar motions dominate over the expected Hubble flow at these scales, as the Local Group's internal dynamics and gravitational pull from the Virgo Supercluster suppress the expansion signal; this local calibration using Cepheid distances in group members contributes to Hubble constant estimates of H_0 ≈ 73 km/s/Mpc in the SH0ES project.^[44] The absence of significant redshift for the group as a whole underscores its bound nature, with velocities measured via radial components from spectroscopy and proper motions for 3D reconstruction. Challenges in these measurements include foreground extinction from Milky Way dust, which dims Cepheid and TRGB observations and requires corrections based on multi-wavelength data, potentially introducing up to 10% uncertainties in unreddened fields.^[45] Proper motion uncertainties further complicate transverse distance estimates, though recent Gaia Early Data Release 3 data have refined parallaxes and motions for nearby stars and clusters, achieving precisions of ±5% for Local Group distances up to several hundred kpc via RR Lyrae calibrations.^[46] Survey completeness remains an issue, particularly for southern hemisphere objects, where biases in northern-centric telescopes like Hubble and early ground-based surveys have historically underrepresented dwarfs below declination -30°, leading to incomplete membership catalogs until recent all-sky efforts.^[47]

Discovery and Observation

Historical Milestones

The earliest recorded observation of what is now known as the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) dates to 964 AD, when Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi described it as a "small cloud" in his Book of Fixed Stars, marking the first documented notice of an extragalactic object beyond the Milky Way.^[48] In the early 20th century, astronomers began probing the nature of spiral "nebulae" through spectroscopy. Vesto M. Slipher at Lowell Observatory measured the radial velocity of M31 in 1912, finding it approaching at approximately 300 km/s (a blueshift), the first such determination for an external galaxy and hinting at its vast distance. This work, extended to other spirals in the 1910s, revealed high velocities suggesting they lay far beyond the Milky Way. The 1920 Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis highlighted the controversy over whether spirals were extragalactic "island universes" or nearby gas clouds within our galaxy, with Curtis arguing for the former based on novae observations.^[49] Edwin Hubble resolved this debate in the mid-1920s by identifying Cepheid variable stars in M31 and M33 using the 100-inch Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. In 1925, Hubble announced Cepheids in M31, calculating its distance at about 900,000 light-years and confirming its extragalactic status, thus establishing the island universe model. He extended this to M33 in 1926, further solidifying that these were independent galaxies. In 1944, Walter Baade achieved the first resolution of individual stars in the central region of M31 and its companions M32 and NGC 205 using red-sensitive plates during wartime blackouts, which allowed distance confirmation and revealed stellar population differences.^[50] Hubble coined the term "Local Group" in his 1936 book The Realm of the Nebulae, cataloging about 20 nearby galaxies—including the Milky Way, M31, M33, and the Magellanic Clouds—as a gravitationally bound cluster isolated in the cosmic field.^[51] By the 1950s, improved surveys and distance measurements, such as those using RR Lyrae stars, firmly added the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds (LMC and SMC) as satellite members orbiting the Milky Way, enhancing understanding of the group's structure.

Modern Surveys and Telescopes

In the 21st century, large-scale imaging surveys have revolutionized the detection of faint dwarf galaxies within the Local Group, uncovering previously missed members and refining the overall membership census. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), operational since the early 2000s, played a pivotal role by identifying ultra-faint dwarf satellites of the Milky Way, such as Segue 1, through its deep photometric data covering northern skies.^[52] Similarly, the Pan-STARRS survey in the 2010s, utilizing wide-field imaging from Hawaii, discovered extended low-surface-brightness systems like Crater 2, highlighting the presence of ultra-diffuse dwarfs at the fringes of detectability. More recent efforts, including the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) Legacy Imaging Surveys, have begun probing even fainter candidates by combining optical and infrared data, while the Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), which commenced operations in 2025, is expected to detect additional ultra-faint members through its unprecedented depth and cadence over southern skies.^[53] Space-based telescopes have complemented ground-based surveys by enabling resolved-star observations and precise astrometry essential for understanding Local Group dynamics. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) has been instrumental in imaging individual stars in distant dwarf galaxies, allowing detailed star formation histories and distance measurements via the tip of the red giant branch method; for instance, HST data on ultra-faint dwarfs like those in the Carnegie-Chicago Hubble Program have revealed metal-poor populations extending knowledge beyond photometric surveys.^[54]^[55] The European Space Agency's Gaia mission, launched in 2013, has provided proper motions for over a billion stars, including those in Local Group dwarfs, enabling the first comprehensive 3D kinematic mapping of satellite orbits and the group's overall structure; early data releases have measured systemic motions for dozens of dwarfs, confirming their bound status and orbital parameters.^[56] Advancements in the 2020s have further addressed observational biases, particularly through detections of ultra-diffuse galaxies and detailed gas mapping. Surveys like DESI and Pan-STARRS have identified several ultra-diffuse galaxies in the Local Group, characterized by their low surface brightness and extended stellar halos, with simulations suggesting many remain undiscovered due to incompleteness in low-density regions.^[57] The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) has mapped neutral and molecular gas distributions in Local Group members, revealing tidal streams and interactions; for example, high-resolution HI and CO observations of systems like NGC 1569 have uncovered gas flows indicative of past mergers, enhancing models of dynamical evolution.^[58] Since 2015, approximately 20 new dwarf members have been confirmed, primarily from DES and Pan-STARRS data, mitigating earlier incompleteness in faint-end luminosity functions. Efforts to cover the southern celestial hemisphere have been crucial for balanced sampling, with the Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy (VISTA) providing deep near-infrared imaging that has refined mass estimates for southern Local Group components like the Magellanic Clouds. VISTA's surveys, such as the VISTA Magellanic Clouds (VMC) program, have detected variable stars and resolved populations, improving dynamical mass calculations and revealing tidal interactions previously obscured in optical wavelengths.^[59] These combined observations have increased the known Local Group membership to over 100 galaxies, with more than 130 confirmed as of 2025, emphasizing the group's hierarchical assembly and the ongoing role of advanced facilities in filling observational gaps.^[60]^[61]

Future Prospects

Long-Term Dynamical Evolution

The Local Group originated from the hierarchical collapse of dark matter-dominated overdensities approximately 13 Gyr ago, shortly after the Big Bang, marking the onset of structure formation in this region of the universe. This initial collapse involved the coalescence of smaller halos into larger ones, fostering the assembly of the Milky Way, Andromeda (M31), and their satellite systems. Over billions of years, gravitational instabilities and mergers shaped the group's architecture, transitioning from rapid accretion phases to the present quasi-equilibrium state, where the system remains bound within a common gravitational potential dominated by dark matter.^[27] The current dynamical configuration of the Local Group has remained relatively stable for about 10 Gyr, reflecting a balance between internal binding and external influences, though ongoing infall of dwarf galaxies continues to add mass and perturb the structure. N-body simulations of Local Group-like systems demonstrate that this stability will persist, with gradual relaxation occurring over timescales of 10–100 Gyr as subclusters merge and energy dissipates through two-body relaxation processes.^[62]^[63] Dark matter halos dominate the mass budget of the Local Group, comprising over 90% of the total mass, and drive its long-term evolution through repeated mergers that smooth out initial irregularities in the density field. These mergers, simulated via N-body methods, facilitate the redistribution of dark matter, reducing substructure and promoting a more spherical overall halo. Dynamical friction, arising from interactions between orbiting subhalos and the extended dark matter background, progressively slows the relative motions of major components like the Milky Way and M31, contributing to orbital decay and eventual energy equipartition over Gyr timescales.^[64]^[65] Externally, the tidal field exerted by the nearby Virgo Cluster induces a coherent infall of the entire Local Group toward Virgo at a velocity of approximately 135 km/s (as of 2020), subtly distorting the group's outer envelope and potentially stripping loosely bound dwarf members over billions of years.^[66] This environmental influence, quantified through kinematic analyses and cosmological simulations, underscores the Local Group's position as a marginally bound subsystem within the larger Laniakea Supercluster, where tidal torques could accelerate internal relaxation in the distant future.^[67]

Potential Mergers and Fate

The dominant galaxies in the Local Group, the Milky Way and Andromeda (M31), are on trajectories that suggest a future close encounter, driven by M31's radial approach velocity of about 110 km/s relative to the Milky Way.^[68] Early simulations based on Hubble Space Telescope measurements predicted a collision between these spirals in approximately 4.5 billion years, followed by a merger spanning several billion years to form a single giant elliptical galaxy, often termed "Milkomeda." This process would involve intense star formation triggered by gravitational disruptions, while the supermassive black holes at their centers would eventually coalesce roughly 17 million years after the stellar merger, emitting gravitational waves detectable by future observatories.^[70] Refinements from Gaia DR3 proper motions (as of 2024) further constrain M31's tangential velocity to ~60–120 km/s, contributing to the uncertainty in orbital predictions.^[71] Recent high-precision astrometry from the Hubble Space Telescope, combined with data on M31's tangential velocity, has introduced substantial uncertainty into these predictions. The probability of a Milky Way-M31 merger within the next 10 billion years is now estimated at around 50%, with only a 2% likelihood of a direct head-on collision occurring in 4–5 billion years.^[72] In roughly half of modeled scenarios, the galaxies may pass each other at a separation of about 500,000 light-years, avoiding immediate merger but remaining gravitationally bound; dynamical friction could then drive a delayed coalescence over longer timescales, or they might persist in a wide orbit.^[3] The Triangulum Galaxy (M33), the Local Group's third-largest member and a probable satellite of M31, influences these dynamics by exerting tidal forces that slightly enhance the odds of a Milky Way-M31 interaction, effectively pulling the Milky Way toward M31.^[72] In merger simulations, M33 typically orbits the post-collision remnant and merges with it around 6 billion years from now, contributing its mass and potentially preserving some spiral structure in the final system.^[68] Dwarf galaxies, including the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds orbiting the Milky Way, will participate in these events through tidal stripping and accretion. The Large Magellanic Cloud, in particular, may marginally reduce collision probability by tugging the Milky Way away from M31.^[72] Over tens of billions of years, gravitational interactions among all Local Group members—bound within a total mass exceeding 10^{12} solar masses—are expected to lead to their progressive coalescence into a single elliptical galaxy, though precise timings depend on unresolved orbital parameters and dark matter distribution.^[70]

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[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0605564v1 22 May 2006
May 22, 2006 · The three most luminous Local Group members are its spiral galaxies, which form two subgroups: The M31 plus M33 subgroup and the Milky Way.
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Local Group timing argument and virial theorem mass estimators ...
We show that the TA mass estimator slightly overestimates the true median LG-mass, though the ratio of the TA to the true mass is consistent at the approximate ...
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18: Using the Virial Theorem - Mass of a Cluster of Galaxies
Feb 18, 2025 · The virial theorem postulates a simple relationship between the average kinetic energy and average gravitational potential energy of bodies in a ...Missing: diameter | Show results with:diameter
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[2107.11490] Local Group timing argument and virial theorem mass ...
Jul 24, 2021 · We show that the VT estimator better estimates the true LG-mass, though there is a larger scatter in the virial mass to true mass ratio relative ...Missing: diameter extent
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[PDF] The Magellanic Stream — A Tail of Two Galaxies
In the tidal scenario, gravitational forces exerted by the Large. Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and the Small. Magellanic Cloud (SMC) on each other pull gas out of ...<|separator|>
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The Sagittarius stream in Gaia Early Data Release 3 and the origin ...
The Sagittarius dwarf spheroidal (Sgr) is a dissolving galaxy being tidally disrupted by the Milky Way (MW). Its stellar stream still poses serious ...
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Local Group timing argument
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[PDF] Dark Matter Halos in a Local Group Configuration - UC-HiPACC
Aug 16, 2012 · The ELVIS Suite: Exploring the Local Volume In Simulations. • Twenty-two halos in LG-like configurations. • Twenty-two mass-matched isolated ...
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Structure and kinematics of the Virgo cluster of galaxies
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The Laniakea supercluster of galaxies - Nature
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Virgo Cluster - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... motion of the Local Group toward Virgo, about 250–300 km sec−1, called the virgocentric velocity. Since the Local Group is part of the supercluster system ...<|separator|>
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[2401.16002] The phase-space distribution of the M81 satellite system
Jan 29, 2024 · Another nearby galaxy group, with a putative flattened distribution of dwarfs, is the M81 group. We present a quantitative analysis of the ...
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[1905.08329] Cosmicflows-3: Cosmography of the Local Void - arXiv
May 20, 2019 · The Local Void has a substantial dynamical effect, causing a deviant motion of the Local Group of 200-250 km/s.
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[2107.08029] A sub-2% Distance to M31 from Photometrically ... - arXiv
Jul 16, 2021 · We present Period-Luminosity Relations (PLRs) for 55 Cepheids in M31 with periods ranging from 4 to 78 days observed with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST)
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https://arxiv.org/abs/1905.08329
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observed infall of galaxies towards the Virgo cluster - Oxford Academic
We estimate the radius of the zero-velocity surface for the Virgo cluster to be within 5.0–7.5 Mpc, corresponding to 17–26° at the mean cluster distance of 17.0 ...
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Cosmological Model Insensitivity of Local H 0 from the Cepheid ...
The SH0ES team examine systematic shifts in H0 associated with the SN Ia light-curve model, host environments, and the location of a low-z cutoff redshift.
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measurement of distances
We discuss in detail here three high-precision methods for measuring distances to nearby galaxies: Cepheids, the tip of the red giant branch (TRGB) method, and ...
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RR Lyrae-based Distances for 39 Nearby Dwarf Galaxies Calibrated ...
Nov 12, 2021 · We provide uniform RR Lyrae-based distances to 39 dwarf galaxies in and around the Local Group. We determine distances based on a Bayesian ...
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The Hubble Space Telescope Survey of M31 Satellite Galaxies. I ...
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[PDF] Abd al - webspace.science.uu.nl
However, during the time between al-Sufi s composing in Rayy his first treatise on the astrolabe and 964, when he was in Shiraz under the patronage of Adud al- ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
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The Shapley - Curtis Debate in 1920
This is a reprint of the texts of Great Debate published in 1921 in the Bulletin of the National Research Council by Shapley and Curtis.
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The Realm of the Nebulae - Yale University Press
In stock Free 20-day returnsIn 1936, Hubble described his principal observations and conclusions in The Realm of the Nebulae, which quickly became a classic work.
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SPECTROSCOPY OF THE MILKY WAY SATELLITE SEGUE 1
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Legacy Survey: Index
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THE STAR FORMATION HISTORIES OF LOCAL GROUP DWARF ...
Jun 24, 2014 · We present uniformly measured star formation histories (SFHs) of 40 Local Group (LG) dwarf galaxies based on color–magnitude diagram (CMD) ...
[53]
Discovery of the Most Distant Ultra-faint Dwarf Galaxy in the Local ...
Ultra-faint dwarf galaxies (UFDs) are the faintest known galaxies, and due to their incredibly low surface brightness, it is difficult to find them beyond the ...
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Gaia early DR3 systemic motions of Local Group dwarf galaxies and ...
Likely, the main reason is that Gaia eDR3 data, in particular the PMs, have become more precise, which makes it easier for the algorithm to find galaxies even ...
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The undiscovered ultra-diffuse galaxies of the Local Group - arXiv
Dec 9, 2022 · In the Local Group a handful of UDGs have been found to date, most of which are satellites of the Milky Way and M31, and only two are isolated galaxies.Missing: 2020s ALMA HI mapping gas streams
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Hubble Space Telescope study of resolved red giant stars in the ...
We observed the outer parts of NGC 1569 and NGC 4449, two of the closest and strongest dwarf starburst galaxies in the local universe, to characterize their ...
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The VISTA surveys | ESO
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I. Discovery of three faint dwarf galaxies around NGC 253
We report the discovery of three new dwarf galaxies in the vicinity of the brightest member of the Sculptor filament, the late-type spiral NGC 253.
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[PDF] Chapter 10 Formation and evolution of the Local Group
Summary: The Local Group (LG) is the group of galaxies gravitationally associ- ated with the Galaxy and M 31. Galaxies within the LG have overcome the ...
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Future evolution of nearby large-scale structures in a universe ...
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Dark Matter Halo Mergers I: Dependence on Environment & Redshift ...
Feb 26, 2009 · Major mergers between subhalos are therefore extremely rare. Tidal stripping also suppresses dynamical friction, resulting in long major merger ...
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Dynamical friction and galaxy merging time-scales - Oxford Academic
In this paper, we study the merging time-scales of extended dark matter haloes using N-body simulations. We compare these results to standard estimates.
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On infall into the Virgo cluster - NASA ADS
Direct measurements of the infall pattern using velocity independent galaxy distances suggest an infall component at the Local Group of 250 km/s. This is ...
[64]
THE M31 VELOCITY VECTOR. III. FUTURE MILKY WAY M31–M33 ...
We study the future orbital evolution and merging of the Milky Way (MW)–M31–M33 system, using a combination of collisionless N-body simulations and semi- ...
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The Fate of the Milky Way, Andromeda, and Triangulum Galaxies
May 31, 2012 · Around 6 billion years from now, the two galaxies will merge to form a single elliptical galaxy. The Triangulum galaxy continues to orbit the ...Missing: ultimate papers
[66]
Future merger of the Milky Way with the Andromeda galaxy and the ...
The future evolution of the Local Group is essentially driven by the dynamics of our Galaxy and M 31, and it can be considered a promising study object to ...
[67]
Apocalypse When? Hubble Casts Doubt on Certainty of Galactic ...
May 30, 2025 · “Even using the latest and most precise observational data available, the future of the Local Group of several dozen galaxies is uncertain.
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No certainty of a Milky Way–Andromeda collision | Nature Astronomy
Jun 2, 2025 · As a result of their merger, predicted in around 5 billion years, the two large spiral galaxies that define the present Local Group would form a ...