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Surface brightness

Surface brightness in astronomy quantifies the apparent brightness or flux density per unit angular area of a spatially extended object, such as a galaxy, nebula, or the night sky background.^[1] It is typically expressed in magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag/arcsec²), where brighter surfaces have smaller (more negative) values.^[1] This measure is calculated as the total magnitude of the object plus 2.5 times the base-10 logarithm of its angular area in square arcseconds: S = m + 2.5 \log_{10}(A).^[1] Unlike the total apparent magnitude of an object, which dims with increasing distance due to the inverse-square law, surface brightness remains constant with distance for nearby sources in a static universe.^[2] This invariance arises because the flux decreases proportionally to the square of the distance, while the angular area over which the object is observed also decreases by the same factor, canceling the effect.^[2] However, in an expanding universe, cosmological effects cause surface brightness to dim with redshift. In radio astronomy, surface brightness is equivalently described as specific intensity (I_\nu), the power per unit area per unit solid angle per unit frequency, with units of W m⁻² Hz⁻¹ sr⁻¹, and is conserved along rays in empty space.^[2] Surface brightness profiles describe how the brightness of extended objects, particularly galaxies, varies with radius from their center, often following models like the exponential profile for disk galaxies or the Sérsic profile for ellipticals and bulges.^[3] These profiles are crucial for analyzing stellar density distributions and galaxy evolution, with low-surface-brightness galaxies (typically fainter than 23 mag/arcsec²) providing insights into dark matter and faint cosmic structures.^[4] Measurements are obtained from imaging data, accounting for factors like sky background and instrumental resolution, and are essential for comparing observations across different telescopes and wavelengths.^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition

Surface brightness in astronomy quantifies the amount of electromagnetic flux received per unit solid angle from an extended source, such as a galaxy, nebula, or planetary surface, in contrast to point sources like stars that are characterized solely by their total flux.^[6] This measure captures the brightness density across the apparent angular extent of the object as observed from Earth.^[7] Mathematically, surface brightness is expressed as the intensity I(\theta, \phi), representing the flux per unit solid angle in directions defined by angular coordinates \theta and \phi on the sky, typically averaged over small angular areas for practical computation.^[6] The differential flux df relates to this intensity via

df = I \cos \theta \, d\Omega,

where d\Omega is the differential solid angle and \theta is the angle between the surface normal and the line of sight.^[6] For resolved extended sources, the total flux is obtained by integrating the surface brightness over the object's solid angle, f \approx \int I(\Omega) \, d\Omega.^[6] In distinction from total magnitude, which integrates the object's total flux over its entire apparent area to yield an overall brightness measure, surface brightness normalizes the flux by the angular size, rendering it invariant with distance for sufficiently resolved objects.^[6] This normalization highlights the intrinsic luminosity distribution rather than the aggregate light output.^[8] Key prerequisite concepts include flux, defined as the electromagnetic energy received per unit time per unit area (typically in erg s⁻¹ cm⁻²), and solid angle, which quantifies the angular area on the sky in steradians (sr) or smaller units like square arcseconds (arcsec²).^[6] These elements form the foundation for interpreting surface brightness in observational contexts.^[6]

Importance and Visibility

Surface brightness plays a pivotal role in astronomy by governing the detectability of extended celestial objects, such as galaxies and nebulae, against the background sky glow, which can vary significantly due to light pollution or natural conditions like moonlight. Unlike total flux, which measures overall luminosity, surface brightness quantifies the flux per unit angular area, allowing observers—both human and instrumental—to integrate light over larger apertures, thereby enhancing contrast for faint, diffuse structures under dark skies. This integration is essential because the human eye and telescope detectors respond to local brightness contrasts rather than isolated point-like emissions, making surface brightness a key metric for assessing observational feasibility in varying environmental conditions.^[9]^[10] In contrast to point sources like stars, which are limited by the point-spread function and the naked-eye visibility threshold of approximately magnitude 6 under ideal dark-sky conditions, extended objects depend on their surface brightness exceeding the sky background to become discernible. For instance, stars appear as compact points where all flux is concentrated, enabling detection down to fainter limits, whereas galaxies like the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), with a total apparent magnitude of 3.4 but an average surface brightness of around 22 mag/arcsec², remain visible to the naked eye or small telescopes only because their extended structure allows the eye to average light over a larger area, surpassing the local sky brightness in low-pollution sites. This distinction underscores why surface brightness profiles are critical for predicting the visibility of diffuse emissions, as objects with high total flux but low surface brightness can evade detection despite their intrinsic luminosity.^[11]^[9]^[12] The angular size of an extended object profoundly influences its effective surface brightness and thus its detectability in astronomical surveys, as larger angular extents can dilute the flux per unit area even if the total integrated magnitude is bright, imposing selection biases in observations of distant or low-surface-brightness systems. For example, a galaxy spanning several arcminutes may possess substantial total flux comparable to a nearby star but exhibit a faint surface brightness that falls below survey thresholds, particularly at higher redshifts where cosmological dimming further reduces detectability. This effect highlights the importance of surface brightness in designing sensitive surveys, as it directly impacts the ability to resolve faint outskirts or low-density features in galaxies.^[13]^[14] Historically, astronomers like William Herschel recognized the challenges posed by low surface brightness in diffuse nebulae during the late 18th century, noting that these extensive, nebulous regions appeared faint despite their large apparent sizes because their light was spread thinly over vast angular areas, requiring larger telescopes or darker skies for resolution. Herschel's systematic sweeps of the sky, including his cataloging of 52 fields of diffused nebulosity, revealed how such objects often eluded detection under typical observing conditions, prompting early insights into the need for contrast-based metrics beyond total brightness to study these structures.^[15]^[9]

Measurement and Calculation

Apparent Surface Brightness

Apparent surface brightness quantifies the observed flux density of an extended celestial object per unit angular area on the sky, typically expressed in magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag/arcsec²). It is a key metric for characterizing the visibility of diffuse sources like galaxies and nebulae, distinct from the total apparent magnitude which integrates light over the entire object. For a source with total apparent magnitude m spread uniformly over an angular area A in square arcseconds, the apparent surface brightness \mu is calculated as

\mu = m + 2.5 \log_{10} A

This formula arises because magnitudes are logarithmic measures of flux, and dividing the total flux by the area effectively adds a correction term proportional to the logarithm of the area.^[16] The derivation of this relation stems from the conservation of specific intensity in radiative transfer, which ensures that surface brightness is independent of distance for unresolved sources. The total flux F from an object decreases with the square of the distance d as F \propto 1/d^2, due to the inverse square law. Simultaneously, the angular size of the object scales as \theta \propto 1/d, so the solid angle or angular area \Omega \propto 1/d^2. Thus, the surface brightness I = F / \Omega remains constant, as both numerator and denominator diminish by the same factor. In magnitude terms, this invariance means \mu does not require distance corrections, unlike total magnitude m.^[2]^[17] Measuring apparent surface brightness involves aperture photometry, where light is integrated within defined circular or elliptical apertures centered on the object, often scaled to enclose a specific fraction of the total flux. For non-uniform profiles, isophotal photometry fits contours of constant brightness (isophotes) to the image, allowing radial averaging or elliptical fitting to derive \mu at various levels, such as the effective radius where half the light is enclosed. Modern imaging software, like IRAF or AstroPy, automates these processes by processing CCD images to compute integrated fluxes and areas after calibration.^[18]^[19] Several observational factors can introduce errors in these measurements. Atmospheric seeing, caused by turbulence in Earth's atmosphere, blurs images over typical scales of 0.5–2 arcseconds, artificially increasing the apparent angular area and thus dimming the measured \mu for marginally resolved sources. Telescope resolution, limited by aperture diffraction (e.g., ~0.1 arcsecond for a 1-meter telescope at visible wavelengths, though seeing often dominates), further constrains the smallest discernible features, particularly for faint extended objects. Accurate background subtraction is essential to isolate the object's signal from sky glow, zodiacal light, or instrumental noise, as over- or under-subtraction can bias fluxes by up to several magnitudes per arcsec² in low-surface-brightness regimes.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Absolute Surface Brightness

Absolute surface brightness refers to the intrinsic brightness of an extended astronomical object, such as a galaxy, expressed in magnitudes per square arcsecond as it would appear at a standard distance of 10 parsecs. For low-redshift objects in a static, Euclidean universe, the absolute surface brightness \mu_{\mathrm{abs}} equals the apparent surface brightness \mu, due to the distance invariance of surface brightness. No distance correction is needed, as the decrease in flux is exactly compensated by the decrease in angular size.^[23] This invariance arises from the same principles as for apparent surface brightness: the flux and angular area both scale inversely with the square of the distance, preserving \mu. However, this holds only for nearby, low-redshift objects, as cosmological expansion introduces additional dimming effects at larger distances.^[23] In applications, absolute surface brightness enables astronomers to probe the intrinsic properties of galaxies, such as the stellar or gas surface density, by providing a distance-independent measure that reveals underlying physical structures like luminosity profiles or mass distributions without the confounding effects of varying viewing distances. For instance, it facilitates comparisons of galaxy evolution across different environments by isolating the inherent brightness distribution per unit area.^[24] A key limitation arises at cosmological distances, where the simple distance correction breaks down due to surface brightness dimming caused by the universe's expansion; this effect, quantified in the Tolman test, predicts an observed dimming proportional to (1+z)^4 (where z is redshift), requiring additional corrections beyond the Euclidean formula to recover true intrinsic values.^[25]

Units and Conversions

Magnitude-Based Units

In astronomy, surface brightness for extended objects is primarily quantified using magnitudes per square arcsecond (mag arcsec⁻²), a unit that expresses the flux density per unit angular area on the sky. This convention applies within specific photometric systems, notably the Vega system, where magnitudes are referenced to the flux of Vega, and the AB system, which is defined for a constant flux density of 3631 Jy across wavelengths and is commonly used in modern surveys like the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). For larger extended structures, such as galaxy outskirts, magnitudes per square arcminute (mag arcmin⁻²) provide a more practical scale due to the coarser resolution. The magnitude-based scale for surface brightness is logarithmic and inverse, meaning brighter surfaces correspond to lower (more negative) magnitude values, with a change of 5 magnitudes representing a factor of 100 in brightness. Zero-point calibration in the Vega system sets Vega's magnitude to 0 in the V band (around 5500 Å), ensuring consistency across optical filters, while the AB system ties the zero point to a spectrophotometric standard for broadband photometry. Common notations include μ followed by the filter subscript, such as μ_B for measurements in the blue B band, with extensions to contemporary filters like the SDSS g' (green) and r' (red) bands for multiband analyses. Conversions between these angular scales account for the area difference, as 1 arcmin² equals 3600 arcsec². The surface brightness in mag arcmin⁻² is thus given by

\mu_{\text{arcmin}} = \mu_{\text{arcsec}} - 2.5 \log_{10}(3600),

which evaluates to approximately μ_arcmin = μ_arcsec - 8.89. To derive this, note that surface brightness μ is defined as μ = -2.5 log₁₀(I) + ZP, where I is the specific intensity per unit solid angle and ZP is the zero-point constant. Rescaling the unit area by a factor of A = 3600 increases the effective intensity by A, so the new magnitude shifts by -2.5 log₁₀(A), preserving the logarithmic nature of the scale. Modern standards have refined these units through space-based and ground-based missions. The Gaia Data Release 3 (2022) delivers all-sky surface brightness profiles for approximately 930,000 galaxies and quasar hosts in mag arcsec⁻², calibrated via its G, BP, and RP broad- and medium-band filters, with iterative Bayesian fitting to achieve high precision at resolutions down to 180 mas. As of 2025, the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) adopts the AB magnitude system for surface brightness photometry in its u, g, r, i, z, y filters, with Data Preview 1 (released June 2025) incorporating refined calibrations for filter bandwidths (e.g., effective widths of ~1000 Å in g and r bands) to minimize systematic errors in low-surface-brightness regimes down to ~28 mag arcsec⁻².

Flux and Physical Units

Surface brightness can be expressed in linear flux units, providing a direct measure of energy flux per unit solid angle, which contrasts with the logarithmic nature of magnitude-based systems. In optical and infrared astronomy, it is commonly quantified as the specific intensity I_\nu, defined as the flux per unit frequency interval per unit solid angle, with units of erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} Hz^{-1} sr^{-1}. This represents the amount of energy received from a direction within a solid angle d\Omega, per unit area perpendicular to the line of sight, per unit frequency bandwidth. In radio astronomy, surface brightness is often given in jansky per steradian (Jy sr^{-1}), where 1 Jy = 10^{-23} erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} Hz^{-1}, allowing for direct comparison of extended emission across frequencies. Equivalent broadband units include erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} sr^{-1}, integrating over the relevant spectral range for the observation. Conversions from magnitude-based surface brightness \mu to these linear flux units follow the standard astronomical magnitude-flux relation, adapted for per-unit-area measurements. The specific intensity I is given by

I = I_0 \times 10^{-0.4(\mu - \mu_0)},

where \mu_0 is the zero-point magnitude for the bandpass (e.g., 0 mag in the AB system corresponds to 3631 Jy), and I_0 is the reference flux density at that zero point. For instance, in the V band, a surface brightness of \mu_V = 22 mag arcsec^{-2} converts to approximately 5.6 \muJy arcsec^{-2}, facilitating integration over extended sources. These conversions preserve the distance-independent property of surface brightness for nearby sources, enabling consistent comparisons. Physical interpretations link observed flux units to intrinsic properties of celestial objects. For an extended source at distance d subtending solid angle \Omega, the average surface brightness I relates to the total luminosity L by I = L / (4\pi d^2 \Omega), where the factor $4\pi d^2 accounts for the dilution of flux over the sphere. More precisely, for surface luminosity density \Sigma (e.g., in solar luminosities per square parsec, L_\odot pc^{-2}), the observed I equals \Sigma / 4\pi in consistent units, assuming isotropic emission and neglecting redshift effects; this yields central disk galaxy values of \Sigma \sim 10^8 L_\odot pc^{-2} corresponding to I \sim 3 \times 10^3 erg s^{-1} cm^{-2} sr^{-1}. In SI units, particularly for photometric applications in the visual band, surface brightness converts to candela per square meter (cd m^{-2}), a measure of luminance, via L_V = L_0 \times 10^{-0.4 \mu_V} cd m^{-2}, where L_0 \approx 1.2 \times 10^5 cd m^{-2} derives from the V-band zero point and human visual response calibration. In cosmological contexts, surface brightness in flux units experiences dimming due to the expanding universe, scaling as (1 + [z](/page/Z))^{-4}, where [z](/page/Z) is the redshift; this arises from two factors of (1 + [z](/page/Z))^{-1} for photon energy loss, one for time dilation in arrival rate, and one for angular size dilution. For example, at [z](/page/Z) = 1, flux-based surface brightness dims by a factor of 16 compared to the local frame, impacting observations of high-redshift galaxies and requiring corrections for intrinsic luminosity density estimates. This effect underscores the utility of linear units in modeling volume emissivity across cosmic distances.

Applications

Galaxy and Extended Object Studies

Surface brightness plays a crucial role in characterizing galaxy morphology by enabling the classification of structural components through the analysis of radial light distributions. Elliptical galaxies typically exhibit surface brightness profiles that follow de Vaucouleurs' law, characterized by a rapid central concentration that fades more gradually at larger radii, allowing astronomers to distinguish them from other types based on their central brightness and overall profile shape. In contrast, spiral galaxies often display exponential surface brightness profiles in their disk components, which provide insights into the scale length and central surface brightness, facilitating the differentiation between early-type and late-type spirals. These profiles are measured using absolute surface brightness to compare intrinsic properties across galaxies at varying distances, revealing evolutionary patterns in morphological features. Low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs), defined by central surface brightness fainter than approximately 22 mag arcsec⁻² in the B-band,^[26] represent a distinct class that challenges models of star formation and galaxy evolution due to their diffuse stellar distributions and low star formation rates despite substantial gas content. LSBGs contribute significantly to the unresolved census of baryonic matter in the universe, potentially accounting for a substantial fraction of the "missing baryons" inferred from cosmological simulations, as their faint profiles make them difficult to detect in standard surveys. Furthermore, their high dark matter fractions, often exceeding 90% within the optical radius, position LSBGs as key probes for dark matter distribution and the efficiency of galaxy formation processes, with observations indicating that they form in lower-density environments where gravitational collapse is less efficient.^[27] Photometric analysis of galaxies frequently employs surface brightness fitting to decompose extended structures into bulge and disk components, quantifying their relative contributions to the total light profile and enabling studies of secular evolution. This technique, which models the two-dimensional surface brightness distribution, reveals that classical bulges have higher central surface brightness and more concentrated profiles compared to pseudobulges in disk-dominated systems, providing constraints on merger histories and dynamical processes. Such decompositions have been instrumental in large-scale surveys, highlighting variations in bulge-to-disk ratios across morphological types and linking surface brightness to the buildup of stellar mass over cosmic time. Recent James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) observations of high-redshift galaxies (z > 6) have utilized surface brightness profiles to uncover unexpectedly compact structures and low surface brightness outskirts, addressing gaps in understanding early galaxy assembly by revealing clumpy, irregular distributions that suggest rapid formation episodes.^[28] These profiles indicate that early massive galaxies often exhibit lower effective surface brightness than local counterparts, pointing to dimming effects from young stellar populations and dust, which refine models of star formation efficiency in the first billion years. By fitting light profiles to NIRCam imaging, JWST data from 2022 onward have quantified how surface brightness evolves with redshift, showing a transition from dispersion-dominated to rotationally supported disks at z ≈ 2–3.^[28]

Cosmological and Observational Contexts

In cosmology, surface brightness of distant objects is profoundly affected by the expansion of the universe, leading to a dimming factor of (1 + z)^{-4}, where z is the redshift. This reduction arises from three contributions to flux diminution—photon energy redshift by (1 + z)^{-1}, time dilation reducing the photon arrival rate by (1 + z)^{-1}, and the inverse square law over the increased luminosity distance by (1 + z)^{-2}—combined with an additional (1 + z)^{-1} factor from the angular diameter distance, which dilutes brightness per unit solid angle.^[29] This effect, known as cosmological surface brightness dimming, was proposed by Richard Tolman in the 1930s as a testable prediction of an expanding universe.^[30] Observational confirmation of this dimming through the Tolman surface brightness test has provided key evidence for cosmic expansion. Early applications in the 1990s using galaxy samples demonstrated that bolometric surface brightness decreases as (1 + z)^{-4}, consistent with Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker models and ruling out static universe alternatives like tired-light theories.^[30] Modern analyses, incorporating luminosity evolution corrections, reaffirm the signal, with deviations attributed to stellar population effects rather than challenging the expansion paradigm.^[30] This test remains foundational for validating distance measures and probing dark energy influences on high-redshift objects. Large-scale astronomical surveys leverage surface brightness to detect and characterize faint, extended structures, particularly low surface brightness (LSB) objects that evade traditional magnitude-limited selections. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) has identified thousands of LSB galaxies with central surface brightnesses fainter than 24 mag arcsec^{-2}, using deep imaging to probe diffuse stellar halos and dwarf systems down to limits around 26–27 mag arcsec^{-2} in broadband filters.^[31] Similarly, the Dark Energy Survey (DES) employs machine learning to distinguish LSB galaxies from artifacts, achieving detections of ultra-diffuse galaxies with surface brightnesses below 25 mag arcsec^{-2} across wide fields, aiding studies of galaxy formation in low-density environments.^[32] Next-generation surveys like the Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) and Euclid mission extend these capabilities into the 2020s, prioritizing LSB objects to map cosmic structure. DESI's spectroscopic targeting includes LSB galaxies to trace baryon acoustic oscillations, with imaging precursors from the Legacy Surveys revealing systems as faint as 24.5 mag arcsec^{-2} in the z-band for redshift evolution studies.^[33] Euclid, launched in 2023, excels at ultra-low surface brightness detection through its wide-field VISible instrument, identifying dwarf galaxies with brightnesses exceeding 28 mag arcsec^{-2} in mock simulations and early data, enabling weak lensing and galaxy clustering analyses of faint populations.^[34] These surveys' instrumentation, featuring large apertures and low-noise detectors, mitigates sky background to select LSB objects, revealing the "missing" faint end of the galaxy luminosity function. In exoplanet transit photometry, surface brightness informs atmospheric properties during stellar occultations. In transmission spectroscopy, the planet's atmospheric opacity modulates the transit depth, effectively sampling the stellar surface brightness profile and revealing spectral features from hazes or clouds at contrasts down to parts per million.^[35] Stellar surface brightness variations, such as granulation, set a noise floor of approximately 2 ppm in high-precision photometry, limiting atmospheric retrieval for hot Jupiters but enabling brightness temperature mappings around 10 μm.^[36] As of 2025, JWST observations have enhanced these measurements, providing deeper insights into exoplanet atmospheres via improved surface brightness profiling in infrared wavelengths.^[37] In the solar system, surface brightness quantifies the photometric properties of extended features like planetary rings, distinguishing density and particle composition. For Saturn's rings, radial surface brightness contrasts vary seasonally with solar elevation, peaking in denser regions like the A and B rings at levels reflecting ice particle filling factors and thermal emission.^[38] Observations at phase angles near 30° reveal brightness gradients tied to optical depth, with the Cassini spacecraft confirming values from 0.5 to 2 mag arcsec^{-2} across ringlets.^[38] As of 2025, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) sets new standards for faint object detection, achieving surface brightness limits below 32 mag arcsec^{-2} at 5σ in 10″×10″ apertures through its 8.4-m mirror and 3.2-gigapixel camera.^[39] This sensitivity, with first light in June 2025 and full operations commencing later that year, integrates with prior surveys to detect LSB structures like galactic cirri and intracluster light, pushing cosmological probes to unprecedented depths while accounting for satellite constellation interferences that dim streaks to sub-arcsecond surface brightnesses.^[40]

Examples and Profiles

Observational Examples

In dark-sky sites, the background surface brightness of the night sky in the V-band typically ranges from 21 to 22 mag/arcsec², dominated by airglow, scattered starlight, and faint zodiacal emission.^[41]^[42] This level represents optimal conditions for astronomical observations, where light pollution is minimal, allowing faint extended objects to be resolved against the sky. The zodiacal light, arising from sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust, contributes an additional surface brightness of approximately 23 mag/arcsec² in the V-band near the ecliptic pole under typical conditions.^[43]^[44] The Andromeda Galaxy (M31), our nearest large spiral neighbor, exhibits a central surface brightness of approximately 21 mag/arcsec² in the V-band, reflecting the dense stellar concentration in its bulge.^[45] This brightness makes the galaxy's core visible to the naked eye under dark skies, spanning a total angular extent of about 3 degrees, though its full structure extends much farther when observed with telescopes. In the Virgo Cluster, galaxies display a range of surface brightness profiles; for example, the central giant elliptical M87 has a central surface brightness around 20.5 mag/arcsec² in the V-band, highlighting its high stellar density as the cluster's dominant member.^[46] Historical deep-sky objects cataloged by Charles Messier provide classic examples of surface brightness variation within extended sources. The Orion Nebula (M42), a bright emission nebula in the Milky Way, has a central surface brightness of about 17 mag/arcsec², driven by intense ionization from its embedded Trapezium cluster stars, while its average surface brightness across the main structure is roughly 21 mag/arcsec², fading outward into diffuse glows.^[47] These values illustrate how surface brightness can vary dramatically within a single object, influencing its visibility and study.

Surface Brightness Profiles

Surface brightness profiles describe the radial variation in the intensity of light from extended astronomical objects, such as galaxies, providing insights into their structural components and formation histories. These profiles are typically modeled using parametric functions that capture the distribution of surface brightness I(r) as a function of radial distance r from the center. For disk-dominated galaxies, the exponential profile is commonly employed, given by I(r) = I_0 \exp(-r/h), where I_0 is the central surface brightness and h is the scale length. This model, first systematically applied to spiral galaxy disks, effectively represents the gradual decline in brightness outward from the center. The Sérsic profile offers a more general parameterization suitable for a wide range of galaxy morphologies, expressed as

I(r) = I_e \exp\left\{-b \left[ \left(\frac{r}{r_e}\right)^{1/n} - 1 \right] \right\},

where I_e is the surface brightness at the effective radius r_e enclosing half the total light, n is the Sérsic index controlling the profile's curvature, and b \approx 2n - 1/3 ensures the half-light condition. Originally proposed to generalize the de Vaucouleurs r^{1/4} law (for n=4) for elliptical galaxies, the Sérsic model with n=1 recovers the exponential profile for disks. Higher n values describe more concentrated, bulge-like structures. To derive these parameters, ellipse-fitting algorithms are used to decompose two-dimensional galaxy images into overlapping components. GALFIT, a widely adopted tool, performs non-linear least-squares fitting of multiple Sérsic or exponential profiles to account for asymmetries, bars, and spirals while deriving scale lengths, concentrations (e.g., via the concentration index C = 5 \log(r_{90}/r_{50})), and total luminosities. This method has enabled precise structural analysis across diverse galaxy samples. Analysis of these profiles reveals underlying physical processes; for instance, rotation curve comparisons with stellar mass distributions from profiles indicate dark matter halo dominance in low surface brightness galaxies (LSBGs), where extended light traces massive halos. Deviations such as breaks or asymmetries in profiles often signal tidal interactions, where infalling material distorts isophotes and creates faint tails or shells. In LSBGs, profiles tend to be flatter with larger scale lengths compared to high surface brightness counterparts, reflecting slower evolution and lower star formation efficiency.^[48]^[49]^[50] Recent analyses in the 2020s using Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) data have extended profile fitting to high-redshift (z > 6) galaxies in the early universe, revealing compact cores with extended low surface brightness envelopes. These studies address observational incompleteness in faint tails by employing deep imaging and advanced deblending, uncovering diffuse components that challenge models of rapid early galaxy assembly.^[51]^[52]

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In the synphot implementation, called the VEGAMAG system, the zeropoints are defined by the magnitude of Vega being exactly zero in all filters. ... Table 5.1: ...
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Gaia Data Release 3 - Surface brightness profiles of galaxies and ...
The Gaia CU4-Surface brightness profile fitting includes several modules dedicated to different tasks: preparing, transforming and organising the observations; ...<|separator|>
[31]
[PDF] SITCOMTN-165
Oct 31, 2025 · The deep and wide photometric data provided by LSST opens significant opportunities for low- surface brightness science, but the extent to which ...
[32]
Formulae - STScI
Conversion Between Surface Brightness Units. Surface brightnesses are generally measured in Janskys arcsec-2, MJy steradian-1 or magnitudes arcsec-2. If you ...
[33]
[PDF] Astrophysics 3, Semester 1, 2011–12 Observational Astronomy
Surface brightness: this is the flux density received per angular area of sky, Bν = fν/Ω, in units of W m−2Hz−1sr−1 (where sr is for steradian. Ignoring ...
[34]
Infrared Flux Units - Spitzer Telescope Handbook - Caltech
The infrared flux density from a point source is most commonly given in units of Jansky (Jy) where: 1 Jy = 10 -23 erg s -1 cm -2 Hz -1 = 10 -26 Watts m -2
[35]
[PDF] 1 Introduction
1.2.1 Surface brightness maths notes. Surface brightness is quoted in L pc−2, i.e. 1L pc−2 = (3.86 × 1024W)/(3.09 × 1016m)2 = 4.05 × 10−7Wm−2. The B-band solar ...
[36]
(PDF) Magnitude to luminance conversions and visual brightness of ...
Feb 13, 2020 · The photopic luminance for mV=22.0 mpsas is correspondingly comprised between 176 and 213 microcd m-2 (AB), or 187 and 227 microcd m-2 (Vega).<|separator|>
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THE EFFECT OF SURFACE BRIGHTNESS DIMMING IN THE ...
Cosmological surface brightness (SB) dimming of the form (1 + z)−4 affects all sources. The strong dependence of SB dimming on redshift z suggests the ...
[38]
Observational Cosmology - Galaxies and the Universe
Surface brightnesses must be corrected for dimming by (1+z)4 due to expansion of space plus photon energy and arrival-time decreases. The form of this has ...
[39]
Testing Galaxy Formation and Dark Matter with Low Surface ... - arXiv
Mar 8, 2021 · This paper tests galaxy formation and dark matter using low surface brightness galaxies, comparing dark matter models with Modified Newtonian ...
[40]
EPOCHS VI: the size and shape evolution of galaxies since z ∼ 8 ...
We use JWST NIRCam imaging (Rieke et al. 2022) to analyse the light profiles of a large sample of high-redshift galaxies in the F115W, F150W, and F200W ...INTRODUCTION · DATA · GALAXY PROPERTIES · RESULTS
[41]
Tolman Surface Brightness Test - IOP Science
In an expanding universe, bolometric SB will decrease with redshift as (1 + z)-4 while, in a nonexpanding geometry, such as a tired-light cosmological model ...
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THE TOLMAN SURFACE BRIGHTNESS TEST FOR THE REALITY ...
... (1 + z)4 Tolman prediction. We interpret this to mean that a Tolman (1 + z)4 cosmological signal exists but is degraded by luminosity evolution that amounts ...INTRODUCTION · PROPERTIES OF SÉRSIC... · SB PROFILES FOR THE...
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Low Surface Brightness Galaxies Selected from the 40% Sky Area of ...
The population of low surface brightness (LSB) galaxies, which are objects with central surface brightnesses at least one magnitude fainter than the night ...
[44]
Shedding light on low-surface-brightness galaxies in dark energy ...
Low-surface-brightness galaxies (LSBGs), which are defined as galaxies that are fainter than the night sky, play a crucial role in our understanding of galaxy ...
[45]
Euclid preparation. Using mock Low Surface Brightness dwarf ...
Sep 16, 2025 · Abstract page for arXiv paper 2509.13163: Euclid preparation. Using mock Low Surface Brightness dwarf galaxies to probe Wide Survey detectionMissing: DESI | Show results with:DESI
[46]
Model-independent Exoplanet Transit Spectroscopy - IOPscience
We propose a new data analysis method for obtaining transmission spectra of exoplanet atmospheres and brightness variation across the stellar disk from transit ...
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The stellar variability noise floor for transiting exoplanet photometry ...
We find that surface brightness inhomogeneity due to photospheric granulation contributes a lower limit of only 2 ppm to the photometry in-transit. The radius ...
[48]
Seasonal variation of the radial brightness contrast of Saturn's rings ...
The surface brightness of a ring in the thermal emission is expressed as a product of the particle filling factor and the Planck function of the temperature ( ...
[49]
Multiscale astrobiology with the Vera C. Rubin Observatory Legacy ...
LSST's sensitivity to low-surface-brightness (LSB) emission will allow detection of faint ISM structures, such as diffuse clouds and dust complexes. These ...
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Vera C. Rubin Observatory – Impact of Satellite Constellations
Aug 25, 2022 · Rubin Observatory is nearing completion, and its LSST will soon offer an unprecedented, detailed view of the changing sky. Starting in 2025, ...Missing: photometry | Show results with:photometry
[51]
[PDF] The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness
Jun 10, 2016 · Artificial lights raise night sky luminance, creating the most visible effect of light pollution—artificial skyglow. Despite.Missing: arcsec² | Show results with:arcsec²
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Exposure Time Estimation | Gemini Observatory
Uniform surface brightness. mag/arcsec², AB mag/arcsec², Jy/arcsec², W/m²/µm/arcsec², erg/s/cm²/Å/arcsec², erg/s/cm²/Hz/arcsec². (e.g. 21.6 mag/arcsec²).
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9.7 Sky Background - HST User Documentation - HDox - STScI
As shown by this table, over most of the sky the zodiacal background is within 1 magnitude of the minimum value of 23.4 V-mag per arcsec2. It is greater than ...Missing: arcsec² | Show results with:arcsec²
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[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0112193v1 7 Dec 2001
Jun 13, 2000 · At ecliptic latitudes greater than 30 degrees and large scatter- ing angles, the zodiacal light can be as faint as ∼ 23 mag arcsec−2 at 5000Å (∼ ...Missing: arcsec² | Show results with:arcsec²
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THE LUMINOSITY PROFILE AND STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS ...
We have constructed an extended composite luminosity profile for the Andromeda galaxy, M31, and have decomposed it into three basic luminous structural ...Missing: arcsec² | Show results with:arcsec²
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[PDF] The outer regions of the giant Virgo galaxy M87 Kinematic ... - arXiv
Jun 8, 2015 · In the surveyed area over a radial range 7kpc < R <. 150kpc, these profiles give total V-band luminosities Lhalo = 4.41 × 1010L⊙ and LICL = 0.53 ...
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[PDF] spectrophotometry of the huygens region of the orion nebula - STScI
We have been able to use extinction-insensitive line ratios, the extinction-corrected surface brightness in Hβ, and the equivalent width of the continuum to ...
[58]
The dark matter halos of the bluest low surface brightness galaxies
We present BVI photometry and long-slit Hα rotation curve data obtained with ESO VLT/FORS2 for six low surface brightness galaxies with extremely blue ...
[59]
Identification of low surface brightness tidal features in galaxies ...
Nov 29, 2018 · Faint tidal features around galaxies record their merger and interaction histories over cosmic time. Due to their low surface brightnesses ...
[60]
The formation and evolution of low-surface-brightness galaxies
The higher resultant rate of supernova-energy injection flattens their gas-density profiles, which, in turn, creates shallower stellar profiles that are more ...
[61]
PEARLS: Low Stellar Density Galaxies in the El Gordo Cluster ...
Aug 4, 2023 · ... surface brightness dimming inhibit our ability to analyze low surface brightness galaxies at high z. Here, we present a sample of low ...
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Low-surface-brightness Galaxies are Missing in the Observed ...
Jul 11, 2023 · We investigate the impact of the surface-brightness (SB) limit on the galaxy stellar mass functions (GSMFs) using galaxy catalogs generated from the Horizon ...