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Lunar distance

The lunar distance, often abbreviated as LD, is the average distance from the center of the Earth to the center of the Moon, equivalent to the Moon's mean semi-major axis of 384,400 kilometers (238,855 miles).^[1] This distance serves as a fundamental unit of length in astronomy, approximately 0.00257 astronomical units (AU), and is roughly 30 times the Earth's diameter.^[1]^[2] Due to the Moon's elliptical orbit around Earth, with an eccentricity of about 0.05, the actual distance varies significantly over each lunar cycle of approximately 27.3 days.^[3] The Moon reaches its closest point, or perigee, at about 363,104 kilometers (225,623 miles), and its farthest point, or apogee, at around 405,696 kilometers (252,088 miles), resulting in a variation of over 42,000 kilometers between extremes.^[3] Light from the Moon takes about 1.3 seconds to reach Earth at this average distance, underscoring its relative proximity in cosmic terms.^[3] Today, it plays a key role in space mission planning, tidal predictions, and studies of orbital dynamics, as the Moon's varying distance influences phenomena like supermoons and ocean tides.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition

The lunar distance is defined as the separation between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, serving as a fundamental measure of the scale in the Earth-Moon system within astronomy.^[1] This distance quantifies the spatial relationship central to understanding orbital dynamics and gravitational influences between the two bodies.^[4] It is approximately 60 Earth radii or 30 Earth diameters, providing a relatable benchmark for the proximity of the Moon in cosmic terms.^[5] In orbital mechanics, the Moon follows an elliptical path around the Earth-Moon barycenter, the common center of mass of the system, which is located inside the Earth owing to the planet's greater mass.^[6] This barycentric orbit underscores that the lunar distance represents the relative positioning in a two-body gravitational framework, without implying a simple circular path around Earth's geometric center.^[7] The lunar distance is primarily expressed in kilometers (km), the standard metric unit for such astronomical measurements, though conversions to miles (for imperial contexts), astronomical units (AU, the mean Earth-Sun distance), or light-seconds (the distance light travels in one second) offer additional perspectives on its magnitude relative to other scales in the solar system.^[7] It must be distinguished from selenocentric coordinates, which reference positions relative to the Moon's center (such as latitude and longitude on the lunar surface), and geocentric coordinates, which denote locations from Earth's center but encompass broader positional data beyond just the Moon's separation.^[8]

Average Value

The mean lunar distance, defined as the semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit around Earth, is determined to be 384,399 km based on analyses of lunar laser ranging (LLR) data incorporated into planetary ephemerides.^[9] This value represents the time-averaged orbital parameter, excluding short-term fluctuations due to eccentricity and perturbations. Lunar laser ranging, initiated with the placement of retroreflectors on the lunar surface by the Apollo 11, 14, and 15 missions starting in 1969, has enabled precise measurements of the Earth-Moon separation by timing the round-trip travel of laser pulses. The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO), operational since 2006, has achieved millimeter-level precision in individual range measurements, with a median nightly uncertainty of 1.1 mm in one-way path length for high-quality sessions using data up to 2008. These observations contribute to refining the mean distance by constraining orbital models with sub-centimeter accuracy when averaged over multiple sessions. For scale, this distance is approximately 60.3 times Earth's mean radius of 6,371 km or 30.2 times its diameter of 12,742 km.^[10] It corresponds to about 1.28 light-seconds, given the speed of light at 299,792 km/s. The primary uncertainty in this mean value arises from instrumental limits in LLR, such as photon detection statistics and timing resolution, rather than orbital dynamics, yielding an overall precision better than 1 cm for the ephemeris-derived parameter.

Variations

Orbital Perturbations and Eccentricity

The Moon's orbit around Earth is elliptical, with an eccentricity of 0.0549, which results in significant short-term variations in the Earth-Moon distance over each orbital period.^[11] This eccentricity causes the lunar distance to typically range from a mean perigee of approximately 363,000 km to a mean apogee of about 406,000 km, yielding a variation of roughly 42,000 km between these points.^[11] These perigee and apogee distances themselves fluctuate due to gravitational perturbations, primarily from the Sun, which modulate the orbital elements such as eccentricity and the argument of perigee on timescales of months to years. Over longer periods, such as millennia, perturbations can push perigee as low as 356,000 km and apogee as high as 407,000 km.^[11] Solar perturbations exert the dominant influence among external gravitational effects, altering the Moon's orbital velocity and inducing distance shifts through differential gravitational acceleration across the orbit.^[12] Perturbations from other planets, such as Venus and Jupiter, contribute smaller but measurable effects, typically on the order of a few kilometers in distance variation, as analyzed in high-precision ephemerides that account for third-body interactions.^[13] These solar and planetary influences collectively cause the observed long-period oscillations in the lunar orbit's shape and orientation, superimposed on the basic elliptical path. Libration and nodal precession introduce additional minor modulations to the observed lunar position. Optical libration, arising from the Moon's synchronous rotation and elliptical orbit, produces apparent positional swings of up to ±6° in latitude.^[14] Nodal precession, driven mainly by solar torques, causes the Moon's orbital plane to regress with an 18.6-year period, leading to small variations in the orbit's inclination relative to the ecliptic.^[11] In the context of precise measurements like lunar laser ranging, solar radiation pressure exerts a negligible but detectable effect on the retroreflectors deployed on the Moon's surface, displacing their positions by ±3.6 mm annually due to photon momentum transfer during solar illumination. This sub-millimeter perturbation must be modeled in ranging data to achieve millimeter-level accuracy in distance determinations.

Tidal Dissipation and Recession

The primary mechanism driving the gradual recession of the Moon from Earth is tidal friction within Earth's oceans. The gravitational pull of the Moon on Earth's oceans creates tidal bulges that are slightly misaligned with the Earth-Moon line due to the planet's rotation. This misalignment generates frictional drag, transferring angular momentum from Earth's rotational energy to the Moon's orbital angular momentum, thereby increasing the Moon's orbital distance at a current rate of 3.830 ± 0.008 cm per year. This process involves the dissipation of energy through tidal friction, where rotational kinetic energy from Earth is converted into heat in the oceans and added to the Moon's orbital energy. As a result, Earth's rotation slows, lengthening the day by approximately 2.3 milliseconds per century. The majority of this dissipation—about 3.75 terawatts—occurs in the oceans, primarily from semidiurnal tides, with smaller contributions from the solid Earth and atmosphere.^[15] Observational confirmation of this recession rate has been provided by Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) experiments since the 1970s, utilizing retroreflectors placed on the lunar surface by Apollo missions to measure the Earth-Moon distance with millimeter precision. These measurements, spanning over five decades, consistently yield the 3.83 cm/year rate and align with models of tidal dissipation derived from global tide gauge networks, which record ocean tide amplitudes and phases to quantify frictional energy loss supporting the observed lunar drift.^[16] Looking ahead, the recession rate could potentially accelerate if factors enhancing tidal friction, such as further slowing of Earth's rotation or changes in ocean dynamics, intensify the momentum transfer. Recent analyses suggest a slight modern increase in tidal dissipation due to post-industrial sea-level rise and climate effects, which may subtly boost the rate beyond the historical average, though long-term projections remain tied to ongoing geophysical modeling.^[17]

Long-term Orbital Evolution

The Earth-Moon system originated approximately 4.5 billion years ago from a giant impact between proto-Earth and a Mars-sized body known as Theia, resulting in the Moon coalescing from the ejected debris at an initial distance of about 22,500 km from Earth's center.^[18]^[19] This close proximity drove intense tidal interactions that rapidly expanded the orbit while slowing Earth's rotation. Over the subsequent geological epochs, particularly during the Phanerozoic eon spanning the last 541 million years, the Moon has receded at an average rate of 2.17 cm per year, as inferred from paleotidal records. Geological archives, including tidal rhythmites—layered sedimentary deposits that capture ancient tidal cycles—offer direct evidence of these past configurations, revealing lunar distances significantly closer than today, such as around 322,000 km approximately 2.46 billion years ago.^[20] These records, preserved in formations like those in South Australia and Western Australia, document variations in tidal periodicity and amplitude that correlate with a nearer Moon and shorter Earth days. Complementary evidence from analyses of ancient solar eclipse paths, as studied by Edmond Halley using historical Chinese and Babylonian observations, further corroborates a secular increase in lunar distance over millennia, with discrepancies in predicted versus observed eclipse timings implying a receding orbit.^[21] Looking ahead, dynamical models project that continued tidal dissipation will expand the lunar orbit to roughly 1.6 times its current average of 384,000 km in about 50 billion years, assuming the system persists beyond the Sun's red giant phase.^[22] At this stage, the Earth-Moon system will achieve mutual tidal locking, with Earth's rotation period matching the Moon's orbital period of approximately 47 days, stabilizing both bodies in synchronous rotation and eliminating daily tidal cycles on Earth.^[23] External influences, such as gravitational perturbations from other planets, contribute to the long-term stability of the lunar orbit by damping potential chaotic divergences that could otherwise disrupt the system's evolution.^[24] Numerical simulations indicate that without the Moon's gravitational influence, Earth's axial tilt would enter a broad chaotic zone due to these perturbations, but the coupled Earth-Moon dynamics instead promotes orbital resilience over billions of years.

Historical Measurements

Ancient Methods

In the 3rd century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos employed geometry during lunar eclipses to estimate the Earth-Moon distance. By observing the Moon's passage through Earth's umbral shadow, he compared the shadow's diameter to the Moon's apparent size, assuming the shadow cone's angle matched the Sun's angular diameter. This led to an estimate of approximately 20 Earth radii, though the result was inaccurate due to imprecise measurements of the shadow size (assumed as twice the Moon's diameter) and the Sun's angular diameter (taken as about 1° instead of the actual ~0.53°), as well as assumptions treating the umbra as less tapered.^[25] Hipparchus of Nicaea advanced these efforts in the 2nd century BCE by incorporating lunar parallax observations during a solar eclipse in 129 BCE, where the eclipse appeared partial at Alexandria but total at the Hellespont, about 1,000 kilometers north. By measuring the difference in eclipse progress and assuming a baseline equal to Earth's radius times the angular separation, he calculated the lunar parallax as roughly 7 arcminutes, yielding a mean distance of about 67 Earth radii (with bounds of 59 to 72). This refinement relied on timings of the eclipse's phases and variations in the Moon's apparent diameter, marking the first use of parallax for absolute distance.^[26]^[27] Medieval Islamic astronomers built on these Greek foundations, particularly through eclipse observations. In the 14th century, Ibn al-Shatir of Damascus analyzed lunar eclipse shadows and angular sizes to derive distances around 60 Earth radii, aligning closely with the modern value of approximately 60.3 Earth radii. His work, preserved in astronomical handbooks (zījes), incorporated refined timings from Syrian observatories to adjust Ptolemaic models, emphasizing empirical shadow measurements over purely geometric assumptions.^[28]^[29] These ancient methods were hampered by significant limitations, including imprecise angular measurements—often accurate only to within a degree—and uncertainties in Earth-Moon-Sun alignments during eclipses, which affected shadow cone assumptions. Without accurate clocks, timing errors compounded parallax calculations, leading to systematic underestimations; for instance, Aristarchus's result was about one-third the true distance. Additionally, the lack of a reliable Earth radius (Eratosthenes' value came later) propagated errors into absolute scales.^[30]^[31]

Triangulation Techniques

Triangulation techniques for measuring the lunar distance relied on geometric principles, primarily parallax, to determine the Moon's position relative to background stars or other reference points from multiple Earth-based observatories. These methods exploited the Moon's relatively close proximity, which produces a measurable apparent shift in its position when observed from separated locations, allowing astronomers to calculate the distance using basic trigonometry. The baseline was typically the known distance between observatories, often spanning thousands of kilometers across continents or hemispheres. One of the earliest systematic modern parallax measurements was conducted by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1679, who coordinated observations between Paris and French Guiana to determine the horizontal lunar parallax. Using telescopes to track the Moon's position against fixed stars, Cassini calculated the distance as approximately 384,400 km, equivalent to about 60 Earth radii. This value was derived from the parallax angle, adjusted for atmospheric refraction and the Earth's curvature, marking a significant improvement over ancient estimates by incorporating precise instrumental observations.^[32] In the 18th and 19th centuries, meridian crossing methods refined parallax determinations by timing the Moon's transit across local meridians at distant observatories. Astronomers at sites such as Greenwich and Paris recorded the exact moments when the Moon crossed the celestial meridian, comparing these timings to compute the parallax based on the known longitude difference between stations. For example, observations from European observatories in the late 18th century yielded a mean distance of about 384,000 km, with the method benefiting from improved pendulum clocks that reduced timing errors to seconds. This approach was particularly effective for horizontal parallax, as meridian transits minimized azimuthal distortions.^[33] Occultation methods involved observing the Moon's passage in front of stars from multiple sites, where differences in immersion or emersion times revealed the parallax angle, typically around 57 arcminutes for the horizontal component. In the 19th century, international expeditions, such as those coordinated by the U.S. Naval Observatory, used star occultations to triangulate the lunar position, providing parallax data that confirmed distances near 384,000 km. These observations required coordinated timing across baselines like those between North American and European stations, with portable chronometers ensuring synchronization.^[34] Accuracy in these triangulation techniques improved markedly from the 1700s to 1900 due to advancements in instrumentation and baseline lengths. Early 18th-century measurements suffered about 5% uncertainty, largely from imprecise clocks and short baselines, but by the late 19th century, errors had decreased to around 1% through the use of longer transcontinental baselines and refined telescopic filar micrometers for angular precision. These geometric methods remained the standard until the mid-20th century, when electromagnetic ranging superseded them.^[33]

Ranging Methods

The development of radar technology in the mid-20th century marked the beginning of direct active ranging to the Moon. In 1946, the U.S. Army Signal Corps achieved the first successful radar echo detection from the lunar surface through Project Diana, using a modified SCR-270 radar operating at 111 MHz with 25-microsecond pulses; the round-trip signal delay of 2.5 seconds yielded an approximate distance of 384,400 km, though precision was limited to about 50 km due to pulse width and receiver sensitivity constraints.^[35] This milestone confirmed the feasibility of extraterrestrial radar ranging and initiated studies of lunar surface properties.^[36] By the 1950s, radar capabilities advanced significantly at facilities like Jodrell Bank Observatory, where experiments using upgraded transmitters (up to 10 kW peak power at 410 MHz) and larger antennas analyzed thousands of lunar echoes, achieving distance accuracies on the order of 1 km through improved signal processing and mitigation of ionospheric effects like Faraday rotation.^[37] These observations, led by researchers such as J. V. Evans, focused on echo characteristics from the lunar subsolar point, providing early insights into the Moon's radar reflectivity and laying groundwork for planetary ranging.^[37] Laser ranging superseded radar in precision following the Apollo missions. In July 1969, Apollo 11 astronauts deployed a retroreflector array of 100 corner-cube prisms on the lunar surface, enabling the first Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) measurements in August 1969 at Lick Observatory using a pulsed ruby laser; initial round-trip timing uncertainties of about 15 nanoseconds translated to distances accurate to roughly 10 meters, soon improved to centimeters with refined detection.^[38] Subsequent Apollo 14 and 15 arrays, along with Soviet Lunokhod reflectors, expanded the network, allowing global stations to fire short laser pulses (typically 10-100 nanoseconds duration) and measure return times for direct Earth-Moon separation.^[39] LLR precision has evolved through enhancements in timing electronics and atmospheric modeling. Early 1970s systems at McDonald Observatory achieved ~10 cm accuracy by accounting for zenith atmospheric delays via water vapor radiometers and site-specific meteorological data; modern operations there maintain ~1 cm single-shot precision using event timers with picosecond resolution (e.g., 20-50 ps RMS jitter) to resolve pulse returns amid billions of transmitted photons.^[40] Key technical aspects include precise pulse timing via GPS-synchronized clocks, correction for tropospheric refraction (up to 20 cm path delay at zenith) using Marini-Murray models, and handling retroreflector diffusion, where the Apollo arrays spread returning beams over ~20 arcseconds due to their 38 mm cube size.^[41] Significant milestones underscore LLR's impact. In the 1970s, analyses of McDonald and Crimean data first confirmed the Moon's tidal recession at 3.8 ± 0.1 cm/year, validating tidal friction models with direct measurements spanning initial 25 cm accuracies.^[42] By 2009, the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) demonstrated 1.1 mm precision in Earth-Moon range normal points, leveraging a 3.5 m telescope, 532 nm Nd:YAG laser (151 mJ/pulse at 20 Hz), and superconducting nanowire detectors to average ~1,000 photons per return, surpassing prior stations by an order of magnitude.^[43] As of 2025, advancements include the deployment of the Next Generation Lunar Retroreflector on January 15, 2025, and high-power continuous-wave laser techniques targeting sub-0.1 mm precision to further enhance measurements of lunar orbit and geodynamics.^[44]^[45]

Citizen Science Contributions

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, amateur astronomers played a key role in refining lunar ephemerides through coordinated timings of lunar occultations, providing data that improved predictions of the Moon's position and distance to approximately 0.1% accuracy. Organizations such as the British Astronomical Association, founded in 1890, encouraged members to submit precise visual timings of star disappearances and reappearances behind the Moon's limb, which were incorporated into official almanacs like the Nautical Almanac to correct orbital parameters. These efforts supplemented professional observatories by increasing the volume of observations, particularly during favorable viewing windows, and helped quantify subtle discrepancies in the Moon's motion.^[46]^[47] Modern citizen science projects have built on this tradition, leveraging accessible technology for widespread participation in lunar distance measurements. A notable example is the 2007 lunar occultation of Regulus, organized through the International Occultation Timing Association (IOTA), which engaged thousands of amateur observers across North America to record timings, validating ephemeris predictions with about 3% accuracy via parallax analysis from distributed sites. Similarly, the 2014 Aristarchus Campaign utilized webcam and digital camera recordings of the Moon's occultation of Mars, compiling nine observation sets from locations spanning over 2,500 km in South America to compute the geocentric lunar distance as 388,000 ± 2,900 km (0.7% uncertainty), closely aligning with professional benchmarks.^[48]^[49] IOTA protocols standardize these efforts, emphasizing video-timed occultations with GPS time inserters for sub-second precision and brightness measurements to profile the Moon's irregular limb. Participants use affordable setups, such as small telescopes or webcams synced to atomic clocks, to capture disappearance/reappearance events, submitting data via online portals for centralized analysis. These methods enable non-professionals to contribute high-quality light curves without advanced equipment.^[50]^[51] Such initiatives supplement professional laser ranging data by providing dense observational coverage that detects small orbital perturbations, such as those from solar tides, enhancing ephemeris accuracy for long-term models. Additionally, they foster public engagement through educational outreach, training volunteers in observational astronomy and inspiring interest in celestial mechanics among diverse communities.^[52]^[53]

Calculations

Basic Formulas

The lunar distance d can be computed using the parallax formula d = b / \tan p, where b is the observational baseline—typically the Earth's equatorial radius of approximately 6378 km for horizontal parallax—and p is the horizontal parallax angle subtended by this baseline at the Moon's position. For small angles like the Moon's typical parallax, \tan p \approx p (in radians), simplifying the relation to d \approx b / p. The mean lunar horizontal parallax is about 57.3 arcminutes (or roughly 0.0169 radians), corresponding to an average distance of around 384,400 km, or 60.3 Earth radii.^[54] Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310–230 BCE) provided an early approximation for the relative distances in the Earth-Sun-Moon system using geometric methods, including observations at quarter moon and lunar eclipse configurations. These yielded an estimate for the Moon's distance of approximately 20 Earth radii (though modern values confirm about 60).^[54] This trigonometric approach assumes idealized geometries and neglects factors like the Sun's finite size, offering a foundational geometric estimate without precise instrumentation. The angular size relation provides a baseline for distance estimation once the Moon's physical diameter is approximated (e.g., from eclipse observations). The formula is d = D \cdot (206265 / \theta), where D is the Moon's diameter (about 3474 km), \theta is the observed angular diameter in arcseconds, and 206265 converts arcseconds to radians for the small-angle approximation \theta \approx D / d (with \theta in radians).^[55] For the Moon's typical angular diameter of around 1880 arcseconds, this yields the mean distance; variations in \theta (0.5° to 0.52°) reflect orbital eccentricity. The Moon's recession rate due to tidal interactions is currently about 3.8 cm/year, driven by angular momentum transfer from Earth's rotation to the orbit.^[56]

Numerical Models

Numerical models for lunar distance rely on high-fidelity ephemerides that solve the equations of motion for the Earth-Moon system through numerical integration, accounting for gravitational perturbations from other bodies. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) Development Ephemeris DE430 exemplifies this approach, numerically integrating the n-body equations of motion and fitting the resulting trajectories to observational data via least-squares adjustment using Chebyshev polynomials in 32-day segments to propagate positions and velocities of the Moon, planets, and over 300 asteroids.^[57] This method achieves centimeter-level accuracy in lunar range predictions, as validated by fits to Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) observations spanning 1970 to 2013, where post-fit residuals exhibit root-mean-square (RMS) values of about 2 cm for modern data.^[57] Subsequent ephemerides, such as DE440, extend this framework to millennial timescales (1550–2650 CE) while incorporating additional perturbers like Kuiper Belt objects, maintaining similar precision through iterative numerical solutions.^[58] Tidal interactions between Earth and Moon are incorporated into these models via the tidal potential, which generates accelerations from body deformations modeled using second-degree Love numbers (e.g., k₂ ≈ 0.3 for both bodies) and phase lags to represent energy dissipation.^[57] In DE430, a single time-delay approximation captures the frequency-dependent dissipation in the Moon's interior, yielding a secular tidal acceleration of -25.8 arcsec/century² on the lunar longitude, while Earth's ocean and solid tides contribute to the observed recession rate of approximately 38 mm/year.^[57] These secular terms arise from averaged dissipative effects over orbital periods, integrated alongside direct gravitational forces to simulate long-term distance variations without resolving every tidal bulge explicitly, thus enabling efficient computation over centuries. Software implementations for such integrations include specialized numerical propagators like the ORBIT9 integrator from the OrbFit package, which employs a symplectic method for long-term orbital element evolution under perturbations, adaptable to lunar dynamics through user-defined force models.^[59] JPL's proprietary tools, based on variable-step Runge-Kutta or Encke integrators, perform the core computations for ephemerides like DE430, with orbital elements (e.g., semimajor axis, eccentricity) updated iteratively to match LLR normal points, achieving residual fits of 1–2 cm RMS after calibration.^[57] Validation against LLR data, which provides direct ranging to retroreflectors with millimeter precision, confirms model fidelity, as discrepancies in predicted distances are minimized to below 10 cm over decades.^[58] High-precision extensions address relativistic effects through the parametrized post-Newtonian (PPN) formalism, with DE430 solving n-body equations under the PPN metric (β = γ = 1) to include gravitational redshift and pericenter advance, contributing sub-millimeter corrections to lunar distance.^[57] The Shapiro time delay, arising from solar gravitational lensing of laser signals in LLR, is modeled separately in observation equations during ephemeris fitting, reducing systematic errors in range data to ~1 cm.^[60] For trajectories near the Moon, such as in halo orbits, solar radiation pressure is included as a non-gravitational acceleration (magnitude ~10^{-7} m/s²), perturbing spacecraft positions by meters over days but negligible for the Moon's bulk orbit due to its low area-to-mass ratio.^[61]

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[PDF] Lunar Laser Ranging
Lunar laser ranging was made possible by the placement of an array of 100 retro- reflectors on the lunar surface by Apollo 11 astronauts on July 20, 1969.
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Operation and Performance of a Lunar Laser Ranging Station
Occupying only a small percentage of the available telescope time, the system is now measuring 350 lunar ranges per year, each with an accuracy of from 10 cm to ...<|separator|>
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APOLLO - UCSD Physics
APOLLO measures the round-trip travel time of laser pulses bounced off the lunar retroreflectors to a precision of a few picoseconds, corresponding to about one ...Missing: initial | Show results with:initial
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On the relation of the lunar recession and the length-of-the-day
Oct 29, 2021 · The Earth-Moon tidal coupling produces some lunar recession observable by the Lunar Laser Ranging (LLR) experiment. The tidally distorted ...
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The Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation ...
Since that time more than 280 “normal-point” measurements have been made of the distance between the Apache Point Observatory (APO) 3.5-m telescope in New ...
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Lunar Occultations - British Astronomical Association
Lunar occultation observations (1623 to September 2015). The British Astronomical Association supports amateur astronomers around the UK and the rest of the ...Missing: 19th century ephemeris
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An analysis of lunar occultations in the years 1943 ... - NASA ADS
The times of 62000 occultations of stars by the Moon observed during 1943-74 are analysed to determine corrections to the lunar ephemeris / = 2 (based on ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Lunar occultation of Regulus - In-The-Sky.org
Nov 3, 2007 · 3 November 2007: The Moon will pass in front of Regulus (Alpha Leonis), creating a lunar occultation visible from the Contiguous United ...
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Measuring the speed of light and the moon distance with an ... - arXiv
Jun 1, 2015 · In this paper we describe the results of the Aristarchus Campaign. We compiled 9 sets of observations from sites separated by distances as large ...Missing: webcam crater
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Observing Basics « IOTA - International Occultation Timing Association
Jan 30, 2021 · The basic goal is to measure the time of occultation events. Use video cameras with GPS time inserters, or visually record voice and time ...
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[PDF] OCCULTATION OBSERVING and RECORDING PRIMER
Feb 1, 2024 · The organization that collects this data is the International Occultation Timing Association (IOTA). How is an asteroid occultation recorded?
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Citizen Science with IOTA
Additional information on the effort to observe occultations by Apophis is posted on Campaigns. Occultations can detect the presence of asteroidal satellites ...Missing: Regulus 2007
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Contributions of 'citizen science' to occultation astronomy - PubMed
Feb 27, 2025 · Since the 1960s, amateur astronomers have increasingly observed stellar occultations, first by the Moon and in the last three decades by main belt asteroids.Missing: IOTA ephemeris educational
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Estimating the Moon's Distance - PWG Home - NASA
Apr 1, 2014 · In that time the Moon covers a distance of 2πR, where π~ 3.1415926... (pronounced "pi") is a mathematical constant, the ratio (circumference/ ...
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[PDF] Angular Size : The Moon and Stars - Space Math @ NASA
Problem 2 - The relationship between angular size, Θ, and actual size, L, and distance, D, is given by the formula: Θ. L = --------------- D. 206,265. Where Θ ...Missing: lunar | Show results with:lunar
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The Recession of the Moon and the Age of the Earth-Moon System
... simple algebraic equation, shown here as equation 1. Fg = Gm1m2 / R2 ... Lunar laser ranging establishes the current rate of retreat of the moon from ...Missing: formula | Show results with:formula
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[PDF] The Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides DE430 and DE431 - NASA
Feb 15, 2014 · is the torque on the lunar mantle from the point mass of body A,. N ,. M figM figE. - is the torque on the mantle due to the extended figure of ...
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[PDF] The JPL Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides DE440 and DE441
Feb 8, 2021 · Coordinates of Planetary and Lunar Ephemerides Overall, the orientations of inner planet orbits are aligned with ICRF3 with an average accuracy ...
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[TeX] ORBIT9 USER GUIDE Version 2.0.5 - Celestial Mechanics Group
Another example of this can be obtained by filtering the orbital elements in jacobian coordinates, then converting them to heliocentric coordinates: in the ...Missing: lunar | Show results with:lunar
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Progress in Lunar Laser Ranging Tests of Relativistic Gravity
Thus, microwave ranging to the Viking landers on Mars yielded a ∼ 0.2 % accuracy via the Shapiro time delay ... and are today solely responsible for the ...
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[PDF] AAS 22-728 INVESTIGATING SOLAR RADIATION PRESSURE ...
NASA's Gateway program will build a crew-tended station in an Earth-Moon Near. Rectilinear Halo Orbit (NRHO). Deep space operations differ considerably from.