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Manx English

Manx English is a variety of English spoken on the Isle of Man, a self-governing Crown Dependency in the Irish Sea, emerging from a historical language shift from Manx Gaelic to English in the 19th century and characterized by phonological, grammatical, and lexical influences from the substrate Celtic language alongside features from North West English dialects.^[1]^[2] Historically, Manx English developed amid waves of settlement from Ireland, Scotland, and England, with English becoming the dominant first language by the early 20th century following the decline of Manx Gaelic, whose last native speaker died in the 1970s; the Isle of Man's population has grown from about 48,000 in 1961 to 84,069 in 2021 (84,523 as of 2024), driven by immigration from regions like Liverpool and Lancashire since the 1980s, which has accelerated dialect levelling toward a supra-local Northern English standard.^[1]^[3]^[2]^[4]^[5] Phonologically, Manx English exhibits vowel lengthening in the BATH and TRAP sets (e.g., /æː/ before certain consonants, stable at around 12-13% in recent studies), a variable GOAT diphthong ranging from traditional [oː] to Liverpool-influenced [ɛʊ] (with [ɛʊ] at 72% among under-18s), widespread glottal stops for /t/ (58% overall, rising to 87% in young adults), and reduced consonant cluster simplification compared to mid-20th-century norms; it remains non-rhotic with linking /r/, strong syllabicity of /n/ and /l/ (e.g., in "gibbin" or "carval"), and minimal TH-fronting, reflecting resistance to some urban innovations while converging with Northern English prosody.^[1]^[3]^[2] Grammatically, it retains substrate structures from Manx Gaelic, such as using the continuous present tense for present perfect or preterite aspects (e.g., "I'm hearing that he is living in Ramsey") and predicate constructions like "There's a fine day in" with "ayn" equivalents, though these are diminishing among younger speakers due to standardization.^[2] Lexically, over 750 loanwords from Manx Gaelic persist, particularly in domains like weather, agriculture, and seafaring (e.g., "teeming" for pouring or bailing water), with salient items like "skeet" (news or gossip) and "yessir" (a term for friend or mate) used across age groups to signal Manx identity, varying by location, cultural affiliation, and Gaelic proficiency; several such words, including "yessir" and "skeet," were added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2018.^[2]^[6]^[7]^[8] Sociolinguistically, Manx English reflects a close-knit island community undergoing change from demographic shifts and media influences, with no strong regional dialects (north, middle, south) but age-graded variation—older speakers preserving traditional forms and youth adopting external features—while maintaining a distinct identity separate from British English norms.^[3]^[6]^[1]

History

Origins and Early Influences

The Norse settlement of the Isle of Man commenced in the 9th century, when Viking raiders and settlers from Norway established a kingdom that lasted until the 13th century, introducing Old Norse as a superstrate language alongside the existing Celtic vernacular. This period marked the initial linguistic layering on the island, with Old Norse contributing significantly to toponymy and vocabulary that would persist into later English forms; for instance, place names like Snaefell derive from Old Norse elements such as snæfell ("snow mountain"). The Norse influence extended to everyday terms, including tholt, borrowed from Old Norse þólt meaning a pier, jetty, or causeway, which entered the local lexicon to denote similar structures and appeared in compound place names like Tholt-y-Will (Thor's causeway). Similarly, keeill, from Old Norse kjallr or kell referring to a chapel or monastic cell, became a common term for small churches and is still used in Manx English for ancient religious sites. These loanwords reflect the integration of Norse settlers into the island's society, where they intermingled with the Gaelic-speaking population without fully displacing the Celtic language.^[3]^[9]^[10] Following the cession to Scotland in 1266, the island experienced Scots Gaelic influences until English claims solidified in the early 14th century. By the 14th century, the Isle of Man came under the rule of the English Crown following the grant of the island to William Montagu by Edward III in 1333, with subsequent English oversight facilitating the arrival of Middle English as the language of governance, trade, and the emerging gentry class. This influx blended with the residual Manx Gaelic, a Goidelic Celtic language that emerged from Irish influences arriving in the 5th-6th centuries AD and became the dominant vernacular by the medieval period, serving as the primary substrate for the developing English variety. Manx Gaelic's persistence as the community language until the late 18th century allowed for ongoing contact, resulting in a hybrid form where English adopted substrate elements while Norse remnants provided an additional layer of lexical depth. The period after 1333 accelerated English penetration through legal documents and administrative practices, though Gaelic remained the vernacular for most inhabitants.^[3]^[10] Evidence of early bilingualism between Manx Gaelic and English emerges from 17th-century texts, such as the 1610 translation of the Book of Common Prayer into Manx Gaelic. This bilingual environment fostered initial substrate influences on English pronunciation, including compensatory vowel lengthening (e.g., /æ/ extending to /æː/ before certain consonants), though lenition effects like /t/ softening to in certain contexts are minimal. These features arose from speakers transferring Gaelic phonotactics to English, creating distinct prosodic patterns that differentiated the emerging Manx English from mainland varieties. By the 18th century, as English gained ground through education and commerce, these influences solidified the dialect's unique character, though full language shift to English occurred predominantly in the following century.^[3]^[10]^[11]

Development and Documentation

In the 19th century, Manx English underwent significant evolution due to intensified trade and migration links with Liverpool and Lancashire, which introduced lexical, phonological, and grammatical elements from northwest English dialects and contributed to the partial leveling of distinct Manx-specific traits. Economic connections, particularly through ports like Peel and Douglas, facilitated the influx of English settlers and laborers, accelerating the shift from Manx Gaelic to English as the dominant vernacular and diluting some Gaelic-influenced features amid broader Anglicization. This process was exacerbated by educational reforms, such as the adoption of the English Elementary Act in 1872, which promoted Standard English and reduced the retention of unique Manx elements in everyday speech. Scholars like Alexander Ellis observed in 1889 that Manx English was "not entirely book-learned, but more or less tinctured with the neighbouring dialect," highlighting the blending with Lancashire varieties.^[9] Key scholarly works in the early 20th century played a crucial role in documenting and preserving Manx English amid its transformation. Arthur William Moore's A Vocabulary of the Anglo-Manx Dialect (1924), compiled with contributions from Sophia Morrison and Edmund Goodwin, systematically cataloged over 1,500 phrases, idioms, and expressions, capturing the dialect's blend of English, Gaelic, and Norse elements before further erosion. Building on this, W. Walter Gill's Manx Dialect: Words and Phrases (1934) expanded the lexical documentation by including additional terms, etymologies, and usage examples drawn from oral traditions, emphasizing the dialect's vitality in rural communities despite urban standardization pressures. The mid-20th century saw systematic surveys that further illuminated Manx English's Gaelic substrates. The Survey of English Dialects, conducted between the 1950s and 1960s under Harold Orton, included field recordings in Manx parishes such as Andreas (October 1958) and Ronague (November 1958), which revealed persistent syntactic remnants from Manx Gaelic, including non-standard word order and periphrastic constructions in older speakers. These findings, preserved in audio archives at the University of Leeds, underscored the dialect's resistance to complete leveling in isolated areas, even as external influences continued to homogenize it. Literary figures like Thomas Edward Brown were instrumental in preserving Anglo-Manx during the Victorian era, embedding the dialect in poetry and prose to foster cultural identity. Brown's works, such as the narrative poem Betsy Lee (1873) and the prose collection Fo'c'sle Yarns (1881), authentically rendered Anglo-Manx speech patterns and idioms, drawing from his Douglas upbringing to "embalm" fading vernacular fragments amid the Gaelic-to-English shift. This literary effort not only resisted assimilation but also influenced subsequent documentation by providing vivid examples of the dialect's expressive range.

Phonology

Vowel Features

Manx English is characterized by a non-rhotic accent, in which post-vocalic /r/ is not pronounced unless followed by a vowel, aligning it with other North West English varieties but featuring unique linking realizations such as /r/ in phrases like "far away" pronounced as /fɑːrəweɪ/.^[1] This non-rhoticity results in mergers like /ɑː/ for the lexical sets START and PALM, as in "far" /fɑː/ and "palm" /pɑːm/, distinct from rhotic Irish English influences nearby.^[3] The vowel system shows substrate influences from Manx Gaelic, leading to shifts such as the realization of the PRICE diphthong as /æɪ/ rather than /aɪ/, exemplified by "time" pronounced /tæɪm/ and "right" /ɹæɪt/, a fronted quality retained in traditional speakers.^[9] Similarly, centralized diphthongs appear, with NEAR often as /ɪə/ or shifting toward /eə/, as in "near" /nɪə(ɹ)/, reflecting Gaelic's vowel harmony effects on English borrowing.^[1] These Gaelic-induced changes contrast with standard Southern British English, where PRICE is more central /ʌɪ/, and contribute to Manx English's distinct prosody, occasionally interacting with consonants to lengthen preceding vowels in clusters.^[9] Monophthongization patterns are prominent, particularly in the GOAT lexical set, where the diphthong /əʊ/ simplifies to a monophthong [oː] in traditional northern varieties, as in "go" /goː/ or "road" /ɹoːd/, a feature declining among younger speakers under Liverpool English influence.^[3] The TRAP-BATH split is partial and non-standard, with BATH words typically using a short or lengthened /æ/ as in "bath" /bæθ/ or /bæːθ/, rather than the backed /ɑːθ/ of Received Pronunciation, while TRAP remains /æ/ without consistent lengthening, leading to overlap in about 12-15% of tokens across age groups.^[1] This avoids the full split seen in southern England, preserving a fronter quality influenced by local substrate.^[3] Northern varieties exhibit blending of Northern English traits, such as the realization of STRUT as /ʊ/ in words like "cup" /kʊp/ or "strut" /strʊt/.^[9] These features, documented in surveys from the 1980s onward, show stability in older speakers but leveling toward urban English in the young, with formant values for /æ/ in BATH/TRAP averaging F2 at 1451-1577 Hz, indicating front centrality.^[3]

Consonant Features

Manx English exhibits a consonant inventory influenced by both Manx Gaelic substrate effects and regional varieties of British English, particularly those from the North West, resulting in several distinctive features. One prominent Gaelic-influenced trait is lenition, where consonants soften in specific phonetic environments, reflecting historical contact with Manx Gaelic; for instance, /t/ may weaken to among younger speakers, as in "but" pronounced [bʊh].^[3] This process is more evident in lexical items borrowed from Gaelic, where initial stops like /k/ can fricativize to or [ç] in certain contexts, contributing to the dialect's unique articulatory profile.^[9] H-dropping, the omission of initial /h/, occurs variably in Manx English, being more common in rural varieties than in urban areas like Douglas and Onchan, where immigration from mainland England has promoted /h/ retention. In rural speech, it appears occasionally, such as in unstressed elements of compounds like "dung-hill," but overall prevalence is low, with near-categorical /h/ preservation in most samples (only 2 out of numerous informants showed it on three occasions).^[12] This feature aligns with broader North West English patterns but is tempered by Gaelic's lack of /h/ in many positions, leading to inconsistent application across speakers.^[12] Dentalization or aspiration of alveolar stops before /r/ is another characteristic modification, where /t/ and /d/ may be dentalized, as in "true" realized as [t̪ruː]. This occurs occasionally in traditional Manx English, influenced by nearby varieties, highlighting the dialect's articulatory shifts, occasionally interacting with vowel quality in /r/-linked contexts to form smoothed transitions.^[12] The use of the glottal stop [ʔ] as a realization of /t/ in intervocalic and word-final positions is widespread, particularly among younger and working-class speakers, resembling North West English dialects but less intense than in Cockney. Examples include "better" as [beʔə] or "butter" as [bʌʔə], with prevalence reaching 64% in casual word-final contexts in urban samples and increasing over time (from 6% among women in earlier data to 58% overall in recent studies).^[12]^[3] This feature diffuses from external influences like Liverpool English and is more common in informal settings, varying by age and social class.^[3]

Vocabulary

Manx Loanwords

Manx English features a significant number of direct borrowings from Manx Gaelic, with over 750 lexical items integrated into the dialect, particularly those tied to local culture, environment, and daily practices. These loanwords preserve elements of the indigenous Celtic language, which was dominant on the Isle of Man until the 19th century, and continue to be used by speakers connected to traditional communities. Recent additions to recognized Manx English vocabulary include "cooish" (matter or conversation), "chiollagh" (family or household), and "thie veg" (small house, slang for toilet), as incorporated into the Oxford English Dictionary in September 2025.^[13]^[2] Food-related loanwords illustrate the influence of Manx culinary traditions. "Bonnag" denotes a flat soda bread or fruit cake, typically made with buttermilk and raisins, and is a staple in Manx baking; it derives from the Manx Gaelic bonnag, meaning a bun or soft cake, with roots in the Goidelic term for rounded baked goods.^[14]^[2] Topographical terms borrowed from Manx Gaelic reflect the Isle of Man's rugged terrain. "Glion" is used for a narrow valley or glen, often wooded, originating from Manx glion (cognate with Irish and Scottish Gaelic gleann), a Goidelic word denoting a steep-sided ravine formed by glacial activity.^[2] In household and animal vocabulary, borrowings capture everyday rural life. "Traa" appears in phrases like "traa dy liooar" (time enough), conveying a leisurely pace, and stems from Manx traa, the Gaelic term for time, derived from Proto-Celtic trāxs. "Moddey" means dog, especially a working or farm dog, borrowed from Manx moddey, which traces to the Goidelic madadh (cf. Irish madra), denoting a hound or canine companion.^[2] These etymologies underscore how Manx Gaelic provided precise terminology for the Isle of Man's coastal economy and ecology.^[2]

Norse Influences

Manx English retains several elements of Old Norse vocabulary introduced during the Viking settlement of the Isle of Man in the 9th and 10th centuries, when Norse rulers established the Kingdom of the Isles, exerting significant influence on the island's linguistic substrate before the rise of English dominance in the 14th century. This early Norse layer provided foundational terms, particularly in toponymy and descriptions of the natural environment, which entered the local English dialect either directly or via intermediate contact with Manx Gaelic. Unlike later Gaelic loanwords, which primarily filtered through Manx Gaelic revival and cultural practices in the modern era, Norse contributions represent a pre-English substrate, embedded in the island's core nomenclature and everyday speech patterns. Place names in Manx English prominently feature Old Norse elements denoting landscape features, reflecting the Norse settlers' adaptation to the island's terrain. The term "fell," from Old Norse fjall meaning a hill or mountain, appears in names such as Snaefell (from snæfjall, "snow mountain") and Lambfell, highlighting elevated landforms central to Norse geographic perception. "Beck," derived from Old Norse bekkr for a stream or brook, is evident in compounds like Stronabeck ("stream of the beck"), illustrating Norse terminology for watercourses integrated into the Manx landscape. Similarly, "thwaite," from Old Norse þveit signifying a clearing in woodland or meadow, occurs in regional names, underscoring the agricultural and settlement patterns of Viking communities. "Scree," describing a slope of loose, broken rocks or debris, derives from Old Norse skriða (landslide), tied to Norse descriptors of unstable hillside formations common in the island's hills. These elements distinguish Norse etymologies by their direct ties to 9th-10th century colonization, predating substantial English influence.^[15]^[16]^[17] In everyday vocabulary, Manx English incorporates Norse-derived terms related to the natural world, often preserved through oral traditions and local usage. "Skear" (or variant "skeyr"), from Old Norse sker meaning an isolated rock or reef, is used to describe coastal rock formations, a reflection of the Norse maritime expertise during their rule over the Irish Sea region. This word's etymological path traces back to Viking-era seafaring and fishing practices, separate from Gaelic borrowings that emphasize insular Celtic motifs. Animal and nature terms like "raa," linked to Old Norse rá for roe deer, appear in historical contexts tied to 9th-10th century Norse hunting and place-naming conventions, embedding faunal references into the dialect's substrate before English standardization. Some overlap exists with Manx Gaelic in adopted Norse terms, but Manx English prioritizes these as direct legacy elements.^[18]^[19]

Idioms and Phrases

Manx English idioms and phrases often reflect the island's Celtic heritage, incorporating elements from Manx Gaelic while embedding local folklore and a distinctive humor shaped by rural life and community dynamics. These expressions frequently blend literal and metaphorical meanings, with many rooted in superstitions that emphasize caution in speech to avoid invoking supernatural harm. The influence of Gaelic loan phrases persists, particularly in conveying attitudes toward time and fate, alongside proverbial sayings that capture everyday wit or cautionary wisdom.^[20]^[21] A prominent time-related idiom is "traa dy liooar," directly borrowed from Manx Gaelic and meaning "time enough," which encapsulates the relaxed, unhurried pace of island life but can also imply procrastination or laziness depending on context. This phrase underscores a cultural tolerance for leisure, often used reassuringly as in "Traa dy liooar, we'll get to it," reflecting the historical agrarian rhythm where urgency was secondary to seasonal cycles. Similar temporal expressions include "the day is with me," denoting ample time or favorable circumstances, and "a moon of gobbags" for an exceedingly long period, as in never hearing news "in a moon of gobbags."^[22]^[23] Superstitions profoundly shape idiomatic usage in Manx English, particularly around fairies and witchcraft, where direct naming is avoided to prevent misfortune. Fairies, known as the "little people" or "good people" rather than spoken of outright, feature in phrases like "the fairies are doing their baking" to describe rain falling while the sun shines, a sign of their activity believed to bring mixed blessings or mischief. Likewise, witchcraft—termed "pisag" for charms or spells—is skirted in speech to evade the "Evil Eye," with practitioners called "fer-obbee" (men-charmers) or "ben-obbee" (women-charmers); invoking such terms casually was thought to invite malice, leading to euphemistic circumlocutions in conversation.^[21]^[24] Humorous and proverbial phrases add levity to Manx English, often drawing on animal imagery or exaggeration for stealth, admiration, or rebuke. For instance, "as quiet as a mouse" conveys utmost silence, extended in local variants to "quiet as a mouse in a cat's house" for someone moving with extreme caution. Expressions of wonder include "that bates Monachan, an’ Monachan bate the Divil," meaning something surpasses even the clever Monachan who outwitted the devil in folklore. The term "comeover," denoting a recent immigrant or non-native resident, appears in colloquial phrases like "the comeovers are flocking in," highlighting community distinctions with a mix of familiarity and mild outsider status.^[20]^[10] Word replacement customs tied to folklore are evident in euphemisms for death, such as "gone west" or "go west," evoking the direction of the afterlife or burial grounds, used softly as in "He's gone west now" to soften the finality. Other variants include "going round land" for passing away, reflecting navigational metaphors from the island's seafaring past. These phrases stem from a broader reticence in discussing mortality, linked to beliefs in lingering spirits or fairy abductions, ensuring respectful indirection in speech.^[20]^[23]

Grammar

Syntactic Patterns

Manx English exhibits several syntactic patterns shaped by the substrate influence of Manx Gaelic, a VSO (verb-subject-object) language, which has led to deviations from standard English sentence structures, particularly in rural and older varieties. These features reflect calques and direct transfers from Gaelic syntax, where prepositional constructions and aspectual emphases differ markedly from English norms. Studies of Manx English highlight how bilingualism historically fostered these hybrid forms, though they are diminishing with language shift toward standard English.^[9]^[25] A prominent syntactic trait is the expression of possession using the preposition at combined with the verb to be, rather than the standard English verb have. This construction mirrors Manx Gaelic's use of prepositional pronouns for possession, such as echey ("at him/it"). For instance, "He's a good house at him" means "He has a good house," while more idiomatic examples include "It was done at him" (meaning "He did it") or "It's forgotten at me" (meaning "I've forgotten it"). These patterns persist in traditional speech, emphasizing location or association over direct ownership.^[25]^[9] Question formation in Manx English shows some influence from the VSO order of Manx Gaelic, reflecting substrate transfer similar to patterns observed in closely related Hiberno-English varieties, with which Manx English shares strong syntactic affinities due to shared Celtic influences.^[25] The progressive aspect in Manx English is extended beyond standard usage, often conveying ongoing or continuous states with a Gaelic-inspired emphasis on duration or immediacy. Constructions like "I'm away seeing to it" describe an action in progress or imminent, while calques such as "I'm hearing that he's dead" (meaning "I've heard that he has died") use the present continuous to express recent past or perfective senses, directly from Manx Gaelic's continuous tense forms like ta mee clashtyn ("I am hearing"). This broader application highlights the substrate's role in aspectual marking, distinguishing Manx English from mainland varieties.^[9]^[26] Negation in Manx English frequently employs double negatives for emphasis, particularly in informal or rural speech, aligning with emphatic constructions in substrate languages and other regional Englishes. An example is "I don't know nothing about it," where the dual negation intensifies denial rather than canceling it, a pattern observed in Celtic-influenced varieties to underscore certainty or emotional weight. This usage, though nonstandard, serves rhetorical purposes and is documented in broader studies of British Isles Englishes.^[27]^[25]

Morphological Traits

Manx English exhibits distinctive morphological features shaped by substrate influence from Manx Gaelic, as well as contacts with Scots and Old Norse, particularly in word formation and inflection. One prominent trait is the use of diminutive suffixes derived from Gaelic, such as -an or its anglicized variant -een, to denote smallness or endearment. For instance, "houseen" refers to a small house, reflecting the productive Gaelic diminutive process adapted into English morphology.^[28] Similar formations include "lamb-een" for a little lamb, highlighting the Celtic substrate's role in enriching Manx English lexicon with affectionate or scale-indicating terms. Additionally, the definite article is often used with unique or culturally specific nouns, such as "the Manx cat," influenced by Manx Gaelic patterns. Plural formations in Manx English often deviate from Standard English patterns, incorporating irregular forms influenced by northern English dialects, Scots, and Norse legacies. A notable example is "childer" as the plural of "child," akin to archaic or dialectal usages preserved in insular contexts. This feature appears in traditional recordings, such as "childer plays," underscoring the retention of non-standard inflections that blend historical substrates. Comparative adjectives in Manx English frequently employ non-standard constructions, including double comparatives that combine analytic and synthetic forms, diverging from Standard English norms. Expressions like "more better" or "more dearer" exemplify this, where "more" intensifies the adjective without supplanting the -er suffix entirely. Such patterns, also seen in "gooder" for "better," reflect substrate syntactic transfer from Manx Gaelic and parallels in other Celtic-influenced Englishes. Compounding in Manx English favors noun-noun and verb-noun structures, often without hyphens, to create lexicalized terms blending English with local references. The term "Manx cat" for the tailless feline native to the Isle of Man exemplifies this, serving as a blend of ethnic descriptor and common noun to denote a culturally iconic animal. Other compounds, such as "stone wall" or calques like "take song" (to sing), demonstrate practical word formation influenced by Gaelic syntax, aiding concise expression in insular contexts.

Current Status

Usage Today

Manx English, the distinctive dialect of English spoken on the Isle of Man, has experienced a marked decline since the 1970s, primarily due to significant immigration from mainland Britain, often referred to locally as "comeovers." These newcomers, drawn by the island's growing finance sector and low-tax environment, have reduced the proportion of Manx-born residents to 49.6% of the total population of 84,069 as of the 2021 census, with 38.2% born in the United Kingdom (including around 34% born in England as of 2016).^[4]^[29]^[3]^[30] As a result, the traditional dialect is now largely confined to older rural speakers of Manx descent, where it persists among those over 50 in areas outside urban centers.^[3]^[30] Despite this erosion, Manx English endures in informal settings, particularly through local media and literature that incorporate dialect phrases and accents to evoke cultural familiarity. Manx Radio, the island's primary broadcaster, frequently features presenters and segments highlighting Manx English elements, such as unique lexical items like "traa dy liooar" (meaning "time enough") borrowed from Manx Gaelic, integrated into everyday English speech. Local literature, including contemporary works and historical pieces by authors like T.E. Brown, continues to employ dialectal expressions in poetry and prose, often in recitations or competitions that celebrate informal oral traditions.^[31]^[30]^[3] Hybridization is increasingly evident in urban areas like Douglas, where influences from Liverpool English—such as the GOAT vowel shift to [ɛʊ]—blend with core Manx features like vowel lengthening in words such as "bath." This mixing reflects broader globalization and exposure to standard British English via education and media, diluting purer forms among younger urban populations.^[3]^[30] The dialect plays a vital role in bolstering Manx identity, serving as a linguistic marker that distinguishes island heritage from standard British English and fosters a sense of solidarity and nationalism. Features like glottal stops and Gaelic-derived idioms are often invoked in cultural events or by public figures, such as cyclist Mark Cavendish, whose accent embodies this hybrid Manx distinctiveness, reinforcing communal pride amid demographic shifts. Historical documentation of the dialect has aided its modern recognition as a key element of Isle of Man heritage.^[3]^[30]

Preservation Efforts

Modern academic projects have played a key role in documenting Manx English. James Heathcote's 2012 University of York dissertation, "As Manx as the hills? Dialect levelling on the Isle of Man," examines dialectal changes and influences such as Scouse English, with the work archived at Manx National Heritage for ongoing research access.^[32] Similarly, the "Recording Mann" initiative (1996–1999), led by the University of Liverpool's Centre for Manx Studies under Andrew Hamer, produced extensive digital corpora of spoken Manx English from over 700 informants, primarily school-aged children, to capture phonological and lexical variations across the island.^[33] Educational initiatives integrate Manx English preservation alongside the broader revival of Manx Gaelic. Dialect workshops occur in Isle of Man schools, often as part of cultural heritage programs, while the national curriculum mandates inclusion of Manx history and culture.^[34] These efforts align with immersion and elective language classes, promoting awareness of Anglo-Manx features like unique vocabulary and syntax. In media and literature, preservation draws on historical yet enduring works in Anglo-Manx, such as those by poet Josephine Kermode (pen name Cushag), whose dialect-infused poems from the early 20th century continue to be featured in cultural anthologies and educational materials.^[35] Online resources, including the Oxford English Dictionary's World Englishes entry on Manx English (MXE), provide pronunciation models and lexical examples based on contemporary urban speech, aiding digital dissemination and study.^[1] Community-driven activities further support revival through festivals and archival projects. Events like Yn Chruinnaght Celtic Gathering (as of 2025) highlight Manx English via storytelling and performances, while oral history collections at Manx National Heritage emphasize phonological recordings from elderly speakers to preserve endangered traits for future generations.^[36]^[37] These initiatives, including a 2020 study on local archives' role in safeguarding endangered languages like Manx varieties, address the dialect's vulnerability, especially its ongoing but diminishing use in rural areas.^[32]

References

[1]
Manx English
A noticeable feature in the speech of current MXE speakers is the strong syllabicity of /n/ and /l/ consonants in, e.g., gibbin, carval, Tynwald. Schwa appears ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[2]
(PDF) Manx English - Academia.edu
The phonological features of Manx English show standardization towards North West English, influenced by Manx Gaelic and some Scots elements.Cite This Paper · Faqs · References (20)
[3]
[PDF] Manx English: a phonological investigation into levelling and ...
This study aims to locate the Isle of Man within the sociolinguistic field of language variation and change. Stigmatised features of speech on island.
[4]
Putting a Sight on the Substrate, Yessir - Edge Hill University
Apr 15, 2020 · This research seeks to shed light on remaining lexical and grammatical items from the Manx Gaelic substrate in Manx English and describes the ways in which ...Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly<|control11|><|separator|>
[5]
MANX ENGLISH
In 1989-92 George Broderick (Broderick 1989-92) collected some 130 hours of sound-recorded material from ca. 180 native Manx informants for the Manx Place-Name ...
[6]
[PDF] Susan Lewis PhD thesis - St Andrews Research Repository
Manx Gaelic, and in a web-based Manx-English dictionary14 is translated as. 'sneak, news'. The pejorative theme runs through associated translations ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[7]
[PDF] Phonetic Variation in the Douglas and Onchan Area of the Isle of Man
Manx English can still be found among people living in the West of the ... h Dropping does appear to be the single most PO%k'cf ful shibboleth in.
[8]
bonnag, n. meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
There is one meaning in OED's entry for the noun bonnag. See 'Meaning & use' for definition, usage, and quotation evidence. This word is used in Manx English.
[9]
Scandinavian Place-Names in the Isle of Man - Viking Archaeology
-fell ('hill' as in Lambsfell) -nes ('point' or 'headland' as in Langness). Place-Names in -staðir. Names based on types of settlement are rarer than ...
[10]
[PDF] Manx Place-Names: An Ulster View
Manx parishes or skeeraghyn, a term borrowed from Norse, the equivalent of English ... The Norse influence on Man is a contrast with Ulster, which has no mixed.Missing: vocabulary | Show results with:vocabulary
[11]
July 2016.....'skerry' - Norman Nicholson Society
It is related to modern Norwegian 'skjaer', and to the English words 'scar' and 'skerry'.” She mentions the gravel bank Priest Skear in Morecambe Bay. There ...Missing: vocabulary | Show results with:vocabulary
[12]
[PDF] Old Norse loanwords in modern Irish - Lund University Publications
Dec 3, 2014 · ... Manx English mesh, meash, which. “probably reflect[s] the influence of a Manx Gaelic form (compare Irish maois) borrowed directly from early ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[13]
Part 3 - Manx Dialect, Words and Phrases, W.W. Gill, 1934
Manx dialect includes short phrases like 'shoh slaynt' and 'oie vie', idiomatic uses of prepositions, and syntactic peculiarities like inversion and ellipsis.
[14]
Folk-lore of the Isle of Man: Chapter III. Fairies and Fa... - Sacred Texts
HE belief in Fairies or Elves was formerly very prevalent in the Isle of Man, and cannot be said to have altogether died out even at the present day.
[15]
Manx dialect | Culture Vannin | Isle of Man
Manx dialect is a rich Manx-English variation of English. Examples include 'Brabbag' (to warm the backs of the legs) and 'Broogh' (a steep bank).
[16]
Manx Idioms and Phrases - As Manx as the Hills
Apr 26, 2015 · Some Manx idioms and phrases courtesy of W Walter Gill from his book Manx Dialect, Words & Phrases (1934).
[17]
Folk-lore of the Isle of Man: Chapter V. Magic, Witchcraf...
90:1 There seems to be practically no distinction between Sorcery, when deprived of the prophetic element, and Witchcraft. 92:1 Witch. 92:2 If the like exist.Missing: pishogue | Show results with:pishogue
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https://www.normannicholson.org/july-2016skerry.html
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[PDF] THE GRAMMAR OF IRISH ENGLISH: Language in Hibernian style
... (VSO) language. The rigidity of the VSO order, together with the fact that ... Manx English. (MxE), where it is ascribed to influence from Manx Gaelic ...
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World Englishes Vol I: The British Isles
... true of all varieties of working-class West Midlands English. Book 1.indb ... curragh – marshy ground; broo – low-lying land; hibbin – ivy; brashlag ...
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[PDF] Untitled
tively productive, is the process of diminutive ... 'houseen',. 'priesteen', 'supeen'. Celtic elements ... Also Manx English provides comparable examples: black ...<|separator|>
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Manx English - ewave-atlas.
The variety is characterized by the frequent occurrence of characteristic phonological, lexical and grammatical features, the most elusive yet distinctive of ...Missing: vowel | Show results with:vowel
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Oxford English Dictionary adds new words from the Isle of Man
Sep 25, 2025 · It's not the first time words like this have been included in the OED; other entries include: yessir, Hop tu Naa, skeet, and bonnag! Danica ...
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[PDF] Manx Nafional Heritage Library and Archives Dissertafions, theses ...
Manx Nafional Heritage Library and Archives. Dissertafions, theses and essays. April 2025. A study of dialect in the poetry of T E Brown'. Templeton, Angela ...
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Manx English - Broderick - Major Reference Works - Wiley Online ...
This entry falls into two parts. The first part deals with linguistic aspects of Manx English as recorded from Manx English monoglot speakers as part of the ...
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Curriculum - The Department of Education, Sport & Culture
All schools are required to provide pupils with a broad and balanced curriculum, and where appropriate content should reference Manx culture and history.
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Josephine Kermode (Cushag), Author and Poet - Art Collection
Josephine was known affectionately within the family as 'Cushag', the Manx Gaelic word for ragwort, the unofficial Manx national flower. This 'nickname' became ...
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Manx Culture – Yn Chruinnaght | Celtic Gathering
Manx-language playgroups also exist and Manx language classes are available in Island schools. In recent years, the Anglo-Manx dialect has almost disappeared in ...