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Scree

Scree, also known as talus, is a geomorphic feature consisting of a sloping accumulation of loose, angular rock fragments that forms at the base of cliffs, steep slopes, or rocky outcrops. These deposits result from the breakdown and gravitational displacement of bedrock, creating unstable piles of coarse debris typically ranging from pebbles to boulders in size.^[1]^[2] The formation of scree begins with physical weathering of exposed rock faces, particularly through freeze-thaw action in cold climates, where water seeps into fractures, expands upon freezing, and pries the rock apart into fragments. Additional contributions come from mechanical stresses like thermal expansion, root wedging by plants, or unloading as overlying material erodes away, followed by episodic rockfalls that transport debris downslope under gravity.^[3]^[4] Over time, the accumulated material sorts by size, with larger blocks at the base and finer particles higher up, stabilizing at the angle of repose for unconsolidated rock fragments. Scree slopes characteristically exhibit angles of approximately 30° to 40°, reflecting the critical slope at which the granular material resists further sliding, though active deposition can temporarily steepen them beyond this limit. They are prevalent in mountainous regions such as the Alps, Rockies, and Appalachians, where tectonic uplift and periglacial conditions enhance rock breakdown. These features play key roles in landscape evolution by buffering slopes against erosion, channeling water flow, and serving as indicators of long-term weathering rates and climatic history in geological studies.

Terminology

Etymology

The term "scree" originates from the Old Norse word skríða, meaning "to creep" or "slide," which evolved into the Scots and northern English dialect form screith or scree by the late 18th century, reflecting the gradual movement of loose rock debris down slopes.^[5]^[6] This linguistic root emphasizes the dynamic process of accumulation, akin to a landslide or avalanche, as seen in related Icelandic skriða denoting a landslide or steep gravelly hillside.^[7] The first recorded written use of "scree" in English appears in 1781, in the glossary of Reverend John Hutton's guidebook A Tour to the Caves, in the Environs of Ingleborough and Settle (second edition), where it is defined as "loose stones" in reference to rocky debris at cave entrances and mountain bases.^[8] This early adoption marked its entry into geological discourse, later popularized in scientific literature to describe accumulations at cliff bases. By the early 19th century, the term gained broader traction in English-speaking geology.^[6] In other languages, equivalent terms carry distinct etymological histories. The French talus, used interchangeably for such slopes, derives from Latin talus meaning "anklebone," due to the resemblance of the piled fragments to the bone's shape, and entered geological parlance via Old French denoting a slope or embankment.^[9] In German, Geröll refers to loose rock rubble and stems from Middle High German gerël, combining the prefix ge- (indicating result) with rollen (to roll), evoking the rounded, tumbled nature of the material.^[10] These variations highlight how cultural and linguistic contexts shaped terminology for the same geomorphic feature, often linked to talus slopes in cross-linguistic geological descriptions.^[9]

Definitions and Types

Scree refers to unconsolidated accumulations of coarse, angular rock fragments that form on steep mountain slopes, typically derived from the mechanical breakdown of adjacent bedrock and accumulating through gravity-driven processes at the base of cliffs or escarpments.^[11] These deposits are characterized by their loose, poorly sorted nature, with particle sizes ranging from gravel to boulders, and they often exhibit a concave-upward profile that steepens toward the slope apex.^[12] Scree is distinguished from related geomorphic features such as talus and colluvium, though terminology can overlap in usage. Talus specifically denotes the landform created by scree deposits, particularly the steeper, cone-shaped aprons at cliff bases, whereas scree emphasizes the unconsolidated material itself; the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in geological literature.^[11] In contrast, colluvium is a broader category encompassing any gravity-transported slope deposits, including finer soil particles and less angular fragments moved by creep, sheetwash, or rainwash, rather than primarily rockfall as in scree.^[13] Scree deposits are categorized into several types based on vegetation cover, mobility, and thickness. Open scree consists of bare, actively mobile slopes with minimal soil development and no significant plant cover, allowing frequent surface movement of clasts.^[14] Vegetated scree features stabilized accumulations where pioneer plants and soil formation reduce mobility, often transitioning to more mature slope ecosystems over time.^[15] Debris-mantled slopes represent thicker, more extensive scree-like covers that blanket underlying topography, forming broader aprons or veneers on moderate to steep gradients, distinct from thinner talus by their greater volume and integration with colluvial processes.^[16]

Physical Characteristics

Description

Scree, also known as talus, appears as accumulations of loose, angular rock fragments at the base of steep cliffs or rocky slopes, typically covering inclines of 30° to 40°, which approximate the angle of repose for such debris.^[13] These deposits form a distinctive concave-up profile, with the steepest gradients near the cliff base transitioning to gentler angles downslope, resulting from the ongoing addition of material via rockfalls.^[14] The rocks, often ranging from pebble to boulder size, lie in a jumbled, poorly sorted mass that shifts under foot, creating an unstable, rugged surface characteristic of mountainous terrain.^[17] The dynamics of scree slopes reflect their mode of accumulation, with upper proximal sections exhibiting steeper angles (up to the angle of repose) that promote rapid debris movement through rolling and bouncing during falls.^[18] In contrast, the lower distal aprons gradually flatten, fostering stabilization as particles settle and interlock, reducing mobility over time.^[19] This segmented structure contributes to the overall concave morphology, where the profile curves upward from the base, influenced by the height of the source cliff and frequency of rockfall events.^[14] Scale variations in scree features range from small, localized piles measuring mere meters in extent, often below minor outcrops, to vast fields covering several kilometers across entire valley sides in high-relief regions like the Alps or Rockies.^[17]

Composition and Morphology

Scree deposits consist predominantly of coarse, angular rock fragments ranging in size from gravel (2 mm) to boulders (>256 mm), with clasts typically measuring several centimeters to meters across due to limited post-detachment transport that preserves their blocky shapes.^[20]^[13] This angularity arises from the short-distance fallback from cliff faces, resulting in subangular to very angular particles that lack significant rounding from abrasion.^[17] The mineralogical composition of scree directly mirrors that of the underlying parent bedrock, as the debris originates from mechanical breakdown without substantial alteration. In karst landscapes developed on carbonate platforms, the deposits comprise primarily calcite and dolomite fragments, reflecting the soluble limestone or dolostone source material.^[21] Morphologically, scree exhibits poor sorting, with a wide range of particle sizes intermixed across the deposit, though subtle gradients may occur with larger clasts concentrating at the base and finer material near the crest. Imbrication, or the overlapping alignment of platy or elongate clasts, is common, often oriented uphill with dip angles up to 79 degrees, enhancing slope stability. Lobate extensions at the toe can form where debris flows contribute, creating tongue-like protrusions amid the otherwise conical or apron-shaped accumulation.^[17]^[22]^[22]

Formation Processes

Physical Weathering

Physical weathering, also known as mechanical weathering, involves the breakdown of bedrock into smaller fragments through physical forces without altering the rock's chemical composition, playing a key role in producing the loose debris that accumulates as scree slopes at the base of steep inclines.^[4] This process is particularly effective in environments where temperature variations, pressure changes, or moisture-induced expansion dominate, contributing to the initial fragmentation of cliff faces and outcrops that supply material for scree formation alongside other weathering mechanisms.^[23] Frost wedging, one of the primary physical weathering processes in cold climates, occurs when water seeps into cracks or joints in bedrock and freezes, expanding by approximately 9% in volume and exerting significant pressure—up to 110 kg/cm²—that widens the fractures over repeated freeze-thaw cycles.^[24] This mechanism is dominant in periglacial zones, where subfreezing temperatures and available moisture from snowmelt or rain facilitate the process, leading to the angular rock fragments characteristic of scree deposits, often forming talus cones with slopes near the angle of repose of about 30°.^[24] In unglaciated mountainous regions, such as parts of the Appalachians during the Last Glacial Maximum, frost wedging has produced extensive scree slopes by shattering bedrock into boulders and smaller debris that accumulate at slope bases.^[23] Thermal expansion arises from diurnal temperature fluctuations, particularly in arid climates, where rocks heat rapidly during the day and cool at night, causing differential expansion and contraction that generates micro-cracks through thermal fatigue.^[25] In these environments, the low thermal conductivity of most rocks allows surface layers to expand more than the cooler interior, producing tensile stresses that propagate cracks, often oriented north-south due to the east-west progression of solar heating.^[25] Over time, this repeated stressing breaks down larger clasts into smaller fragments, contributing to the granular debris found in desert scree slopes, as observed in regions like the Mojave and Sonoran Deserts where crack densities increase with exposure duration.^[25] Insolation weathering, a subset of thermal processes intensified by direct solar radiation in hot deserts, leads to granular disintegration as intense daytime heating causes minerals within the rock to expand unevenly, promoting the separation of grains along boundaries without deep fracturing.^[25] This results in the progressive breakdown of surface layers into sand- to pebble-sized particles, which can accumulate as scree in arid talus fields, especially where moisture is minimal to avoid chemical influences.^[4] Studies in desert pavements show that such weathering is enhanced by the shadowing effects in cracks, where reduced insolation preserves moisture that aids crack propagation, ultimately supplying loose material to nearby slopes.^[25] Unloading, or pressure release, happens when overlying rock or soil is eroded away, reducing the confining pressure on underlying bedrock and allowing it to expand upward, which induces parallel sheet-like fractures known as exfoliation joints.^[26] This process is common in granitic terrains, where large slabs peel off concentrically from the surface, as exemplified by the domed exfoliation features in Yosemite National Park's Half Dome.^[26] The resulting sheets and blocks can detach and tumble downslope, forming the coarse debris base of scree accumulations in uplifted or eroded landscapes, particularly where tectonic uplift exposes fresh rock to subaerial conditions.^[4]

Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering contributes to scree formation by altering the mineral composition of bedrock, thereby weakening its structure and facilitating rockfall that accumulates as loose debris at slope bases. Unlike physical processes that primarily fracture rocks, chemical reactions dissolve or transform minerals, creating internal weaknesses that promote detachment in cliff faces and upper slopes. This process is particularly relevant in environments where water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide interact with rock surfaces over time. Hydrolysis involves the reaction of water with rock-forming minerals, such as feldspar, converting them into softer clays like kaolinite, which reduces the rock's integrity and aids in scree production in humid mountain settings. For instance, in granitic terrains, this process softens plagioclase and orthoclase feldspars, leading to granular disintegration that contributes to debris accumulation. Hydrolysis is most effective where moisture is abundant, as water acts as both a reactant and solvent in these ion-exchange reactions.^[27]^[28] Oxidation occurs when iron-bearing minerals, such as those in mafic rocks or iron oxides, react with oxygen and water to form rust-like compounds, introducing stresses and discoloration that weaken the rock matrix in temperate mountain environments. This process is evident in areas with fluctuating water availability, where the expansion of iron hydroxides creates micro-fractures, enhancing susceptibility to failure and subsequent scree deposition. Oxidation rates are accelerated in the presence of moisture, common in mid-latitude highlands.^[27]^[29] Carbonation, driven by carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater forming weak carbonic acid, primarily affects carbonate rocks like limestone and dolomite, dissolving them and producing karst scree in regions with such lithologies. In karst landscapes, this leads to the formation of talus-like debris from undermined cliffs, where soluble minerals are preferentially removed, leaving angular fragments that accumulate as scree. This process shapes distinctive scree features in areas like the Burren or other carbonate terrains.^[30]^[31] The rates of these chemical weathering processes in scree-forming environments are strongly influenced by climate, progressing more slowly in cold, dry alpine zones due to limited liquid water and low temperatures, and accelerating in warm, wet conditions that enhance reaction kinetics. In high-elevation talus slopes, for example, chemical weathering is often subdued compared to lower altitudes, with silicate dissolution rates decreasing by factors related to temperature gradients. While chemical alterations may slightly modify particle shapes, the angularity of scree debris is predominantly maintained by physical processes.^[29]^[32]^[33]

Biological Weathering

Biological weathering contributes to scree formation by facilitating the breakdown of bedrock through organismal activity, supplying loose debris that accumulates at slope bases. This process involves mechanical disruption and chemical alteration driven by plants, animals, and microbes, often acting in concert with abiotic factors to produce the angular fragments characteristic of scree slopes.^[4] Root wedging is a primary mechanism where plant roots penetrate existing cracks in bedrock, expanding as they grow and exerting mechanical pressure that fractures rock into smaller pieces. This is particularly evident in alpine environments, where seedlings sprout in crevices, further widening fissures and promoting fragmentation that feeds scree accumulation. Lichens and mosses play an initial role by colonizing exposed rock surfaces, creating humid microenvironments that enhance moisture retention and facilitate root establishment while also contributing to surface etching through organic acid production.^[4] Burrowing animals accelerate erosion on alpine scree slopes by excavating soil and sediment, destabilizing surfaces and exposing fresh material to further weathering. Rodents such as marmots construct extensive tunnel networks—up to 113 meters long and several meters deep—displacing large volumes of debris that can be mobilized downslope by rain, wind, or frost. Insects and smaller mammals like pikas similarly dig for food and shelter, breaking turf and creating bare patches that amplify erosion rates in these dynamic landscapes.^[34] Microbial activity indirectly enhances chemical weathering on scree source areas through the production of acids by bacteria, which etch mineral surfaces and dissolve components like biotite and hornblende. Bacteria such as Bacillus subtilis and Streptomyces secrete organic acids (e.g., oxalic acid) and inorganic acids, increasing mineral dissolution rates by up to fivefold in some cases, thereby loosening rock particles for subsequent physical breakdown.^[35] Biogeomorphological feedbacks arise as vegetation patterns influence scree slope dynamics, with denser cover stabilizing lower, finer-grained sections while sparse upper-slope growth promotes ongoing instability and debris supply. On active talus slopes, plant cover increases toward the base due to greater stability and moisture, where roots anchor sediment and reduce mobility, contrasting with the barren, shifting upper zones that sustain rockfall. This spatial variation creates a self-reinforcing cycle, where biotic stabilization at the base encourages accumulation but upper-slope bareness perpetuates fragmentation.^[36]^[37]

Environmental Interactions

Glacial and Cryospheric Interactions

Scree debris plays a significant role in moraine formation by being incorporated into glacial till, where it contributes to the accumulation of unsorted sediments along glacier margins. As glaciers advance, they entrain rock fragments from scree slopes through basal plucking and supraglacial deposition, mixing them with other eroded materials to form lateral moraines along valley sides and terminal moraines at the ice front upon retreat.^[38] These moraines serve as depositional landforms that record past glacial extents, with scree-derived angular clasts often distinguishing them from finer tills. In debris-covered glaciers, thick layers of scree act as an insulating blanket over the ice surface, reducing heat transfer from the atmosphere and slowing ablation rates compared to bare ice. This insulation effect is particularly pronounced where debris thicknesses exceed a few centimeters, decoupling surface temperatures from underlying ice melt and preserving ice volume beneath.^[39] Prominent examples include glaciers in the Himalayas, such as Baltoro Glacier in the Karakoram, where debris up to 5 meters thick covers extensive areas and mitigates melt, and in the Alps, like Miage Glacier in Italy, where supraglacial debris thicknesses up to about 1 meter influence seasonal mass balance.^[40] Conversely, the dark color of scree significantly lowers glacier surface albedo, increasing absorption of solar radiation and thereby accelerating ablation, especially in thin debris layers less than 2 cm thick. This albedo reduction—often dropping from 0.2 for bare ice to as low as 0.13 for debris—enhances melt rates by up to several times that of clean ice, creating a positive feedback that exposes more ice to further warming.^[39] In regions like the Himalayas, mineralogical variations in scree (e.g., gneiss and schist) further modulate this effect, promoting localized ponding and cliff backwasting on debris-mantled tongues.^[40] Periglacial scree forms through intensive frost action in ice-free zones adjacent to glaciers, where repeated freeze-thaw cycles fracture bedrock and generate loose debris that subsequently feeds valley glaciers via mass movements. This process, dominant in permafrost-affected slopes, supplies angular rock fragments to glacier accumulation zones, enhancing supraglacial debris loads and influencing ice flow dynamics.^[41] In high-mountain settings, such as those around Mount Rainier, periglacial debris flows from these scree accumulations contribute to proglacial sedimentation and glacier nourishment during recession phases.^[42]

Microclimates and Hydrology

The porous structure of scree, characterized by interstitial voids among loose rock fragments, facilitates air trapping and circulation, which significantly regulates local temperatures. This "chimney effect" drives seasonal air flows: in winter, denser cold external air sinks into lower voids, displacing warmer internal air upward and creating relatively warmer microclimates within the scree compared to ambient conditions.^[43] In summer, ascending warm air from deeper layers cools the surface through ventilation and evaporative processes, resulting in cooler internal temperatures than surrounding free air, often by several degrees Celsius.^[44] These dynamics buffer extreme temperature fluctuations, with internal scree temperatures exhibiting lower daily variances than external air.^[45] Scree slopes enhance moisture retention through their high-porosity matrix, where interstitial spaces capture and hold precipitation, including snowmelt, preventing rapid surface runoff. Stone covers of varying clast sizes on alpine talus (a form of scree) reduce evaporation rates from underlying soils, holding 6-14 times more soil moisture than bare sand surfaces under similar conditions.^[46] This retention fosters groundwater recharge by allowing infiltrated water to percolate slowly into bedrock aquifers, particularly in mountain environments where talus acts as a primary storage reservoir.^[47] The open framework of scree channels winds along its slopes, promoting enhanced evaporation from trapped moisture and contributing to drier surface conditions despite retention in deeper voids. This air circulation, part of the chimney effect, influences local humidity gradients, potentially aiding dew formation on cooler rock surfaces during calm nights and modulating fog development through adiabatic cooling in ascending flows.^[48] Erosional effects are amplified as channeled winds accelerate particle abrasion and removal of fine debris from the slope face.^[49] In hydrological systems, scree functions as natural dams or reservoirs in mountain catchments, impounding water within talus complexes and releasing it gradually to sustain baseflow in streams. Talus groundwater contributes over 75% of streamflow during both storm events and dry periods, altering natural runoff patterns by delaying peak discharges and stabilizing seasonal water availability downstream.^[50] These modified microclimates and hydrological features briefly support specialized biota adapted to stable, buffered conditions.^[45]

Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Scree habitats, characterized by unstable accumulations of loose rock debris on steep slopes, support specialized flora adapted to harsh, dynamic conditions, including the dwarf willow Salix herbacea, which thrives in scree and ridge environments by forming dense mats that anchor in rocky substrates.^[51] These environments also harbor fauna such as the American pika (Ochotona princeps), a small mammal that occupies rocky interstices for burrowing and foraging, relying on the thermal buffering of talus and scree fields above treeline.^[52] Isolated scree patches often exhibit high endemism, particularly in alpine regions, where unique plant communities like those dominated by Papaver coronae-sesleri on calcareous scree foster diverse, resilient assemblages shaped by both biotic and abiotic factors.^[53] As precursors to soil formation, scree ecosystems facilitate stabilization through pioneer vegetation that traps sediments and initiates pedogenesis, gradually transforming barren rock into habitable substrates over time.^[54] This vegetation, including low-growing alpine species, contributes to carbon storage through root systems and microbial activity in shallow soils and biomass, supporting modest sequestration in otherwise mineral-dominated landscapes.^[55] Additionally, scree serves as refugia during climatic shifts, providing buffered microhabitats that enable species persistence amid broader environmental changes.^[56] Trophic interactions in scree are driven by the interstitial spaces, where invertebrates such as oribatid mites form basal communities, decomposing organic inputs and cycling nutrients within the limited soil matrix.^[57] Small mammals like pikas act as herbivores and ecosystem engineers, enhancing nutrient distribution through foraging and haypile construction, which influences plant diversity and supports higher trophic levels.^[58] Birds, including the American pipit (Anthus rubescens), utilize scree slopes for nesting in crevices, preying on invertebrates and seeds while integrating into the food web as both consumers and prey for raptors.^[59] Many scree habitats face threats from infrastructure development and invasive species, leading to habitat fragmentation and loss of endemic biodiversity, as documented in European alpine regions.^[60] In response, siliceous scree (Natura 2000 habitat code 8110) is protected across the European Union as a priority habitat under the Habitats Directive, with sites in the Italian Alps and elsewhere monitored to maintain favorable conservation status through restricted land use and restoration efforts.^[61]^[62]

Geological and Climatic Significance

Global Distribution

Scree, consisting of accumulations of loose rock fragments at the base of steep slopes, is predominantly found in major orogenic belts worldwide, where tectonic uplift creates the necessary cliffs and escarpments for debris accumulation. These features are particularly abundant in the European Alps, where alpine scree slopes exhibit internal sediment structures influenced by debris flows and rockfalls. Similar prevalence occurs in the North American Rocky Mountains, encompassing steep cliff faces, rock outcrops, and talus-covered areas on igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic bedrock. In South America, scree slopes characterize unstable north-facing inclines in the Chilean Andes, often involving dry rock flows on steep terrain. The Himalayas also host extensive scree, notably in regions like Sagarmatha National Park, where precarious slopes contribute to dynamic glacial and hillslope landscapes. Beyond continental orogens, volcanic islands such as Hawaii feature talus slopes, as seen in Kīlauea Caldera, where downdropped blocks and fissure-related collapses generate debris aprons on basaltic terrains. Climatic conditions significantly influence the form and distribution of scree, with periglacial environments in high-latitude regions fostering frost-driven accumulations. In Scandinavia, periglacial processes have shaped relict and active landforms, including scree formations on plateaus and uplands, reflecting Pleistocene frost action and ongoing cold-climate dynamics. Conversely, in arid settings like the American Southwest, talus slopes develop through rapid dissection and debris flow deposition, particularly in basins underlain by schist, where low precipitation and high evaporation rates limit vegetation stabilization and promote coarse debris retention. Geologically, scree is controlled by the presence of steep cliffs composed of various rock types, including sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic lithologies, which weather into angular fragments via physical processes. These features are rare in flat or low-relief terrains, as the lack of sufficient slope angle prevents debris accumulation and allows redistribution by other agents like fluvial erosion. For instance, in the Appalachians, historical talus formations derive from eroded quartzite and other Paleozoic rocks in Shenandoah National Park, forming deep boulder heaps on ridge slopes. Satellite-based land cover mapping further highlights extensive scree coverage, such as alpine scree occupying approximately 14% of the Tibetan Plateau, underscoring its role in high-elevation, tectonically active landscapes.

Climate Change Impacts

In warming high-alpine regions, permafrost thaw induced by rising temperatures has led to increased rockfall activity, contributing to the expansion of scree deposits. Studies in the European Alps indicate that degrading permafrost destabilizes steep rock slopes, resulting in more frequent detachments and accumulation of loose debris at slope bases. For instance, rockfall rates have doubled since the end of the Little Ice Age, with recent analyses attributing this to permafrost warming that reduces rock cohesion through ice melt and water infiltration. This process is particularly pronounced above 2500 meters elevation, where ground temperatures in permafrost areas have warmed at rates of approximately 0.4°C per decade in recent decades.^[63]^[64]^[65]^[66] Conversely, in lower and mid-altitude vegetating zones, elevated temperatures and extended growing seasons have promoted plant colonization on scree slopes, leading to stabilization and reduction in bare scree extent. Higher CO2 levels and warmer conditions enhance soil formation and nutrient availability, allowing pioneer species like grasses and shrubs to establish root networks that bind debris and limit further erosion. Research on calcareous and siliceous bedrocks in the Alps indicates increasing colonization by vascular plants on scree slopes, with clonal perennials playing a key role in trapping sediments. This vegetation advance not only reduces scree mobility but also interacts briefly with biodiversity hotspots by facilitating habitat transitions for alpine species.^[67]^[68]^[69] These dynamics create feedback loops where exposed scree lowers surface albedo compared to snow-covered terrain, accelerating local warming and glacier retreat while mobilizing additional debris. Bare rock and debris surfaces reflect less sunlight (albedo ~0.1-0.2 versus 0.8 for snow), intensifying melt rates and exposing more slopes to weathering; projections suggest increased rockfall frequency in the Alps by 2100 under moderate emissions scenarios. Recent 2024 research highlights biogeomorphological shifts, such as enhanced vegetation-sediment interactions on active scree, which modulate these feedbacks. In polar regions, remote sensing via satellites like Landsat monitors these changes, revealing increased scree formation linked to thawing permafrost in areas like Svalbard.^[70]^[71]^[36]^[72]

Human Dimensions

Hazards and Risks

Scree slopes, characterized by loose accumulations of rock debris, present significant hazards due to their inherent instability, leading to sudden rockfalls and debris slides that threaten human safety in mountainous regions. These events often occur without warning on steep, unconsolidated slopes, where gravitational forces exceed frictional resistance, resulting in rapid downslope movement of rocks and boulders. Rockfalls from scree are a leading cause of injury and death among mountaineers and hikers, accounting for approximately 4-7% of fatalities in high-altitude climbing incidents depending on the region and dataset analyzed. For instance, in the Swiss Alps, rockfalls contributed to 5.3% of fatal emergency cases during high-altitude mountaineering from 2009 to 2021, with 16 documented deaths from such events.^[73]^[74] Infrastructure in proximity to scree-covered slopes faces frequent disruptions from rockfall and slide events, which can bury roads, trails, and utilities under layers of debris, necessitating closures for safety and clearance operations. In the California Sierra Nevada, for example, Interstate 80 has experienced repeated rockfall incidents leading to lane closures and mitigation projects, such as a $12.6 million slope stabilization effort west of the California-Nevada border initiated in 2022 to address ongoing threats. These incidents not only endanger motorists but also strain regional transportation networks and emergency response capabilities.^[75] Assessing scree-related hazards relies on slope stability models that evaluate factors like gradient, material composition, and triggering mechanisms, with the angle of repose serving as a critical parameter for predicting failure thresholds. The angle of repose for scree, typically ranging from 35° to 40°, represents the maximum stable inclination for loose rock debris before sliding initiates, and slopes exceeding this angle are deemed high-risk in empirical models. These assessments often integrate field surveys, LiDAR mapping, and numerical simulations to delineate hazard zones and forecast runout distances, enabling proactive risk mapping in vulnerable areas.^[76]^[77] Mitigation strategies for scree hazards focus on structural and technological interventions to reduce impacts on people and infrastructure. Rockfall barriers, such as flexible steel netting and mesh systems anchored to slopes, are widely deployed to intercept and contain falling debris, with designs tested to withstand impacts up to several tons. Early warning systems, incorporating seismic sensors, LiDAR monitoring, and machine learning algorithms, provide real-time alerts for impending slides, allowing evacuations and traffic controls. In high-risk regions like the California Sierra Nevada, zoning regulations under California's Seismic Hazard Zone program restrict development in areas prone to earthquake-induced rockfalls and slides, mandating geotechnical evaluations and setbacks to minimize exposure. Climate-induced factors, such as permafrost thaw and intensified freeze-thaw cycles, may exacerbate scree instability and elevate these risks in coming decades. For example, in July 2025, rockfalls in the Brenta Dolomites, Italy, prompted the evacuation of hundreds of people due to instability linked to thawing permafrost.^[78]^[79]^[80]^[81]

Recreational Activities

Scree running, a high-speed descent of loose rock slopes by leaping and sliding, originated in New Zealand where it is a popular activity among trampers in areas like Arthur's Pass National Park.^[82] Practitioners often ascend scree chutes that take hours to climb, only to descend in minutes for an exhilarating rush, as demonstrated on routes like the Bealey Slide.^[83] This adrenaline-fueled pursuit has gained traction beyond New Zealand, with variants like scree skiing—sliding down unstable talus on foot or improvised skis—common in the European Alps, where enthusiasts navigate steep, rocky descents in regions such as the Karwendel for a thrilling, rapid exit from summits.^[84] Hiking and climbing on scree present unique technical challenges due to the unstable, shifting surfaces that demand careful foot placement and balance. In Yosemite National Park, routes like the ascent of Mount Dana involve traversing expansive scree fields, where hikers must proceed methodically to avoid slips on the loose volcanic rock.^[85] Climbers in such terrains, including off-trail scrambles in the park's high country, emphasize caution to mitigate the risk of ankle twists or falls on the unpredictable substrate.^[86] Scree holds cultural significance for indigenous peoples, who historically sourced stones from talus slopes for tool-making, shaping flakes into scrapers, knives, and projectiles through knapping techniques. In regions like the central Idaho Mountains, Native American groups utilized the abundant, sorted rocks in scree and rock glaciers to craft essential implements for daily life, reflecting a deep integration with mountainous landscapes.^[87] Today, modern ecotourism in Patagonia highlights scree terrains as part of sustainable adventures, with guided hikes in Torres del Paine National Park traversing talus slopes amid granite towers and glaciers, promoting low-impact exploration of these dynamic environments.^[88] Safety guidelines for scree-based activities prioritize protective gear and environmental awareness to prevent injuries. Sturdy, high-ankle boots provide ankle support and traction, while trekking poles offer stability by distributing weight and testing surfaces ahead.^[86] Participants should avoid wet conditions, as moisture turns loose rocks into slippery hazards that increase fall risks; instead, opt for dry weather and routes with stable patches like lichen-covered boulders.^[86]

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Particle Sorting in Scree Slopes: Characterization and Interpretation ...
May 13, 2022 · A scree (talus) slope is characterized by an inclined accumulation of rock debris sourced from the upper part of a weathered cliff at the foot ...
[18]
(PDF) "The development of scree slopes in the English Lake District ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Scree slopes also have a segmented profile with a steeper gradient in the proximal part and a strong basal concavity in the distal part; this ...
[19]
A scree slope rockfall model - Wiley Online Library
Certain observed characteristics of scree slopes; namely concavity of profile, straight slope angle less than the angle of repose, and good size sorting of ...
[20]
Scree - Talus Black Hills Sparse Vegetation | NatureServe Explorer
Talus and scree slopes are derived from a variety of rock types, but the most sizeable ones are restricted to three major rock types. Talus and scree composed ...Missing: geology | Show results with:geology
[21]
[PDF] DESCRIPTION OF MAP UNITS MODERN SURFICIAL DEPOSITS ...
pebbles, cobbles, and boulders that form scree and rubble on hillslopes and base of slopes. Qls. Landslide deposits (late Holocene)—Slope-failure deposits ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[22]
USGS Bulletin 2130 -- CHAPTER 4
Mar 23, 2012 · The talus deposits are made up of angular cobble- to boulder-sized blocks of volcanic rock. The large boulders, some as large as automobiles ( ...
[23]
[PDF] LIMESTONE RESOURCES OF WESTERN WASHINGTON - WA DNR
Mineralogical composition of limestone and common impurities ... Limestone talus deposits are present below many outcrops in the Cascade Mountains, and ...
[24]
[PDF] Sedimentology of alpine debris-flow and talus deposits in ...
The well-formed levees and lobes provided excellent exposures in which to study and document the sedimentologic characteristics of these debris-flow deposits.
[25]
[PDF] Weathering, Mass Wasting, Erosion, and Landscape Change
Physical weathering prepares rock for chemical weathering by creating more surface area for chemical reaction to act on. Make sure your students understand this ...
[26]
[PDF] Weathering: The Breakdown of Rocks - Crafton Hills College
Mechanical Weathering (aka Physical Weathering). 1) Ice Wedging. *Results from 9% expansion when water turns to ice. *High stress (110 kg/cm2, about the wedge ...Missing: frost | Show results with:frost
[27]
[PDF] PHYSICAL WEATHERING IN ARID LANDSCAPES DUE TO ...
Thermal expansion is one way to produce tensile stress. When a clast begins to heat up, its interior is relatively cool. Surface parallel expansion of its ...
[28]
6.1 Mechanical Weathering – Physical Geology: An Arizona ...
This unloading promotes cracking of the rock, known as exfoliation, as shown in the granitic rock in Figure 6.1.1., which, in places, is peeling off like ...
[29]
Chemical Weathering - The Geological Society
Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts. Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron- ...
[30]
Weathering - National Geographic Education
Jun 5, 2025 · Another familiar form of chemical weathering is hydrolysis. In the process of hydrolysis, a new solution (a mixture of two or more substances) ...
[31]
Weathering and Soils - Tulane University
Sep 10, 2015 · Frost Wedging - Upon freezing, there is an increase in the volume of the water (that's why we use antifreeze in auto engines or why the pipes ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[32]
12.1: Weathering - Geosciences LibreTexts
Apr 26, 2024 · Karst Landscapes. The chemical weathering of carbonate-rich rocks creates a unique landscape abounding in caves, disappearing streams, and ...
[33]
Karst Landscape - The Burren - ArcGIS StoryMaps
Apr 17, 2020 · Chemical weathering occurs when rocks decay or are dissolved by chemical means. The most common type of chemical weathering is carbonation.
[34]
Silicate weathering of soil-mantled slopes in an active Alpine ...
In addition, the chemical weathering rates decrease with elevation indicating that temperature may be a dominant controlling factor on weathering in these high ...
[35]
Relations between basin characteristics and stream water chemistry ...
These relations might result from the short residence times of water and limited soil development in the talus environment, which limit chemical weathering and ...
[36]
Animals as Erosion Agents in the Alpine Zone
Marmots (Marmota) are also identified as causing erosion and mass movement as a result of their burrowing in the alpine zone (see Butler, 1995).
[37]
The contribution of living organisms to rock weathering in the critical ...
Dec 20, 2022 · Forested basaltic substrate was shown to weather two to five times more rapidly than basalts only covered by mosses and lichens118 (even though ...
[38]
Biogeomorphological interactions of vegetation for sediment storage ...
Jun 15, 2024 · In general, the lower part of scree slopes has more vegetation cover than the upslope, because it is more stable and often characterized by ...
[39]
Biogeomorphological influence of slope processes and ...
Talus or scree slopes, formed by accumulation of loose clastic debris below bedrock outcrops, are common in alpine and arctic areas. Plant cover on mobile talus ...
[40]
Glacial Geology - College of Science & Engineering
When the ice eventually melts and retreats from this maximum position, it deposits the debris entrapped in the ice as a till sheet. This till may form low hills ...
[41]
Including debris cover effects in a distributed model of glacier ablation
Sep 20, 2012 · Very shallow layers of debris enhance melt rates by lowering the surface albedo, and thicker layers suppress melt rates by reducing the amount ...
[42]
Understanding Complex Debris-Covered Glaciers: Concepts, Issues ...
This paper provides insights into the complexity of debris-covered glacier systems by addressing concepts and issues associated with forcing factors and ...
[43]
Periglacial Landforms - AntarcticGlaciers.org
'Periglacial' describes a landscape that undergoes seasonal freezing and thawing, typically on the fringes of past and present glaciated regions.Missing: scree action
[44]
[PDF] Periglacial debris-flow initiation and susceptibility and glacier ...
Periglacial debris-flow initiation and susceptibility and glacier recession from imagery, airborne LiDAR, and ground-based mapping. Stephen T. Lancaster1 ...
[45]
Thermal regime of three low elevation scree slopes in Central Europe
Aug 7, 2025 · These results strongly suggest that air circulation in winter, as well as the ice formation processes in the spring, control the thermal regime ...
[46]
Low-altitude permafrost research in an overcooled talus slope–rock ...
Temperature measurements and ground air circulation experiments proved that the so-called “chimney effect” is the main process favoring the ground overcooling ...
[47]
[PDF] Thermal Regimes and Snowpack Relations of Periglacial Talus ...
Over three years, warm seasons showed mean talus matrix temperatures and daily variances lower than surfaces and cooler than free-air; talus surface and matrix ...
[48]
Conservation of soil moisture by different stone covers on alpine ...
This study reports on the influence of stone covers with different clast sizes on the soil moisture of alpine talus slopes in Lassen (California).
[49]
[PDF] Groundwater flow and storage within an alpine meadow-talus complex
Pierson (1982) investigated the hydrological properties of different types of scree slope deposit in New Zealand and inferred that the hydrological response ...
[50]
Evidences of winter ascending air circulation in talus slopes situated ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The chimney effect has been reported to date mainly for cold and sometimes perennially frozen scree slopes situated at low elevations, far ...Missing: evaporation | Show results with:evaporation
[51]
Thermal Regimes and Snowpack Relations of Periglacial Talus ...
Jan 16, 2018 · Periglacial landforms that consist of coarse material such as rock glaciers, block fields, and talus slopes are ubiquitous in mountain regions, ...
[52]
Alpine Hydrogeology: The Critical Role of Groundwater in Sourcing ...
Groundwater discharge in alpine headwaters sustains baseflow in rivers originating in mountain ranges of the world, which is critically important for aquatic ...
[53]
The Response of the Alpine Dwarf Shrub Salix herbacea to Altered ...
Study species Salix herbacea is characteristic to a wide range of microhabitat types, from ridge and scree habitats with early exposure from snow in spring and ...
[54]
Ochotona princeps - American Pika - NatureServe Explorer
Habitat Comments: Pikas are restricted to rocky talus slopes, primarily the talus-meadow interface. Often they occur above treeline up to limit of vegetation ...
[55]
Investigating Endemic Alpine Communities of Papaver corona ...
Alpine plant communities on calcareous scree show remarkable diversity and resilience, shaped by both biotic and abiotic factors. However, they remain ...2. Materials And Methods · 3. Results · 4. Discussion
[56]
Alpine Pioneer Plants in Soil Bioengineering for Slope Stabilization ...
Results are discussed focusing on the perspectives of using alpine pioneer species in future soil bioengineering work for slopes stabilization and restoration, ...
[57]
Persistent and enhanced carbon sequestration capacity of alpine ...
May 17, 2023 · Carbon sequestration capacity of alpine grasslands on the plateau has undergone persistent enhancement under a warmer and wetter climate.
[58]
Isolated alpine habitats reveal disparate ecological drivers of ...
Moreover, meadow and scree habitats may be uninhabitable for species with certain strategies and requirements. For example, arboreal species (e.g., squirrels) ...
[59]
Oribatid mite communities in mountain scree: stable isotopes (15N ...
Mountain scree habitats are intermediate habitats between the base of the soil and the bedrock. They are composed of a network of small cracks and voids, and ...
[60]
An Overview Of The American Pika's Unique Ecology
Feb 18, 2024 · Pikas live in high-altitude, use haypiles, regulate temperature via microclimates, and are keystone species influencing nutrient cycling and ...
[61]
American Pipit Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Farther south, they nest at high elevations including alpine and subalpine meadows, boulder fields, and fell fields (scree slopes above timberline).Habitat · Nesting · Behavior<|separator|>
[62]
Red list of Natura 2000 habitat types of Poland - ScienceDirect.com
Among them are mainly alpine habitats, such as: Siliceous alpine and boreal grasslands (6150), siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (8110) and alpine ...Red List Of Natura 2000... · 3. Results · 3.1. Red List Of Habitats In...
[63]
a dataset from the EU Natura2000 habitat 8110 in the Italian Alps
Dec 1, 2023 · This paper focuses on EU Annex I habitat “8110 - Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (Androsacetalia alpinae and Galeopsietalia ladani) ...Background & Summary · Monitoring Mission Data · Data Records
[64]
8110 Siliceous scree of the montane to snow levels (Androsacetalia ...
Siliceous screes are rock fragments on mountain summits or slopes, made of siliceous rocks, and provide shelter for frost-sensitive species. They are important ...
[65]
A significant doubling of rockfall rates since the Little Ice Age in the ...
Feb 1, 2025 · It is suggested that a major factor in rockwall destabilization in high-Alpine areas is permafrost degradation due to global warming (Gruber and ...
[66]
Rockfall from an increasingly unstable mountain slope driven by ...
Feb 23, 2024 · Several authors suggest recent heatwaves have increased rockfall in the Alps, especially in areas with degrading permafrost. Field evidence ...
[67]
Climate change leads to more alpine hazards
Oct 31, 2024 · Rockfall: Activity has increased in recent decades, but only in the high Alpine region. There, the permafrost is thawing (see box) and the ...
[68]
Climate Change Affects Vegetation Differently on Siliceous and ...
Here, we explore how species richness and surface cover types (vascular plants, litter, bare ground, scree and rock) changed over time on different bedrocks on ...
[69]
Go or grow? Feedbacks between moving slopes and shifting plants ...
Aug 8, 2023 · We envision three possible scenarios of biogeomorphic balance: (1) Intensifying slope movements limit vegetation shifts and thus amplify ...
[70]
ACCELERATING CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON ALPINE ...
Apr 1, 2008 · In the European Alps the increase in air temperature was more than twice the increase in global mean temperature over the last 50 years.
[71]
Permafrost thaw and destabilization of Alpine rock walls in the hot ...
Jul 13, 2004 · This paper seeks to elucidate the effect that the summer of 2003 had on perennially frozen Alpine rock faces and the role of rockfall as an impact of future ...
[72]
Detecting the impact of climate change on alpine mass movements ...
The clearest climate-controlled trends are (i) increased rockfall frequency in high-alpine areas due to higher temperatures, (ii) fewer and smaller snow ...Missing: scree | Show results with:scree
[73]
Climate change leads to more alpine hazards - PreventionWeb.net
Nov 1, 2024 · From rockfall to ice avalanches, climate change is altering natural hazards in the Alps.
[74]
Deathly Accidents While High-Altitude Mountaineering in the Swiss ...
Sep 30, 2022 · Concerning the 16 fatal emergency cases due to rockfalls (5.3%), a team of two alpinists were both hit by a rockfall in three separate events, ...
[75]
Rock Climbing Death Statistics - ZipDo
May 30, 2025 · Nearly 60% of climbing fatalities involve more than one person. Rockfalls account for approximately 15% of climbing deaths in mountain ...
[76]
Rockfall Protection Project Starting on I-80 Westbound ... - Caltrans
Jul 14, 2022 · The improvements are part of a $12.6 million project to stabilize the cut slope along I-80 westbound just west of the California-Nevada line to ...Missing: mitigation zoning
[77]
Lidar-Derived Rockfall Inventory—An Analysis of the Geomorphic ...
Aug 28, 2023 · Some authors report typical well-drained talus slope angles of about 35° [39,40,41], which is notably lower than the typical effective friction ...<|separator|>
[78]
[PDF] Risk Management of Rock Fall Hazards
With respect to the topography, the slope angle must be steeper than the angle of repose (about 37 degrees) in order to generate rock falls, and the higher ...
[79]
[PDF] Rockfall Barrier Service Loads for Rock Impacts with Spin - Geobrugg
Flexible barriers or rockfall net fences are one of the primary mitigation measures for rockfall hazard. They consist of flexible nets connected to a post ...
[80]
Hybrid Early Warning System for Rock-Fall Risks Reduction - MDPI
This section presents an overview of the proposed hybrid early warning system (HEWS) to reduce the rock-fall risk using computer vision and machine learning.
[81]
California Seismic Hazard Zones
A Seismic Hazard Zone is a regulatory zone that encompasses areas prone to liquefaction (failure of water-saturated soil) and earthquake-induced landslides.Missing: scree Sierra Nevada
[82]
Scree running | Tramping - Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Trampers run down the Bealey Slide in Arthur's Pass National Park. A scree slide or slope is a fan of shattered rock that stretches down from a bluff.
[83]
Scree running madness - Wilderness Magazine
### Summary of Scree Running from Wilderness Magazine
[84]
Karwendel Alps Final Day | To Kilimanjaro (and beyond?)
Jul 17, 2012 · ... scree-skiing. The penny then dropped that this was really about the only way to get down, and certainly quicker, and probably just as safe ...
[85]
Mount Dana - The Weekly Camper
Jul 22, 2022 · The trail is mostly walking up steep scree fields, with the trail defined by smaller bits of rock snaking its way to the top of the mountain.hike Review · What I Learned · Fears Faced
[86]
How to Safely Hike Through Scree
Dec 4, 2024 · If you're hiking off-trail, crossing the scree field might require more caution and patience. First, look around for a safer route. If ...
[87]
[PDF] American Indian Use Of Mountain Talus Slope Topography In ...
There is 8: talus pit situated within the center of a level area in the rock glacier formation. This talus pit is an inverted cone shape that measured about ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[88]
Torres del Paine W Trek: Enjoy the best 7 days famous W Trek Tour
The visually stunning W Trek highlights the best of Torres del Paine including the Grey Glacier, French Valley and the Tower base - a once-in-a-lifetime ...