Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Mass-Observation

Mass-Observation was a pioneering British social research organisation founded in 1937 by poet Charles Madge, anthropologist Tom Harrisson, and filmmaker Humphrey Jennings to create an "anthropology of ourselves" through systematic documentation of ordinary people's daily lives, behaviours, and opinions.^[1]^[2] The initiative sought to capture public sentiment independently of media narratives by recruiting hundreds of volunteer observers who maintained diaries, responded to directives, and conducted field studies, such as the in-depth Worktown investigation in Bolton.^[2]^[1] Early publications like the May the Twelfth day-survey of the 1937 coronation and wartime reports for the Ministry of Information offered empirical glimpses into mass psychology, including reactions to events like bombing and potential defeatism, thereby aiding government assessments of civilian morale during the Second World War.^[2] While the original organisation wound down in the early 1950s amid financial challenges and shifting priorities, its extensive archive—now housed at the University of Sussex—remains a vital resource for historians and sociologists, with a successor project relaunched in 1981 to sustain ongoing collections of personal narratives.^[2]^[1]

Origins and Founding Principles

Establishment in 1937

Mass-Observation was established in early 1937 as a social research initiative aimed at systematically documenting the behaviors, opinions, and daily lives of ordinary Britons through direct observation and voluntary reporting. The project emerged from a collaboration among anthropologist Tom Harrisson, poet and journalist Charles Madge, and filmmaker Humphrey Jennings, who sought to apply ethnographic techniques—typically used on non-Western societies—to the British working class and general populace, viewing it as a means to create an empirical "anthropology of ourselves."^[2]^[3]^[4] The founding was precipitated by public dissatisfaction with media coverage of public sentiment, particularly around the abdication crisis of Edward VIII in late 1936, prompting Madge and Jennings to publish an open letter in the New Statesman on 30 January 1937, calling for volunteers to contribute "anthropological" records of everyday life to form a "weather-map of popular feeling." Harrisson, fresh from ethnographic fieldwork in the New Hebrides, joined this effort, bringing his experience in observational methods. In February 1937, Madge and Harrisson issued the inaugural pamphlet Mass-Observation, outlining the organization's goals of enlisting a network of unpaid observers to record unprompted behaviors and attitudes without reliance on questionnaires or interviews, emphasizing raw data collection over interpretive polling.^[5]^[6]^[1] A pivotal early activity occurred on 12 May 1937, coinciding with the coronation of King George VI, when over 200 volunteer observers across Britain—coordinated via newspaper appeals—submitted detailed day-long diaries and reports on public reactions, activities, and moods, marking the project's first large-scale data-gathering effort. These submissions were compiled into the book May the Twelfth: Mass-Observation Day-Surveys 1937 by Over Two Hundred Observers, published later that year by Faber and Faber, which served as both a proof of concept and the organization's debut publication, demonstrating its method of aggregating qualitative observations to reveal social patterns. The initiative positioned Mass-Observation as an independent, non-commercial endeavor, funded initially through private contributions and sales of reports, with headquarters established in London.^[7]^[8]^[9]

Founders' Backgrounds and Ideological Motivations

Tom Harrisson (1911–1976), an anthropologist and ornithologist, was born in Highland Park, Argentina, to British expatriate parents and educated at Harrow School and Pembroke College, Cambridge.^[10] He gained prominence through expeditions, including birdwatching surveys in Germany and Malaysia as a teenager, and extended ethnographic fieldwork among indigenous peoples in the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) from 1933 to 1935, which informed his 1937 book Savage Civilisation.^[11] Harrisson's motivations for co-founding Mass-Observation stemmed from frustration with media distortions of public sentiment, particularly during the 1936 Abdication Crisis, where he observed a gap between elite reporting and ordinary reactions; he sought to apply rigorous anthropological observation to Britain's "Worktown" (Bolton) to document working-class behaviors empirically, viewing it as an extension of fieldwork abroad to demystify the domestic "masses."^[12] Charles Madge (1912–1996), a poet, journalist, and surrealist, was born in England and worked as a reporter for the Daily Mirror before turning to literary and sociological pursuits.^[13] Associated with the left-wing Auden Group and holding Communist Party membership, Madge co-initiated the project via a public letter in the New Statesman on 2 January 1937, calling for a "science of ourselves" through mass anthropological study to counter superficial polling and reveal underlying social psychology amid rising political extremism.^[7] His ideological drive reflected Marxist-influenced surrealism, aiming to harness collective observation for progressive social insight, though critics later noted potential bias in selecting data to align with leftist narratives of class consciousness.^[14] Humphrey Jennings (1907–1950), a painter, poet, and documentary filmmaker, studied English at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and aligned with British surrealists through the 1936 International Surrealist Exhibition.^[15] Joining Madge's call, Jennings contributed artistic methods like collage and visual documentation to Mass-Observation, motivated by a romantic-anthropological vision to capture the "anthropology of Britain" and integrate myth, folklore, and everyday rituals into scientific analysis, influenced by his interests in psychoanalysis and cultural symbolism as antidotes to fascist irrationality.^[16] Collectively, the founders—united despite divergent temperaments (Harrisson's empirical adventurism, Madge's ideological activism, Jennings's artistic mysticism)—responded to interwar anxieties, including the Abdication Crisis and threats of totalitarianism, by rejecting impressionistic journalism for systematic, volunteer-driven data collection to forge a democratic "anthropology at home."^[8] Their manifesto, Mass-Observation (1937), emphasized privileging raw behaviors over opinions, drawing from anthropology and psychology, though underlying left-leaning commitments raised questions about interpretive neutrality in early outputs.^[17] This approach prioritized causal understanding of mass psychology over elite assumptions, anticipating modern social science amid skepticism toward institutional media biases.^[18]

Methodological Framework

Core Techniques of Observation and Data Collection

Mass-Observation's data collection integrated anthropological fieldwork with mass self-reporting, drawing on the expertise of founder Tom Harrisson, who adapted participant observation techniques from his prior ethnographic studies in the South Pacific.^[7] In projects like the 1937 Worktown study in Bolton, paid observers resided among working-class communities for extended periods—Harrisson himself lived there intermittently from February 1937—systematically recording behaviors through direct immersion, noting public interactions, overheard conversations in settings such as pubs and markets, and informal interviews without structured questioning to minimize reactivity.^[19]^[12] This bottom-up method yielded raw qualitative data on rituals, leisure, and social dynamics, often supplemented by photography, as in Humphrey Spender's 1,600+ images of Bolton life from 1937 to 1938.^[20] Complementing fieldwork, Mass-Observation established a national panel of volunteer observers, initially recruiting around 1,400 respondents by late 1937 through public appeals in journals like New Statesman, who provided self-reported data via continuous diaries and targeted queries.^[7] Diaries, maintained by approximately 500 regular contributors from 1939 onward, were submitted monthly and captured personal routines, emotions, and events in narrative form, emphasizing unprompted detail over quantification.^[21] Starting in February 1939 under Charles Madge's influence, "Directives"—themed, open-ended questionnaires distributed quarterly or as needed—elicited responses on topics like fears, spending habits, or political views, generating thousands of replies that formed the basis for synthesizing public sentiment.^[22] Early "Day Surveys," such as the February 27, 1937, call for one-day accounts of Whitsun holidays, tested this participatory model by requesting immediate, detailed logs from volunteers nationwide.^[23] Supporting these primary methods, observers compiled ephemera including 10,000+ press clippings, posters, leaflets, and artifacts relevant to investigations, stored in topic-specific files to contextualize behavioral patterns.^[24] Over 3,000 "File Reports" from 1937 to 1949 aggregated findings from mixed sources into analytical overviews, occasionally incorporating ad hoc questionnaires or street polls for numerical insights, though the emphasis remained on interpretive depth rather than statistical sampling.^[25] This eclectic toolkit prioritized voluminous, anecdotal evidence to map the "anthropology of ourselves," as articulated in the organization's 1937 manifesto Mass-Observation.^[7]

Volunteer Network and Sampling Limitations

Mass-Observation established a national panel of volunteer observers in 1937, initially recruiting around 400 participants through advertisements in publications such as the New Statesman and New Verse, appealing to those interested in social documentation and anthropological approaches to everyday life.^[7] By 1939, the network had expanded to approximately 2,000 observers across Britain, who were tasked with maintaining personal diaries, responding to periodic "directives" on specific topics, and submitting ad hoc reports on public behavior and attitudes.^[26] These volunteers operated without formal training, relying on subjective recording methods to capture unfiltered observations, which complemented the organization's paid investigators deployed in targeted fieldwork like the Worktown study in Bolton.^[27] The volunteer network's reliance on self-selection introduced inherent sampling limitations, as participants were predominantly middle-class individuals from urban areas, particularly the south-east of England, with underrepresentation of working-class, rural, and northern communities.^[28] Critics have noted that this demographic skew—often comprising educated, left-leaning intellectuals—compromised the project's claims to comprehensive representativeness, as volunteer submissions rarely captured authentic working-class perspectives without intermediation by middle-class observers.^[29] ^[30] For instance, while diaries provided rich qualitative data, their authors' shared socio-economic and ideological traits likely amplified certain viewpoints, such as progressive attitudes toward social issues, while marginalizing conservative or proletarian experiences not volunteered.^[27] Geographical and participation biases further constrained generalizability; the majority of responses originated from London and surrounding regions, with patchy coverage elsewhere, exacerbating uneven data density and potential urban-centric distortions in analyses of national moods or behaviors.^[28] Although Mass-Observation supplemented volunteers with structured surveys and paid fieldwork to mitigate these gaps—aiming for a hybrid methodology—the volunteer component's non-random nature meant it could not support robust statistical inferences, serving primarily as a supplementary source for anecdotal and thematic insights rather than probabilistic sampling.^[30] This limitation was acknowledged internally, as founders prioritized voluminous raw data over stratified sampling, reflecting the project's anthropological roots over rigorous social science standards of the era.^[27]

Interwar and Wartime Operations

Mass-Observation initiated its pre-war social investigations in 1937, employing direct observation, volunteer reports, and embedded fieldwork to document everyday behaviors and public sentiments in Britain. The organization's early efforts responded to the abdication crisis of Edward VIII, launching the "Answering Back" initiative to collect unsolicited public opinions on press coverage, which revealed widespread skepticism toward media narratives. This was followed by the inaugural large-scale project on May 12, 1937—Coronation Day for George VI—where approximately 200 observers across 84 locations recorded activities through diaries, interviews, and street watches, producing the first published report, May the Twelfth: Mass-Observation Day-Surveys 1937.^[31]^[1] The most extensive pre-war endeavor was the Worktown project in Bolton, Lancashire, commenced in early 1937 under anthropologist Tom Harrison's direction. Paid observers resided in the town, pseudonymously termed "Worktown," to anthropologically study working-class customs, including pub interactions, cinema queues, street conversations, and responses to economic hardship amid high unemployment rates exceeding 20% in some districts. Complementary fieldwork in Blackpool, dubbed "Pleasuretown," examined holidaymaker behaviors and leisure economies, yielding over 1,000 file reports by 1939 on topics such as advertising efficacy and community rituals. These investigations prioritized unfiltered empirical data over surveys, drawing on Harrison's ethnographic experience in the New Hebrides.^[32]^[2]^[25] Additional probes targeted political and social tensions, including observations of by-elections like West Fulham in 1938 to gauge voter motivations and propaganda impacts, and a 1939 inquiry into anti-Semitism in London's East End via interviews revealing correlations with economic grievances. Preparations for potential conflict were also scrutinized, with 1938-1939 studies on air raid precautions documenting public anxieties, gas mask distributions, and shelter designs through observer notes and ephemera collection. Outputs from these activities informed First Year's Work 1937-38, compiling raw data to challenge prevailing sociological assumptions with granular, site-specific evidence.^[24]^[2]^[33]

World War II Applications and Government Ties

During the early months of World War II, Mass-Observation sought financial support from the newly formed Ministry of Information, securing a brief commission at the war's outbreak in September 1939 to assess public reactions, though initial efforts were limited.^[34] By April 1940, amid escalating threats of invasion and aerial bombardment, director Tom Harrisson negotiated a formal contract with the Ministry to produce ongoing reports monitoring civilian morale, particularly during the critical summer crisis period.^[35] This arrangement positioned Mass-Observation as a key provider of qualitative data on public sentiment, drawing on its network of volunteer observers to document responses to events like air raids, evacuation policies, and propaganda efforts.^[36] The organization's wartime applications focused heavily on morale studies during the Blitz from September 1940 onward, with commissions from the Ministry to survey reactions in heavily bombed cities such as Liverpool, Manchester, Coventry, Hull, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Southampton.^[37] Observers recorded data on bombing impacts, revealing that morale remained relatively resilient in areas where working-class neighborhoods and leisure institutions like pubs and music halls survived intact, contrasting with sharper declines in city centers suffering extensive infrastructure damage, such as Manchester's December 1940 raids or Coventry's cathedral destruction.^[37] These findings, compiled into the File Report series under Harrisson's direction, informed government strategies on maintaining public resolve, though Mass-Observation's methods—relying on subjective diaries and ad hoc observations—faced scrutiny for potential biases in sampling urban working-class perspectives.^[25] Internal divisions emerged over these government ties; co-founder Charles Madge resigned in 1940, opposing the shift toward state-sponsored work that he viewed as compromising the project's anthropological independence, while Harrisson centralized operations in London and embraced the contracts, extending collaborations into 1941 with a six-month renewal for morale assessments.^[38]^[36] Harrisson's leadership emphasized practical utility, producing dozens of wartime file reports on topics from rationing compliance to attitudes toward Allied victories, which the Ministry used alongside quantitative polling to gauge home front stability.^[25] Despite delivering actionable insights, such as evidence against widespread panic predictions, the reliance on government funding strained Mass-Observation's original non-partisan ethos, prioritizing empirical observation of "everyday life" under duress over broader social critique.^[35]

Post-War Decline

Operational Challenges in the Late 1940s

Following the end of World War II, Mass-Observation encountered severe financial constraints as government contracts for morale and propaganda research, which had sustained operations during the war, were abruptly terminated in 1945. Without these subsidies, the organization struggled to secure alternative funding, leading to chronic cash shortages that hampered paid staff retention and field investigations by late 1947.^[3] This fiscal pressure forced a pivot toward commercial market research commissions, such as consumer surveys for private firms, which generated revenue but conflicted with the founders' commitment to independent, anthropological-style social inquiry untainted by corporate interests.^[39] Key personnel departures exacerbated these issues; in 1947, statistician H.D. Willcock resigned to join the government-backed British Social Survey Unit, depriving Mass-Observation of analytical expertise, while co-founder Tom Harrisson relocated to Sarawak as Government Ethnologist, leaving leadership vacuums in fieldwork and direction.^[6] The volunteer panel, which had peaked at over 2,000 contributors during wartime, began eroding due to post-war exhaustion, competing professional demands, and disillusionment with the organization's shifting priorities away from grassroots documentation toward paid polling. Response rates to directives plummeted, with some 1948 surveys yielding fewer than 200 replies, undermining data reliability and the project's core method of mass self-reporting.^[40] Internal methodological disputes compounded operational woes, as debates over scientific rigor—pitting Harrisson's ethnographic immersion against Madge's more sociological leanings—intensified amid resource scarcity, resulting in stalled projects like comprehensive post-war attitude studies. By 1949, these challenges culminated in the effective cessation of independent research activities, with remaining efforts absorbed into commercial ventures that bore little resemblance to the original 1937 mandate. Hinton attributes this trajectory to the incompatibility of Mass-Observation's idealistic, volunteer-driven model with Britain's austere economic recovery and the rise of professionalized polling outfits like Gallup, which offered faster, quantifiable results favored by policymakers.^[41]^[40]

Causal Factors in Dissolution

The original Mass-Observation project faced mounting financial pressures after World War II, as wartime government contracts from the Ministry of Information, which had sustained operations through paid surveys on morale and propaganda effectiveness, ceased with demobilization in 1945. Without these subsidies, reliance on book sales and sporadic commercial reports proved insufficient to cover operational costs, including paid observers and administrative expenses.^[42]^[43] Key personnel departures exacerbated leadership instability. Founder Charles Madge had withdrawn from active involvement by 1940 to pursue journalism, while Humphrey Jennings shifted focus to documentary filmmaking. Tom Harrisson, who assumed sole directorial control after Madge's exit, departed in 1947 to serve as Government Ethnologist in Sarawak, leaving the organization under interim management by figures like H.D. Willcock, who himself resigned in 1947 for a role in the British Social Survey Unit. This vacuum prompted Harrisson to relinquish ownership rights in 1949, transferring control to former observers Leonard England and Mollie Tarrant.^[43]^[42] Volunteer engagement, which peaked at over 2,000 diarists during the war due to patriotic appeals for documenting civilian experiences, declined sharply postwar as participants prioritized reconstruction-era demands on their time and attention. Response rates to directives fell, undermining the project's core method of mass self-observation and revealing the limitations of unpaid, untrained contributors for sustained, representative data collection.^[44] These factors culminated in the incorporation of Mass-Observation Ltd. on March 29, 1949, as a private market research firm, marking the effective dissolution of the independent, ideologically driven social investigation initiative launched in 1937. The transition prioritized client-funded polling over anthropological inquiry, aligning with emerging professional standards in quantitative survey methods but eroding the original volunteer-based, qualitative framework.^[42]^[45]

Revival and Modern Continuation

1981 Relaunch at the University of Sussex

In 1981, the University of Sussex initiated the Mass Observation Project as a revival of the original Mass-Observation organization, aiming to resume systematic documentation of everyday British social life through volunteer-sourced qualitative data.^[46] This relaunch built on the Mass-Observation Archive, which had received the original organization's papers in 1970, enabling the curation of new material to complement historical records.^[47] The effort sought to address gaps in contemporary social research by prioritizing subjective, personal accounts over quantitative surveys, with directives designed to elicit unfiltered observations on routine behaviors and broader cultural shifts.^[48] Volunteers were recruited nationwide via press, television, and radio appeals, forming an initial panel of untrained observers who committed to responding to periodic questionnaires without stylistic constraints or word limits.^[49] These "directives," distributed roughly three times per year by the archive's staff, encompassed varied themes such as personal routines, responses to public events, and reflections on ordinary or exceptional days, allowing submissions in formats including text, photographs, and drawings.^[46] The approach emphasized the value of "trivial" details to reveal underlying social patterns, mirroring the original methodology while adapting to post-war archival practices.^[50] By the project's early years, contributions had accumulated from nearly 3,000 participants, establishing a self-sustaining respondent pool that hovered around 400 active members.^[46] Archival staff, including the designated archivist, selected directive topics in consultation with correspondents and academic advisors, ensuring thematic diversity while maintaining operational independence from external funding influences.^[46] This structure facilitated the project's longevity, positioning it as a bridge between interwar anthropological observation and modern qualitative sociology.^[51]

Contemporary Directives and Archival Expansion

The Mass Observation Project (MOP), relaunched in 1981 under the auspices of the University of Sussex, maintains a volunteer panel of approximately 500 observers who respond to periodic directives—structured questionnaires eliciting written accounts of personal experiences, attitudes, and observations on contemporary topics.^[52] These directives, issued up to four times annually, address modern societal phenomena such as mental health challenges, responses to geopolitical events like Brexit, and everyday impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, enabling the collection of qualitative data on evolving British social dynamics.^[53]^[54] Volunteers, recruited through public calls and maintaining anonymity, submit responses that form the basis of ongoing archival deposits, with opportunities for one-off contributions on specific themes outlined in updated observer handbooks.^[53] Archival expansion since the revival has involved systematic accumulation of post-1981 materials, augmenting the original 1937–1950s holdings with tens of thousands of manuscript responses, ephemera, and topic-specific files, resulting in over 80 distinct collections by the 2020s.^[24] This growth reflects sustained institutional support at Sussex, where the archive, deposited in 1970 and opened publicly thereafter, has prioritized preservation of unfiltered, first-person narratives over quantitative sampling rigor.^[21] Digital initiatives have significantly broadened access, including the Mass Observation Online platform launched by Adam Matthew Digital, which digitizes and enables full-text searchable access to revival-era documents via handwritten text recognition technology, covering directives and responses from 1981 onward.^[1] Complementary efforts, such as selective online releases through university libraries and partnerships, facilitate remote research while the physical archive at The Keep in Brighton houses originals, supporting interdisciplinary studies in history, sociology, and cultural analysis without compromising source integrity. These expansions underscore the project's adaptation to contemporary research demands, though volunteer self-selection limits demographic representativeness compared to probabilistic surveys.^[50]

Publications and Archival Legacy

Major Works from the Original Period

Mass-Observation's original period yielded approximately 25 books and pamphlets between 1937 and 1950, drawn from observer reports, diaries, surveys, and ephemera to document British social behaviors and attitudes.^[55] These works emphasized empirical observation over theoretical abstraction, synthesizing raw data into analyses of everyday life, public opinion, and wartime adaptations.^[55] The foundational text, Mass Observation (1937) by Charles Madge and Tom Harrisson, served as a manifesto articulating the project's goal of creating an "anthropology of our own people" through systematic, nationwide recording of behaviors.^[55] Shortly thereafter, May the Twelfth: Mass Observation Day-Surveys 1937 by Humphrey Jennings and Charles Madge, incorporating contributions from over 200 volunteer observers, detailed activities across Britain on the coronation day of King George VI, capturing variations in public engagement, from street festivities to private reflections.^[55] ^[31] First Year's Work, 1937-1938 (1938), also by Madge and Harrisson, compiled initial findings on topics like fear, work, and leisure, establishing the methodology of combining direct observation with mass self-reporting.^[55] ^[56] Wartime publications shifted focus to morale, production, and adaptation. Britain (1939) by Madge and Harrisson analyzed pre-war social structures and attitudes toward conflict.^[55] War Begins at Home (1940), again by Madge and Harrisson, examined civilian responses to the war's onset, including reactions to air raids and propaganda, based on diaries from hundreds of participants.^[55] War Factory (1943) investigated labor dynamics and productivity in munitions plants, drawing on on-site observations to highlight inefficiencies and worker sentiments.^[55] A landmark study, The Pub and the People: A Worktown Study (1943), focused on Bolton (pseudonym "Worktown"), documenting pub-going habits among 1,000+ residents, revealing patterns of social bonding, drinking averages (15-20 pints weekly for regulars), and cultural roles of alcohol in community life.^[55] ^[57] Post-war outputs addressed reconstruction and social issues. Puzzled People: A Study in Popular Attitudes to Religion, Ethics, Progress & Politics in a London Borough (1947) surveyed 1,500 residents on beliefs, finding widespread skepticism toward organized religion and politics.^[55] Britain and Her Birth-rate (1945) analyzed demographic trends and family planning attitudes amid declining fertility rates.^[55] Shorter bulletins, such as Clothes Rationing Survey (1941) and A Savings Survey (1941), provided targeted insights into wartime economics, informing government policy.^[55] These publications, often issued by presses like Gollancz, Penguin, and Faber & Faber, disseminated findings to both academic and public audiences, though many are now out of print.^[55]

Post-Revival Outputs and Digital Accessibility

Following its 1981 relaunch at the University of Sussex, the Mass-Observation Project generated outputs primarily through periodic directives—open-ended questionnaires distributed to a panel of volunteer correspondents—who submitted written responses capturing personal experiences, opinions, and observations on contemporary British life.^[50] These directives, issued up to four times annually in the early years and continuing irregularly thereafter, numbered over 100 by the 2020s, addressing topics from everyday routines like holidays and food consumption to broader events such as royal weddings, general elections, the AIDS crisis, and responses to 9/11.^[58]^[59] Early examples included the Summer 1981 directive on currency, unemployment, and business premises, with responses archived as prose, diaries, photographs, and clippings.^[60] The panel, comprising hundreds of untrained observers, produced thousands of documents per decade, forming a qualitative dataset emphasizing subjective narratives over quantitative surveys.^[61] Outputs extended beyond raw responses to include thematic compilations and scholarly analyses derived from the archive, though primary emphasis remained on the unedited volunteer contributions rather than synthesized publications.^[59] For instance, directives from the 1980s often blended diffuse personal queries with topical prompts, yielding diffuse yet rich accounts of Thatcher-era social changes, while later ones focused on millennial anxieties and post-2000 global conflicts.^[62] The project's archival expansion supported interdisciplinary research, with responses preserved at the University of Sussex's Special Collections and The Keep repository, enabling studies on themes like family dynamics and public health perceptions.^[46] No centralized list of derivative books exists, but the materials have informed peer-reviewed works on social history without the organization itself publishing mass-market volumes post-revival.^[21] Digital accessibility enhanced the project's reach starting in the 2010s, with Adam Matthew Digital launching the Mass Observation Project 1981-2009 collection, providing subscription-based online access to scanned directives, manuscript and typed responses, and supplementary media across three modules covering the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s.^[59] Features include full-text searchable prose via handwritten text recognition, contextual essays by scholars, video interviews with correspondents, and chronologies like one for 1980s Britain, facilitating remote analysis of over 20 key topics such as the NHS and royal events.^[59] The University of Sussex's Mass Observation Archive website (massobs.org.uk) offers free overviews of past and current directives, while selected materials integrate with broader digitization efforts at institutional libraries, though full public access requires institutional subscriptions or physical visits to The Keep.^[63]^[64] This digitization, extended to include 1990s and 2000s content by 2024, prioritizes preservation of primary sources amid ongoing volunteer recruitment for new directives.^[65]

Criticisms and Methodological Scrutiny

Empirical Validity and Representativeness Issues

Mass-Observation's reliance on self-selected volunteer contributors introduced significant representativeness issues, as participants were predominantly middle-class, urban, educated individuals, often with left-leaning or intellectual inclinations, rather than a cross-section of British society.^[66] ^[67] This skewed demographic was evident in the original 1937–1949 panel, where diarists and respondents tended to overrepresent white-collar workers and women interested in social documentation, while underrepresenting manual laborers, rural populations, and lower socioeconomic groups.^[68] For instance, analyses of wartime diaries reveal a volunteer base that self-selected for those motivated by ideological or personal interest in observation, leading to gaps in capturing proletarian experiences despite efforts like the "Worktown" study in Bolton.^[69] Empirical validity was further undermined by the absence of random sampling and probability-based methods, contrasting sharply with emerging techniques like those of Gallup polls, which prioritized statistical representativeness through structured questionnaires.^[45] Mass-Observation's eclectic approach—combining paid observers' subjective reports, ad-hoc street interviews, and voluntary diaries—yielded qualitative depth but lacked quantifiable reliability, with data prone to selection bias and interpretive subjectivity.^[70] Critics, including statisticians in the 1940s, argued that without controls for non-response or demographic weighting, findings on topics like public anxieties or wartime morale overstated articulate minority views while failing to verify broader causal patterns empirically.^[66] Even post-revival in 1981, the continued use of open-call directives perpetuated these flaws, as self-selected writers remained unrepresentative, prompting methodological discomfort among quantitative researchers.

Ideological Biases and Political Influences

Mass-Observation's founders exhibited pronounced left-wing political leanings that shaped the project's orientation, despite its stated commitment to anthropological objectivity. Charles Madge, a poet and journalist who was a card-carrying member of the Communist Party of Great Britain, co-initiated the organization in 1937 alongside Humphrey Jennings, a Surrealist filmmaker with affiliations to avant-garde circles sympathetic to leftist causes, and Tom Harrisson, an anthropologist whose fieldwork emphasized ethnographic immersion but who shared the group's anti-establishment ethos.^[17] This ideological foundation manifested in a focus on documenting "mass" behaviors to uncover underlying social truths often obscured by official narratives, reflecting a Marxist-influenced skepticism toward bourgeois institutions and media.^[71] The project's participant base amplified these influences, drawing heavily from leftist networks such as the Left Book Club, a communist-affiliated organization founded in 1936 that promoted anti-fascist literature and attracted over 50,000 members by 1939. Many observers were motivated by socio-political agendas, including a desire to highlight working-class perspectives amid rising fascism and economic depression, which led to directives prioritizing topics like public reactions to political events (e.g., the 1937 coronation or Abdication Crisis) through lenses that emphasized collective psychology over individualistic conservatism.^[45] While Mass-Observation positioned itself as a "science of ourselves" independent of party politics, this recruitment skewed data toward urban intellectuals and progressives, potentially underrepresenting conservative or rural viewpoints and introducing interpretive biases favoring narratives of mass disillusionment with authority.^[7] During World War II, political influences intensified as the organization collaborated with the Ministry of Information on morale studies from 1939 onward, producing reports that, while empirically detailed, often aligned with government needs to bolster civilian resilience but were framed by founders' prior anti-appeasement stances—evident in early 1930s critiques of complacent elites.^[72] Postwar analyses by left-leaning breakaways from the Communist Party, including Madge, further embedded the archive with examinations of everyday life as a site of potential radicalization, though Harrisson's more pragmatic approach occasionally tempered overt ideology in favor of data-driven ornithological analogies for social patterns.^[73] Critics, including contemporary sociologists, noted that such influences compromised neutrality, as topic selection and synthesis privileged causal explanations rooted in class conflict over alternative cultural or psychological factors.^[74]

Broader Impact and Evaluation

Contributions to Understanding Mass Behavior

Mass-Observation pioneered qualitative techniques for dissecting collective responses to public events, emphasizing direct fieldwork over aggregated statistics. Its 1937 "May the Twelfth" initiative deployed over 200 volunteer observers to document behaviors during the coronation of King George VI, capturing variations in crowd enthusiasm, participation rituals, and underlying sentiments shaped by class, gender, and locale, which revealed how national ceremonies fostered both unity and ambivalence in mass psychology.^[7] In leisure contexts, the 1938 Blackpool investigation—employing five resident observers and additional student volunteers—scrutinized crowd dynamics in a resort drawing up to 7 million annual visitors, recording interactions at gambling sites, fortune-telling booths, and promenades to illustrate how mass escapism intertwined superstition, economic pressures, and social conformity, thereby nuancing Le Bon-inspired crowd psychology with evidence of rationalized group rituals.^[75] Wartime directives further illuminated mass resilience, with diarists and investigators logging reactions to blackouts, air raids, and policy announcements from 1939 onward, yielding reports that quantified morale fluctuations—such as sustained solidarity amid 1940 invasion fears—and exposed discrepancies between official propaganda and grassroots behaviors, influencing evacuation adjustments and highlighting qualitative depth's value in predicting electoral shifts like the 1945 Labour victory.^[7] Postwar analyses, including 1945 VE Day reports from 32 student observers on celebratory crowds, extended these insights by dissecting euphoria's contagious spread and regulatory lapses, contributing empirical groundwork for sociology's study of transient mass formations without relying solely on elite surveys.^[76] Overall, Mass-Observation's archival aggregation of verbatim accounts and fieldwork challenged reductionist views of irrational herds, demonstrating causal links between micro-behaviors and macro-sentiments through interdisciplinary synthesis of anthropology and psychology.^[7]

Limitations Compared to Modern Empirical Methods

Mass-Observation's reliance on a small cadre of paid observers—typically around 30 individuals in its early years—and voluntary contributors introduced significant sampling biases that compromised representativeness compared to modern probability-based surveys employing large, randomized populations often exceeding thousands of respondents.^[77] Self-selection among diary writers and panelists favored literate, middle-class, and ideologically engaged participants, skewing data away from working-class or apathetic demographics and inflating subjective expressions over broader behavioral patterns.^[70] This contrasts sharply with contemporary empirical methods, such as stratified random sampling in national polls, which minimize selection bias through statistical weighting and achieve external validity via confidence intervals and margin-of-error calculations.^[77] The organization's qualitative emphasis, drawing from unstructured observations, haphazard doorstep interviews, and inconsistent field notes, lacked standardized protocols for data collection and inter-observer reliability, rendering findings vulnerable to subjective interpretation and anecdotal emphasis.^[77] Critics, including anthropologists like Raymond Firth, highlighted the absence of systematic controls or hypothesis-testing frameworks, positioning Mass-Observation more as descriptive reportage than rigorous science.^[78] In opposition, modern methods incorporate experimental designs, such as randomized controlled trials or longitudinal panel studies with fixed effects models, enabling causal inference through techniques like instrumental variables or propensity score matching, which Mass-Observation's narrative-driven approach could not replicate.^[70] Furthermore, the archive's data often omitted key demographic variables like precise age, occupation, or location, hindering pattern detection and generalizability, while its material format—handwritten responses on varied paper—resisted quantitative coding without introducing researcher subjectivity.^[70] Validity debates persisted from inception, with contemporary rivals like the British Institute of Public Opinion dismissing its "amateurish" outputs for failing empirical benchmarks later formalized in post-war polling.^[66] Today's big data analytics and machine learning, applied to vast datasets from sources like social media or administrative records, offer scalable, replicable insights with algorithmic bias checks, far surpassing Mass-Observation's manual, low-N scrutiny.^[77]

References

[1]
Mass Observation Online | AM - Adam Matthew Digital
A pioneering social research organisation, Mass Observation was founded in 1937 by anthropologist Tom Harrisson, film-maker Humphrey Jennings and poet Charles ...
[2]
Mass-Observation | Pioneering Social Survey | Blue Plaques
The main founders of Mass-Observation in 1937 were two Cambridge University drop-outs: Charles Madge (1912–96) and Tom Harrisson (1911–76); also involved at the ...Missing: organization | Show results with:organization
[3]
Observing Britain by Mass Observation - OpenEdition Books
3Mass Observation was originally founded in 1937 by Tom Harrisson, an anthropologist recently returned from fieldwork in Malekula, Charles Madge, a journalist ...
[4]
'A weather-map of popular feeling': how Mass-Observation was born
Jul 27, 2023 · Mass-Observation was established as a social movement in 1937 by Tom Harrisson, an ornithologist and self-taught ethnographer, surrealist poet and Daily Mirror ...
[5]
[PDF] PREFACE This paper was originally prepared, in January 1978, for ...
Oct 10, 2024 · The result was that on the 30 of January 1937, a further letter appeared in the New Statesman signed by Tom Harrisson, Humphrey Jennings, and.
[6]
MASS OBSERVATION ARCHIVE Parts 11 and 12
The Mass-Observation Archive is an indispensable source for all those interested in Britain in the 1930's, the home front during World War II and the post-war ...
[7]
Mass observation – 'the science of ourselves' | BPS
Feb 4, 2019 · Jennings, H. & Madge, C. (1937). May the twelfth: Mass Observation day surveys, 1937 by over 200 observers. London: Faber and Faber.
[8]
Mass Observation: The amazing 80-year experiment to record ... - BBC
Jul 10, 2017 · As WILLIAM COOK discovers, Mass Observation began in 1937 with a bold experiment to take the pulse of a nation. A generation later and the ...Missing: organization | Show results with:organization
[9]
12th May - Mass Observation Archive
12th May. In 1937 Mass Observation called for people from all parts of the UK to record everything they did from when they woke up in the morning to when ...Missing: first | Show results with:first
[10]
Tom Harnett Harrisson - Person - National Portrait Gallery
Traveller, explorer and scholar; co-founder of the Mass-Observation social survey project Born in the Argentine and educated at Harrow and Cambridge University ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[11]
Mass-Observation: The Movement that Art History Forgot - Sotheby's
Nov 15, 2016 · In 1936 anthropologist Tom Harrison returned to the UK from the South Pacific where he had been living with the native people of the New ...
[12]
Tom Harrisson - Royal Anthropological Institute
The idea for Mass-Observation was born out of Tom's sense of the profound discrepancy between what ordinary people were saying about the Abdication crisis ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[13]
Madge, Charles (1912–1996) - Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism
Sep 5, 2016 · Charles Madge is best known as a founder of Mass Observation, but he was also an accomplished poet, a journalist, and a social scientist.Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[14]
1 Origins | The Mass Observers: A History, 1937-1949
The chapter discusses the origins of Mass-Observation and the initial ... Tom Harrisson (adventurer, ornithologist, anthropologist, Liberal). Despite ...
[15]
Humphrey Jennings 1907–1950 - Tate
Frank Humphrey Sinkler Jennings (19 August 1907 – 24 September 1950) was an English documentary filmmaker and one of the founders of the Mass Observation ...
[16]
The Meeting, in Mass-Observation, of British Surrealism and Popular ...
In other words, it is instructive to look at the establishment by Charles Madge, Humphrey Jennings and their friends, together with Tom Harrisson, of Mass- ...Missing: backgrounds ideological
[17]
Surveillance Society | The New Yorker
Sep 4, 2006 · The inventors of the new science were Charles Madge, a poet, journalist, and card-carrying Communist; Humphrey Jennings, a Surrealist painter ...<|separator|>
[18]
Mass Observation 75 years on: the extraordinary in the everyday
Apr 19, 2012 · Formed in the aftermath of the abdication crisis, Mass Observation sought to bridge the gap between how the media represented public opinion and ...
[19]
TEMPORALITIES, RITUAL, AND DRINKING IN MASS ...
Nov 4, 2020 · Mass Observation's 'Worktown' project explored rituals and the rhythms of time while documenting public drinking in Bolton.
[20]
[PDF] Mass Observation Humphrey Spender Nigel Henderson The ...
Mass Observation was started in 1937 by an anthropologist, Tom Harrisson, a poet, Charles. Madge, and the documentary film maker,. Humphrey Jennings. Harrisson ...
[21]
[PDF] Mass Observation Archive - UCL Discovery
Diaries, 1939-65: About 500 men and women kept personal diaries, which they sent to Mass-Observation in monthly installments. • Day Surveys, 1937-38: One ...
[22]
The Archive Collections - Mass Observation Archive
Mass Observation's collections are records of everyday life from 1937 up to the present day. They capture everyday life, thought and feeling.
[23]
Mass-Observation Archive 1937 - Collections - University of Sussex
Day Surveys 1937-38 ... One day diaries written by people from all over Britain who volunteered to be members of MO 's national "panel" of observers.
[24]
Mass-Observation Archive - Collections - University of Sussex
The Mass-Observation Archive contains over 80 topic collections with project plans, questionnaires, survey results, and ephemera from 1937 onwards.
[25]
Archive of Mass Observation, 1937-1967
The Archive results from the work of the social research organisation, Mass Observation. This organisation was founded in 1937 by three young men, part of a ...
[26]
Just looking | British identity and society | The Guardian
Mar 19, 2005 · Within two years, Mass-Observation had 2,000 voluntary observers countrywide, writing a monthly diary and responding to "directives" for ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
[27]
book review - Bristol University Press Digital
Most of the largely volunteer observers were middle class, leftish and inclined to ... MO (Mass Observation) 1940, War begins at home, London: Chatto & Windus.
[28]
'Observing and Analysing the Ordinary': Mass-Observation online
May 5, 2021 · This information was gathered using a mixture of questionnaires, observed and overheard data, and relevant ephemera, all of which was formed ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[29]
Mass Observation - by Jackie Sharp - History On Repeat
Mar 25, 2025 · Critics argued that the Mass Observation panel was not truly representative of the British population, as it consisted mainly of middle-class, ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
[30]
Sam, Caroline, Janet, Stella, Len, Helen and Bob: Mass Observation
Sep 21, 2017 · ... volunteer observers to ... middle-class. When it came to the diaries, however, Harrisson and Willcock didn't worry about representativeness ...
[31]
Where Were You on May 12th? - Adam Matthew Digital
The first report to be published by Mass Observation was "May the Twelfth: Mass-Observation Day-Surveys 1937 by over two hundred observers". The report ...
[32]
Mass Observation | Bolton Worktown
The Mass-Observation was formed to test this depiction of reality. It was also an opportunity for a diverse group with a wide range of interests to work in a ...
[33]
https://www.sussex.ac.uk/library/speccoll/collection_catalogues/tclists/tc23.html
[34]
6 War Begins | The Mass Observers: A History, 1937-1949
This chapter looks at how, at the outbreak of war, Mass-Observation looked to the new Ministry of Information for sponsorship, but, despite a brief commission ...
[35]
7 The Summer of 1940 | The Mass Observers - Oxford Academic
As well as ongoing coverage of by-elections, Tom Harrisson's April contract with the Ministry of Information (MOI) committed Mass-Observation (MO) to ...
[36]
Monitoring Morale: The History of Home Intelligence 1939-1944 by ...
When he succeeded Adams as Director, Taylor inherited a six-month contract with Mass Observation that was due to expire in September 1941. 'Mr Tom Harrisson ...
[37]
[PDF] WORKING-CLASS COMMUNITIES DURING THE BLITZ 1940-41
The remaining two sections argue that the pattern of bombing in urban centres and the continuity of working-class institutions helped shape and maintain morale ...
[38]
[PDF] MASS OBSERVATION ARCHIVE Parts 11 and 12
All activities were centralised in London and Tom Harrisson took over direction of the work. Madge did not agree with Harrisson that Mass-Observation should ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
The Mass Observers: A History, 1937–1949 James Hinton. Oxford
By the late 1940s, after six years of brutal warfare, felt profoundly by ... Mass-Observation was set up in 1937 with the aim of investigating the lives.
[40]
16 Conclusion | The Mass Observers: A History, 1937-1949
This chapter discusses the motivations of Mass-Observation's volunteer panellists, and the reasons forMass-Observation's decline as an independent social ...Missing: closure | Show results with:closure
[41]
The Mass Observers - James Hinton - Oxford University Press
The Mass Observers. A History, 1937-1949. James Hinton. Description. This is the first full-scale history of Mass-Observation, the independent social research ...
[42]
Mass-Observation, Market Research, and the Birth of the Focus ...
Dec 21, 2012 · In 1949 Tom Harrisson relinquished control of the company and it became a more traditional market research firm, Mass Observation UK Limited.Missing: backgrounds | Show results with:backgrounds
[43]
[PDF] Mass Observation Archive, Parts 5 and 6
“Mass-Observation can be described as a project designed to involve ... 67/3/F: Wheatmeal Bread Survey & Rationing in the late 1940s. Wheatmeal Bread ...<|separator|>
[44]
The Mass Observers: A History, 1937–1949, James Hinton
Feb 24, 2016 · With ambitious intentions, the organization recruited many volunteers, both paid and voluntary, and sent them far and wide across Britain in ...
[45]
Mass-Observation: Social Research or Social Movement? - jstor
Harrisson and Madge joined forces in a project to develop what they called a 'science of ourselves' through the organization they named Mass-Observation. Of ...<|separator|>
[46]
Mass-Observation Archive 1981 - Collections - University of Sussex
In 1981, the Archive initiated a new project which set out once again to involve people in the recording of everyday life. Volunteer correpondents write about ...Missing: relaunch | Show results with:relaunch
[47]
Mass Observation (1937-2017) and Life Writing: an Introduction
Apr 22, 2021 · The archive of its first phase (1937-49) was transferred to the University of Sussex in 1970. In 1981 it was revived as the Mass Observation ...
[48]
View of Reviewing Mass-Observation: The Archive and its ...
As a result, the Mass-Observation Archive can be seen as a prime example of the ways in which social research data can be re-evaluated within new research ...
[49]
Encyclopedia of Consumer Culture - Mass Observation
The original Mass Observation Project idea of a national panel was revived in 1981. Through the press, television, and radio, new volunteer writers or “Mass ...
[50]
Mass-Observation Archive - Special Collections - University of Sussex
The Archive of Mass-Observation, a pioneering social research organisation, is one of the University of Sussex's most distinctive holdings.Missing: revival | Show results with:revival
[51]
Adam Matthew Digital publishes the first module of Mass… | AM
Widely regarded as one of the most important and unique social history archives in existence, Mass Observation Project is the 1981 revival of the original Mass ...
[52]
Mass Observation Archive
The Mass Observation Archive is an archive of everyday life, thought and feeling in Britain, with documents from 1937-early 1950s and newer material since 1981.The Archive · Write for the archive · Visit · About
[53]
Write for the archive - Mass Observation Archive
You can also find the current Directive here. New Observer handbook V3. One Off Contributions. We also have regular opportunities to submit your writing to ...
[54]
Composing Well-being: Mental Health and the Mass Observation ...
Nov 6, 2021 · The reasons for this are perhaps two-fold. The first concerns the ... The Mass Observers: a history, 1937-1949 (Oxford: OUP, 2013). 124.
[55]
Mass Observation Books, 1937-1950
Feb 14, 2025 · 1937 May the Twelfth: Mass Observation Day Surveys by Jennings, H. & Madge, C. with Beachcroft, T.O., Blackburn, J., Empson, W., Legg, S ...<|separator|>
[56]
First Year's Work, 1937-1938: Observation, Mass - Amazon.com
Mass Observation was founded by Tom Harrisson, Charles Madge and Humphrey Jennings in 1937. Its purpose was to create 'an anthropology of ourselves' in ...
[57]
[PDF] Mass Observation: The Pub and The People - Amazon S3
THE PUB AND THE PEOPLE. A Worktown Study by. MASS-OBSERVATION. LONDON. VICTOR GOLLANCZ LTD. 1943. Page 2. Copyright 1943 by Mass Observation. TO. MARY ADAMS who ...
[58]
Directive responses - Mass Observation Archive
Since 1981 we've sent out over 100 Directives, with topics ranging from opinions on alternative milks, to the NHS to protesting, to sex and sex education.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[59]
Mass Observation Project | AM - Adam Matthew Digital
Between 1981 and 2009, the University of Sussex chronicled Britain's social history by sending questionnaires several times a year to the general public, to ...
[60]
List of All Mass Observation Archive Directives From 1981
List of All Mass Observation Archive Directives From 1981 · 1:Summer 1981: Currency, Royal Wedding, Business Premises, Unemployment, Holidays, Food · 2:Royal ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[61]
Mass Observation Project: Home - Mass Observation 1981-2009
Launched in 1981 by the University of Sussex as a rebirth of the original 1937 Mass Observation, its founders' aim was to document the social history of Britain ...Missing: relaunch | Show results with:relaunch
[62]
Nature and Scope - Mass Observation Project
Mass Observation Project consists of all the directives (questionnaires) sent out by Mass Observation and the responses to them from the hundreds of Mass ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[63]
List of past directives - Mass Observation Archive
Below are all the Directive questions we have asked in the past! By clicking on the titles below you can download the topics and questions that were asked.Missing: file reports
[64]
Other ways of accessing the Mass-Observation Archive
Selected parts of the Mass Observation Archive are now available through Adam Matthew Digital for public and university libraries to purchase.Missing: expansion | Show results with:expansion
[65]
Widening the range of our digital resources: Mass Observation Project
Feb 15, 2024 · We are pleased to announce our Mass Observation Project online archive has been extended providing access to further material covering the 1990s and 2000s.
[66]
Research Methodology in Mass Observation Past and Present - jstor
Jan 20, 2013 · Mass Observation (MIMO) was to establish a research network for the purpose of sha and debating cross-disciplinary methodological approaches ...Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[67]
[PDF] Fiona Courage University of Sussex Using the Mass Observation ...
The perceived lack of demographic represen- tation within the MOP's volunteer Panel is possi- bly the most persistent criticism levelled at the MO. Project. As ...Missing: bias | Show results with:bias<|separator|>
[68]
Research Methodology in Mass Observation Past and Present
Jan 18, 2013 · Mass Observation's research faces challenges in interpretation due to its eclectic materials, the representativeness of its volunteers, and the ...Missing: criticisms | Show results with:criticisms
[69]
Full article: Book Notes
Sep 29, 2021 · A long-standing criticism of Mass Observation is that it is unrepresentative ... self-selected, mostly middle-class, correspondents (p. 106) ...
[70]
The Materiality of Method: The Case of the Mass Observation Archive
The Mass Observation Archive presents numerous methodological issues for social researchers. The data are idiosyncratic, difficult to analyze, ...
[71]
[PDF] mass observation - University of Birmingham
Booth, Bowley and Rowntree, were pioneers of the quantitative approach to social survey; over the years, they developed increasingly sophisticated sampling ...
[72]
Mass Observation and Political Engagement in Britain
Specifically, we recommend reviving the File Report system that characterised MO's early work in the 1940s.
[73]
Mass-Observation, Left Intellectuals and the Politics of Everyday Life
Feb 19, 2016 · This article examines the careers of a number of left thinkers who broke with the Communist Party of Great Britain in the late 1930s, committing ...Missing: affiliations | Show results with:affiliations
[74]
The science of ourselves - New Statesman
Jan 29, 2007 · Mass-Observation was conducting pioneering studies of public distrust and ignorance of politics as early as the late 1930s.<|separator|>
[75]
Pennies from Heaven and Earth in Mass Observation's Blackpool
Dec 21, 2012 · Influenced by contemporary crowd psychology, Mass Observation ... Hilton draws largely from Mass Observation's studies on smoking; see ...
[76]
Mass-Observation Archive: Topic Collections - University of Sussex
Mass-Observation Archive: Topic Collections. About the collection. Mass Observation 1937-1950s · Mass Observation 1981 to present · Related collections ...
[77]
Mass Observation, Apathy, and Electoral Politics in England, 1937 ...
Apr 20, 2021 · There are methodological challenges with using this material, as Mass Observation noted at the time. ... late 1940s Britain', Twentieth ...
[78]
An Anthropologist's View of Mass-Observation - Sage Journals
Anthropologists have long been aware of this lack of a body of material comparable in empirical depth to their own, and Malinowski, in particular, has insisted ...