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Mergini

Mergini is a tribe of sea ducks within the subfamily Anatinae of the family Anatidae, comprising 18 extant species in 9 genera adapted to marine and coastal environments across the Northern Hemisphere.^[1] These birds are characterized by their diving prowess, serrated bills for catching fish and shellfish, and K-selected life history traits such as long lifespans and small clutch sizes, which enable survival in harsh Arctic, sub-Arctic, and boreal habitats.^[1]^[2] The tribe includes several major phylogenetic clades, such as eiders (genera Somateria, Polysticta), scoters (genus Melanitta, including M. perspicillata, M. deglandi, M. nigra), goldeneyes and bufflehead (genus Bucephala, including B. clangula, B. islandica, B. albeola), and mergansers (genera Mergus and Lophodytes, including M. merganser, M. serrator, L. cucullatus), along with long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) and harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus).^[1] Mergini species typically nest in remote northern regions and migrate to oceanic wintering grounds, where they face threats from habitat loss, pollution, and climate change, leading to conservation concerns for several taxa such as the spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri) and Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri), which are listed as threatened or endangered.^[2] Evolutionary studies reveal a complex history marked by ancestral gene flow and hybridization, including evidence of hybrid speciation in Steller's eider from interbreeding with long-tailed ducks and true eiders.^[1] Taxonomically, Mergini was formally recognized in 1945 as a distinct group of diving ducks, separate from inland pochard-like species, based on morphological and ecological traits, and modern phylogenomic analyses using ddRAD-seq and mitogenomes have confirmed its monophyly while resolving intergeneric relationships.^[1]^[3] Notable extinct members include the Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius), highlighting the tribe's vulnerability to historical human impacts.^[1] Overall, Mergini represents a specialized radiation of waterfowl integral to northern ecosystems, serving as indicators of marine health.^[2]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The name Mergini derives from the Latin word mergus, which denoted a diving bird or type of waterfowl, often associated with species that plunge into water to feed. This linguistic root reflects the group's characteristic diving behavior and aquatic adaptations. The term Mergini was first introduced by naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815 within his classification system for birds, where he established it as a tribal name in the subfamily Anatinae, with the genus Mergus (mergansers) serving as the type genus.^[4] Rafinesque's work, Analyse de la Nature ou Tableau de l'Univers et des Corps Organisés, represented an early 19th-century effort to organize avian taxa based on morphological and ecological traits, amid the burgeoning field of systematic ornithology influenced by Linnaean principles.^[5] Historically, birds in this tribe have been informally known as "sea ducks" in ornithological literature, a vernacular term emphasizing their preference for coastal and marine environments over inland freshwater habitats typical of other ducks.^[6]

Classification and phylogeny

The tribe Mergini, comprising sea ducks, is classified within the subfamily Anatinae of the family Anatidae.^[7] In older taxonomic schemes, such as those from the mid-20th century, Mergini was occasionally elevated to the rank of subfamily Merginae to emphasize its distinct diving adaptations and ecological niche.^[8] Phylogenetic analyses have consistently supported the monophyly of Mergini, with origins traced to the Northern Hemisphere during the Miocene, based on fossil evidence and morphological characters of the skeleton, trachea, and plumage.^[7] A seminal 1995 cladistic study by Livezey, utilizing 137 morphological characters across 25 species, confirmed this monophyly and resolved intergeneric relationships, placing eiders (genera Somateria and Polysticta) in a basal position as the sister group to all other mergines, with the harlequin duck (Histrionicus) sister to the remaining genera, followed sequentially by scoters (Melanitta, including the extinct Camptorhynchus), long-tailed duck (Clangula), goldeneyes (Bucephala, with the smew Mergellus as sister), hooded merganser (Lophodytes), and sawbills (Mergus).^[7] This arrangement highlighted adaptations for marine diving, though debates persist regarding the inclusion of Bucephala due to its predominant freshwater habitat preferences, which contrast with the typical marine focus of other genera.^[7] More recent phylogenomic research has refined these relationships using molecular data. A 2021 study by Lavretsky et al. employed double-digest restriction-site associated DNA (ddRAD) sequencing across 1,040 loci from 18 species in 10 genera, alongside mitogenomes, to produce high-resolution phylogenies that largely corroborate the morphological framework while revealing ancient and ongoing gene flow.^[1] Key findings include a basal split separating eiders and the long-tailed duck (Clangula) from a clade encompassing the harlequin duck (Histrionicus), scoters, goldeneyes/bufflehead, and mergansers; however, Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri) emerged as genetically distinct, potentially arising from hybridization between true eiders and Clangula, challenging strict monophyly within eiders.^[1] The analysis identified 10 recognized genera but underscored taxonomic incompleteness, with evidence of intergeneric hybridization (e.g., involving Bucephala and Clangula) and incomplete lineage sorting complicating resolution, thus fueling ongoing debates about mergine monophyly and species boundaries.^[1]

Description

Physical characteristics

Mergini, or sea ducks, exhibit a range of body sizes, from smaller species like the smew (Mergellus albellus), weighing 500–800 g, to larger ones such as the common eider (Somateria mollissima), weighing 1.3–2.7 kg.^[9]^[10] Their bodies are compact and fusiform, with relatively short necks that facilitate streamlined movement underwater, while their wings are adapted for propulsion during dives rather than extended gliding.^[11] These traits support their specialization in marine environments, where efficient diving is essential.^[12] Bill morphology varies among genera to suit different prey types, with fish-eating species in Mergus featuring narrow, serrated "sawbill" edges that grip slippery prey effectively.^[13] In contrast, mollusc-feeding eiders in Somateria possess broader, wedge-shaped bills suited for grasping and handling shellfish.^[10] Feet are fully webbed and positioned rearward on the body, with enlarged lobes on the hind toes providing powerful thrust for underwater propulsion, though this adaptation compromises terrestrial mobility.^[11]^[13] Their plumage is dense and waterproof, consisting of an outer layer of contour feathers overlying insulating down, which traps air for buoyancy control during dives.^[13] Specialized supraorbital salt-excreting glands, more fully developed in adults than in juveniles, enable tolerance of saline seawater by filtering excess salt through nasal passages.^[13]^[14] Skeletally, a reinforced sternal keel anchors robust flight muscles, aiding the strong wingbeats required for long-distance migrations despite their diving specialization.^[15]

Plumage and sexual dimorphism

Members of the Mergini tribe exhibit pronounced sexual dimorphism in plumage, with males typically displaying vibrant, contrasting patterns during the breeding season to facilitate mate attraction and territorial displays, while females possess cryptic, subdued coloration for protection during nesting. In species such as goldeneyes (Bucephala spp.), males feature bold white and black patterns with iridescent greenish or purplish heads, whereas females are uniformly brownish-gray to blend with nesting substrates. Similarly, male harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) show ornate slate-blue bodies accented by white spots and chestnut flanks, contrasting with the olive-brown, streaked plumage of females that provides camouflage in rocky coastal environments. This dimorphism is evident across most genera, except in a few Southern Hemisphere species where differences are minimal.^[16]^[17]^[18] Plumage in Mergini undergoes distinct seasonal changes, characterized by a breeding plumage acquired through the pre-basic molt in late winter and an eclipse plumage resulting from the post-breeding pre-alternate molt in summer. The eclipse plumage renders males dull and female-like, often brownish or grayish with reduced contrast, serving as camouflage during the vulnerable flightless period following breeding. For instance, male common eiders (Somateria mollissima) in eclipse plumage adopt a dark brown body with retained white wing patches, closely resembling females' barred brown feathering. This transformation aids concealment while the birds are grounded and energetically committed to feather regrowth. Breeding plumage is regained via the pre-basic molt, typically during winter quarters, restoring the males' ornate patterns over several months.^[16]^[17] The molting sequence in Mergini is tightly linked to reproduction, with males generally initiating the post-breeding flightless wing molt in late summer after deserting incubating females, rendering them incapable of flight for 3-5 weeks as they simultaneously replace body feathers. This period occurs primarily in July to September, with birds aggregating in protected molting sites such as coastal bays or lakes to minimize predation risk; for example, male Barrow's goldeneyes (Bucephala islandica) often migrate short distances to coastal areas for this purpose. Females typically delay their wing molt until after brood abandonment, which can extend into fall, allowing them to remain flighted longer for duckling protection. Juveniles emerge in downy plumage resembling adults but acquire a first basic plumage similar to females by late summer, with males gradually developing brighter feathering in subsequent molts.^[16]^[17] Many Mergini species possess a speculum, an iridescent or conspicuously colored patch on the secondary wing feathers that aids in species recognition and pair bonding, often visible during flight. In genera like eiders (Somateria spp.) and scoters (Melanitta spp.), the speculum is typically white with black borders, though some, such as the Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri), display blue iridescent hues on the tertials and secondaries. These wing patches persist through molts and provide a reliable visual cue, contrasting with the more variable body plumage.^[16]^[17]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Mergini tribe exhibits a predominantly Holarctic distribution, with the majority of its species breeding in Arctic and subarctic zones across northern latitudes from Alaska eastward through Canada, Greenland, Iceland, northern Europe, and Siberia to the Russian Far East. This circumpolar range centers on boreal and tundra regions, where breeding occurs primarily between approximately 50°N and 80°N, emphasizing cold, coastal, and near-shore environments suited to their diving adaptations.^[19]^[18] Mergini species are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, underscoring their strong association with high-latitude marine systems, though wintering distributions extend southward into temperate zones along the coasts of North America (from Alaska to Baja California and Florida), Europe (Baltic and North Seas to the Mediterranean), and Asia (eastern coasts to Japan and southern China). These seasonal ranges facilitate access to ice-free waters for foraging, with concentrations in areas like the Bering Sea, Hudson Bay, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence.^[16] Historically, the tribe's range included the extinct Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius), which was restricted to the eastern North American Atlantic coast, breeding in Labrador and wintering from Newfoundland to New Jersey and Long Island until its disappearance in the late 19th century. Current distributions show relative stability in core Arctic breeding areas, with some North American endemics like the bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) and Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica) limited to the continent, while endemism is pronounced in isolated northern island systems, such as the Bering Sea where Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri) maintains a concentrated breeding and molting presence.^[20]^[21]

Habitat preferences

Mergini species, collectively known as sea ducks, exhibit distinct habitat preferences that vary across their annual cycle, with breeding typically occurring in freshwater or coastal environments rich in aquatic resources. During the breeding season, most species favor northern boreal and arctic tundra regions, including small ponds, lakes, and streams surrounded by low-lying vegetation such as shrubs, grasses, and sedges, which provide cover and support abundant invertebrates like insects and amphipods essential for brood rearing. For instance, eiders (Somateria spp.) and scoters (Melanitta spp.) nest on rocky shores, coastal marshes, or islands near these water bodies, selecting sites with well-drained soils and early snow melt to ensure accessibility. Harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) prefer rapid-flowing streams with rocky substrates teeming with aquatic insects, while mergansers (Mergus spp.) and goldeneyes (Bucephala spp.) opt for forested lakes or rivers with emergent vegetation and tree cavities for nesting. These preferences ensure proximity to shallow waters (often less than 2 meters deep) that facilitate foraging on benthic invertebrates and vegetation.^[22] In winter, Mergini shift to marine-dominated habitats, primarily open coastal waters, bays, and estuaries where they exploit shellfish and crustaceans, though some like mergansers retain affinity for freshwater rivers and lakes. Species such as long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) and scoters congregate in nearshore littoral zones or brackish estuaries with soft bottoms, avoiding heavily ice-covered areas but tolerating partial ice edges for resting. Eiders forage over mussel beds in deeper offshore waters, while buffleheads (Bucephala albeola) and hooded mergansers (Lophodytes cucullatus) frequent sheltered bays or unfrozen inland waters. This seasonal transition from freshwater breeding grounds to saline wintering sites is facilitated by physiological adaptations, including well-developed salt glands above the eyes that excrete excess sodium, enabling tolerance of high-salinity environments without dehydration.^[22]^[16] Microhabitat requirements emphasize shallow to moderate diving depths, typically 5-20 meters, where most foraging occurs on the seafloor for mollusks, crustaceans, and fish, with species like surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) staying closer to shore in 2-10 meter waters. These ducks avoid prolonged exposure to heavy ice cover, which limits access to food, but their lobed feet and dense plumage aid efficient submersion in turbulent or saline conditions. The adaptability to habitat variability is evident in brood movements to nearby nutrient-rich ponds post-hatching and post-breeding molts in protected marine bays, allowing populations to respond to fluctuating ice and food availability across their northern ranges.^[16]^[23]

Behavior and ecology

Feeding and diet

Mergini, commonly known as sea ducks, employ diverse foraging strategies adapted to aquatic environments, primarily involving diving to capture prey. While some species, such as harlequin ducks, occasionally use head-down dabbling or up-ending in shallows, most undertake full submersion dives lasting 10–60 seconds, with average durations around 15–30 seconds for many taxa.^[24] Underwater propulsion is achieved through coordinated strokes of both wings and feet, enabling efficient maneuvering and sustained pursuit in benthic habitats.^[25] These dives typically target depths from shallow waters less than 1.5 meters to over 50 meters in some cases, depending on prey distribution and habitat.^[24] The diet of Mergini is predominantly carnivorous, dominated by fish and invertebrates, with variations across subtaxa reflecting bill morphology and habitat. Sawbills of the genus Mergus (mergansers) consume 70–90% fish by volume in many regions, including salmonids, sculpins, sticklebacks, and minnows, supplemented by crustaceans and insects.^[24] In contrast, scoters and eiders primarily feed on molluscs and crustaceans, with mussels (Mytilus edulis) comprising up to 90% of the diet in black scoters and 46–82% in eiders, alongside crabs, amphipods, and echinoderms.^[24] Plant matter, such as algae or berries, forms a minor component overall, though it increases opportunistically in certain contexts. The serrated bills of Mergini facilitate gripping slippery prey like fish and shellfish.^[24] Foraging in Mergini is opportunistic, influenced by prey availability, with diurnal activity patterns and cooperative behaviors in flocks enhancing efficiency during dives.^[24] Seasonal shifts occur, particularly during breeding when invertebrate and plant intake rises (e.g., insects and crowberries for juveniles), contrasting with winter emphasis on marine fish and shellfish to meet elevated energy demands.^[24] High nutritional requirements are especially pronounced during molt, when feather replacement demands up to 50% more energy, and migration, necessitating rapid accumulation of lipid reserves through intensive feeding.^[24] As higher-trophic-level predators, Mergini play a key role in coastal food webs by controlling populations of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, thereby influencing benthic community structure and supporting ecosystem balance.^[26] Their predation pressure helps regulate prey abundances, preventing overgrazing on algae or seagrass beds in marine environments.^[27]

Reproduction and breeding

Mergini species exhibit predominantly monogamous mating systems, with pairs forming annually on wintering grounds or during spring migration and bonds lasting approximately two months until incubation begins. Males perform elaborate courtship displays to attract females, including head-throwing, wing-flapping, crest-raising, and vocalizations such as cooing or whistling, often in small groups of 5-10 individuals per female. For example, in eiders (Somateria spp.), males engage in head-turning and inciting responses from females, while goldeneyes (Bucephala spp.) feature head-throw-kick and bowsprit postures. These displays peak in late winter to spring, reinforcing pair bonds before breeding.^[28]^[22] Nesting in Mergini occurs in concealed sites to minimize predation, with ground nests typical for eiders and scoters (Melanitta spp.) in tundra, boulder fields, or low vegetation near water, while goldeneyes and mergansers (Mergus spp.) prefer tree cavities, rock crevices, or burrows up to 100 m from water. Clutch sizes generally range from 6 to 12 eggs, laid at intervals of 1-2 days, with averages of 5-6 for eiders (e.g., Common Eider: mode of 4-5) and 9-10 for scoters and goldeneyes; later-season clutches are smaller due to resource constraints. Incubation, performed exclusively by the female and lasting 24-30 days (e.g., 22-24 days in King Eider, 28-35 days in mergansers), begins after clutch completion, during which males typically desert the female to molt or migrate. The cryptic plumage of females enhances nest concealment during this vulnerable period.^[28]^[22]^[29] Post-hatching parental care is provided solely by females, who lead precocial ducklings to water within 24-36 hours of hatching, protecting them from predators and guiding foraging. In colonial species like eiders, creching behavior is common, where multiple females cooperatively tend amalgamated broods of up to hundreds of ducklings, reducing individual vigilance costs; for instance, Common Eider females may share care in crèches on coastal waters. Males play no role in rearing. Breeding seasonality aligns with short Arctic summers for northern species, with nest initiation from late May to July (peaking June-July), synchronized with insect emergence for food availability. Nesting success varies from 40-70%, heavily influenced by predation from arctic foxes, gulls, and ravens, as well as weather; for example, eider hatching success ranges 25-80%, while scoter duckling survival is 20-65%.^[28]^[22]^[29]

Migration and movements

Most species within the Mergini tribe, commonly known as sea ducks, undertake long-distance migrations from high-latitude breeding grounds in the Arctic and boreal regions to wintering areas in temperate or subtropical coastal waters, with distances often exceeding several thousand kilometers. For instance, common eiders (Somateria mollissima) may travel thousands of kilometers during fall and spring migrations, while other species like scoters (Melanitta spp.) and goldeneyes (Bucephala spp.) follow similar extensive routes between northern nesting sites and southern winter habitats. In contrast, harlequin ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) exhibit shorter-distance migrations or partial residency, typically moving from inland breeding streams to nearby coastal wintering areas along the Pacific or Atlantic, often less than a few hundred kilometers.^[30]^[16]^[31] Migration routes for Mergini primarily follow coastal flyways along the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, allowing access to marine and estuarine habitats while minimizing energy expenditure over open water. These paths often include stopovers at key staging areas, such as estuaries and bays, where ducks fatten on mollusks and invertebrates before crossing larger barriers like the Bering Sea or open ocean stretches; for example, common eiders and scoters frequently stage in the Gulf of St. Lawrence or along the Alaskan coast to prepare for southward journeys. Such coastal corridors facilitate predictable movements, with high site fidelity observed in species like white-winged scoters (Melanitta deglandi), which return to the same Pacific or Atlantic stopover sites annually.^[32]^[33]^[34] Southward migration typically commences in late summer to early fall, delayed by post-breeding molt periods that render ducks flightless for several weeks; for many species, departure from breeding areas begins in August or September, following the completion of wing molt in July or August. Environmental cues, particularly the onset of freezing temperatures, snow accumulation, and ice formation in northern latitudes, drive these movements by progressively limiting access to foraging and roosting sites, prompting rapid southward shifts. Spring northward migrations are similarly timed to ice melt and thaw, enabling early arrival at breeding grounds, though fall departures show greater variability influenced by individual condition and weather.^[35]^[36]^[37] Sea ducks rely on a suite of navigational strategies during these migrations, including celestial cues from the sun and stars for orientation, detection of Earth's magnetic field via cryptochromes in their visual system, and visual landmarks such as coastlines and rivers to guide coastal routes. These mechanisms enable precise homing to breeding, molting, and wintering sites, with evidence from satellite telemetry showing consistent path fidelity despite annual variations in weather. However, severe storms pose significant risks, causing disorientation and exhaustion that lead to elevated mortality rates among migrating flocks, as documented in mass strandings along coastal areas.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Species

Living species

The tribe Mergini encompasses 21 extant species distributed across nine genera, primarily adapted to northern hemisphere aquatic environments, with many exhibiting diving behaviors for foraging on marine and freshwater prey. These species vary in size from the small bufflehead (Bucephala albeola) at 32–40 cm in length to the larger common merganser (Mergus merganser) at 58–72 cm.^[41]^[42]

Genus Clangula

The genus Clangula contains a single species, the long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis), a medium-sized sea duck measuring 38–46 cm in length with distinctive elongated central tail feathers in males. It breeds circumpolarly across Arctic tundra and subarctic regions from Alaska to Siberia, nesting on the ground near freshwater ponds and coastal areas. This species is known for deep dives up to 60 m to forage primarily on amphipods and other crustaceans during breeding, shifting to mollusks and fish in winter. Its IUCN status is Least Concern, though populations have declined in some areas due to habitat changes.^[43]^[44]

Genus Histrionicus

The genus Histrionicus is represented by the harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus), a small diving duck (38–43 cm) with striking multicolored plumage in males. It specializes in rocky coastal and fast-flowing riverine habitats, breeding along turbulent streams in subarctic and boreal zones from Alaska to Greenland and eastern Siberia. Two subspecies are recognized: the eastern (H. h. histrionicus) and western (H. h. pacifica). It feeds mainly on invertebrates like mollusks and crustaceans in wave-swept areas. IUCN status is Least Concern.^[45]^[46]

Genus Polysticta

Polysticta includes only the Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri), a compact sea duck (43–47 cm) with ornate plumage in males featuring white head patches. It is endemic to the Bering Sea region, breeding on coastal tundra in western Alaska and northeastern Siberia, and wintering in polynyas and pack ice areas. This species dives for amphipods, mollusks, and polychaetes in shallow marine waters. It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List due to threats like habitat loss from oil exploration, with a global population estimated at 130,000–150,000 individuals (as of 2012).^[47]^[48]

Genus Somateria

The genus Somateria comprises three extant eider species, all medium to large sea ducks (50–71 cm) renowned for their dense down feathers used historically in insulation. They nest colonially on Arctic and subarctic coastal tundra, lining nests with plucked down for insulation. The common eider (S. mollissima) is widespread across northern coasts from Europe to North America, diving for mussels and other shellfish. The king eider (S. spectabilis) breeds in high Arctic regions from Alaska to Greenland, feeding on amphipods and bivalves in marine habitats. The spectacled eider (S. fischeri) is restricted to coastal Alaska and Siberia, specializing in shallow-water invertebrates. All three are Least Concern except the spectacled eider, which is Near Threatened (IUCN, 2020) due to population declines.^[49]^[50]

Genus Melanitta

Melanitta, the scoters, includes six species of dark-plumaged diving ducks (40–58 cm) with mostly black or sooty-brown feathers, adapted for deep-water foraging on shellfish and crustaceans. They breed in boreal wetlands and winter in coastal marine waters across the Northern Hemisphere. The black scoter (M. americana) and common scoter (M. nigra) are widespread in North America and Eurasia, respectively, diving for mussels. The white-winged scoter (M. deglandi) ranges across North America, feeding on clams and amphipods. The velvet scoter (M. fusca), Stejneger's scoter (M. stejnegeri), and Baikal scoter (M. baeri) are Eurasian, with the latter two breeding in eastern Asia. All species exhibit sexual dimorphism with males darker than females. IUCN statuses range from Least Concern (most) to Vulnerable (velvet scoter; IUCN, 2021).^[51]^[52]^[53]

Genus Bucephala

The genus Bucephala houses three goldeneye species (38–48 cm), characterized by round heads and bright yellow eyes, which are cavity nesters using tree holes or nest boxes near boreal lakes and rivers. They primarily eat fish, aquatic insects, and crustaceans obtained by diving. The common goldeneye (B. clangula) has a Holarctic range, breeding in forested wetlands from Alaska to Scandinavia. Barrow's goldeneye (B. islandica) is North American, favoring mountain streams in western Canada and Alaska. The bufflehead (B. albeola) is also North American, nesting in remote boreal forests and wintering on coastal bays. All are Least Concern.^[54]^[55]^[56]

Genus Mergellus

Mergellus contains the smew (Mergellus albellus), a small sawbill duck (38–44 cm) with striking black-and-white plumage in males, resembling a mini-merganser. It is Eurasian, breeding in taiga forests across northern Europe and Asia on wooded lakes and rivers, where it dives for small fish and aquatic insects. Winters in southern Europe, China, and Japan on sheltered waters. IUCN status is Least Concern.^[4]^[57]

Genus Lophodytes

The genus Lophodytes is monotypic with the hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), a small crested diving duck (40–49 cm) featuring a fan-like crest. Native to North America, it breeds in forested wetlands from Alaska to Nova Scotia, nesting in tree cavities near streams and ponds, and winters along southern coasts and rivers. It forages on fish, crustaceans, and insects using agile dives. IUCN status is Least Concern.^[58]^[59]

Genus Mergus

Mergus includes four living merganser species (sawbills), large diving ducks (51–69 cm) with serrated bills specialized for gripping fish. They breed in northern forested rivers and lakes, often using tree cavities. The common merganser (M. merganser) has a Holarctic distribution, feeding mainly on salmonids and other fish. The red-breasted merganser (M. serrator) is also Holarctic, favoring coastal and riverine habitats for fish and crustaceans. The scaly-sided merganser (M. squamatus) is rare in eastern Asia's forested rivers, and the Brazilian merganser (M. octosetaceus) is endangered in South American highlands. IUCN statuses: Least Concern for common and red-breasted, Critically Endangered for Brazilian, Endangered for scaly-sided.^[60]^[42]^[61]

Extinct species

The Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius) is the only extinct species in the Mergini tribe, with the last confirmed sighting occurring in 1878 near Elmira, New York.^[62] This sea duck formerly bred along the coasts of eastern Canada, particularly in the Labrador region and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while wintering off the U.S. East Coast from Nova Scotia south to New Jersey and New England.^[63] Its extinction highlights the vulnerability of coastal Mergini species to anthropogenic pressures, though no prehistoric extinctions are known within the tribe.^[64] Males exhibited striking black-and-white plumage reminiscent of eiders, with a dense, soft feathering that included bold white patches on the head, neck, and underparts contrasting against black upperparts; females were more subdued, with brownish-gray tones and weaker patterning.^[65] The species possessed a distinctive bill, broad and flattened at the tip with soft, flexible margins, adapted for foraging on mussels and other small mollusks by probing soft substrates.^[66] This specialized morphology likely restricted its diet to coastal shellfish, contributing to its ecological niche.^[67] The population, never abundant and estimated in the thousands historically, declined rapidly by the mid-19th century due to overexploitation. Overhunting for feathers, combined with intensive egg collection on breeding grounds, severely impacted reproduction, while habitat degradation from coastal development exacerbated the loss.^[68] By the 1860s, sightings became rare, leading to complete disappearance by the late 1870s, marking it as the first endemic North American bird species driven to extinction after European settlement.^[69]

Conservation

Major threats

Mergini populations face significant anthropogenic and environmental threats that contribute to declines in several species. Habitat loss, particularly from oil spills and coastal development, pollutes critical wintering grounds and disrupts foraging areas. For instance, oil spills contaminate marine habitats used by Mergini species during wintering and molting, leading to direct mortality and long-term reproductive impacts through oil ingestion and habitat degradation.^[70] Coastal urbanization and industrial activities, such as oil and gas extraction in the Arctic and Salish Sea, further fragment and salinize wetlands, reducing availability of benthic prey essential for sea ducks.^[71] Hunting pressure remains a key risk, with both legal harvests and illegal activities affecting population sustainability. Historical overexploitation, including eider down collection, depleted nesting colonies, while current regulated sport and subsistence hunting in North America harvests thousands annually—such as approximately 28,000 surf scoters (Melanitta perspicillata) and 16,000 common eiders (Somateria mollissima) from 2001 to 2020.^[71] In Asia, poaching targets species like the scaly-sided merganser (Mergus squamatus), with illegal hunting in Russia and China contributing to its endangered status alongside entanglement in fishing gear.^[72] Climate change exacerbates habitat degradation in Arctic breeding grounds through warming temperatures, permafrost thaw, and shorter ice seasons, which alter migration timing and prey availability. These changes have led to reduced nest survival in spectacled eiders due to variable winter sea ice, with projections indicating potential range contractions for some scoter populations from lake shrinkage in Siberia.^[73]^[74] Pollution, including oil and plastics, causes reproductive failure via ingestion; chronic oil pollution threatens moulting common scoters (Melanitta nigra).^[75] Bycatch in fishing nets results in substantial annual mortality, with gillnets and trawls entangling thousands of scoters and eiders globally, including Pacific surf scoters in the Salish Sea.^[71] Predation has intensified in altered tundra habitats, where declining sea ice forces polar bears onshore earlier, increasing nest predation on eiders in sympatric areas, and enabling gulls greater access to eggs.^[76] Disease outbreaks, particularly in dense winter flocks, pose additional risks; avian cholera has caused mass die-offs in common eiders, while sea ducks serve as reservoirs for influenza A viruses, potentially amplifying transmission during migrations.^[71]^[77]

Conservation measures

Conservation efforts for the Mergini tribe, encompassing sea ducks such as eiders, scoters, goldeneyes, and mergansers, are coordinated primarily through partnerships like the Sea Duck Joint Venture (SDJV), a trilateral initiative involving the United States, Canada, and Mexico under the North American Waterfowl Management Plan.^[71] The SDJV focuses on maintaining sustainable populations by addressing knowledge gaps in ecology, habitat use, and threats across breeding, molting, migration, and wintering areas.^[71] Key strategies include habitat conservation, population monitoring, and research funding, with an emphasis on integrating Indigenous knowledge and international collaboration.^[71] As of 2025, key threatened species include the spectacled eider (Near Threatened, IUCN), Steller's eider and long-tailed duck (Vulnerable, IUCN), and scaly-sided merganser (Endangered, IUCN).^[50]^[48]^[78]^[72] Habitat protection measures prioritize the identification and safeguarding of critical sites, such as coastal wetlands, arctic river deltas, and marine areas used for molting and wintering. The SDJV's Sea Duck Key Habitat Sites Atlas delineates priority locations, guiding collaborations with regional Joint Ventures to conserve breeding grounds for species like the Common Eider and White-winged Scoter.^[71] For threatened species like the Spectacled Eider, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) implements Section 7 consultations under the Endangered Species Act to protect nesting areas near industrial activities, including 200-meter buffers around nest sites during the breeding season (May 20 to August 1) to minimize disturbance.^[79] Predator management, such as controlling foxes and gulls through landfill reductions and targeted removals, further supports habitat security in areas like the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta.^[79] Internationally, the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) promotes protected area networks for species like the Long-tailed Duck, including Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and revisions to Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs) to cover key marine and coastal sites.^[80] Population monitoring is essential for tracking trends and informing management, with the SDJV supporting ongoing surveys such as the Waterfowl Breeding Population and Ground Survey, alongside new initiatives like the Pacific Black Scoter Breeding Survey.^[71] For the Spectacled Eider, annual aerial surveys adjusted for visibility estimate breeding populations (e.g., fewer than 3,000 pairs in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta), while satellite telemetry maps non-breeding distributions in the central Bering Sea.^[79] Subsistence harvest monitoring in regions like St. Lawrence Island since 1993 helps assess human impacts.^[79] Under AEWA, synchronized flyway-wide surveys every six years monitor Long-tailed Duck demographics and bycatch, aiming to fill gaps in population size and trends.^[80] Delisting criteria, such as stable or increasing populations over 10 years (e.g., at least 6,000 breeding pairs for Spectacled Eider), guide long-term evaluations.^[79] Research initiatives funded by the SDJV target threats like climate change, industrial development, and contaminants, with priorities including demographic studies and the effects of offshore wind energy on species such as the Harlequin Duck.^[71] For the Spectacled Eider, investigations into lead poisoning, predation, and adult survival use Bayesian models and contaminant analyses (e.g., blood lead levels), informing recovery actions.^[79] AEWA actions for the Long-tailed Duck emphasize hypothesis-testing for bycatch and habitat loss, integrating data from breeding success surveys.^[80] These efforts, synthesized in resources like Ecology and Conservation of North American Sea Ducks, provide benchmarks for adaptive management.^[81] Regulatory measures include hunting restrictions under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which closed seasons for Spectacled Eider since 1991 and banned lead shot in key areas to reduce poisoning.^[79] Memoranda of Agreement with Indigenous organizations limit subsistence harvests, while AEWA promotes adaptive hunting management, such as Norway's 2012 ban on spring hunting for Long-tailed Duck to curb unsustainable mortality (estimated at 15,000 annually in western populations).^[80]^[79] Overall, these coordinated actions aim to mitigate declines and ensure resilience across the Mergini tribe's range.^[71]

References

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107164
[2]
https://doi.org/10.1650/CONDOR-16-27.1
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Classification and Evolutionary Relationships of The Sea Ducks
When Delacour and Mayr (1945) revised the classification of the Anatidae, one of their major innovations was the erection of the tribe Mergini, the members of ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
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May 9, 2025 · The Smew is a small sawbilled duck found across Eurasia. The male is very distinctive with its panda-like plumage, which is predominantly snow-white with areas ...
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... Analyse de la nature : or, Tableau de l'univers et des corps organisés. By. Rafinesque, C. S. (Constantine Samuel), 1783-1840. Publication Details. Palerme, Aux ...Missing: Mergini | Show results with:Mergini
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There are 15 species of sea ducks in several groups including the eiders, scoters, goldeneyes, mergansers, the harlequin and long-tailed ducks, and bufflehead.
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[PDF] Smithsonian miscellaneous collections - Smithsonian Institution
Subfamily MERGINAE. Mergansers. Genus LOPHODYTES Reichenbach. Lophodytes Reichenbach, Avium Syst. Nat., 1852 (1853), p. ix. Type, by orig. design., Mergus ...
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Smew - vogelwarte.ch
Length. 38-44 cm. Wingspan. 56-69 cm. Weight. 500-800 g. Maximum age EURING. 8 years 11 month. Maximum age CH. -. Reproduction. Nest site. cavities in trees.Missing: grams | Show results with:grams
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[PDF] Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) - Sea Duck Joint Venture
The common eider is the largest duck in the northern hemisphere; an adult weighs 1300–2660 grams. (2.8–5.9 lbs) and is 50–71 cm (20–28 in.) long. Males are ...Missing: kg | Show results with:kg
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Like the pochards, their legs are placed well to the rear and their feet are unusually large; thus the birds have sacrificed the ability to walk easily for ...
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### Summary of Anatomy for Sea Ducks or Diving Ducks
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The relationship between sternum variation and mode of locomotion ...
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Other Vernacular Names: American Eider, Northern Eider, Pacific Eider. Range: Breeds in a circumpolar distribution on Greenland, Iceland, the Brit- ish Isles, ...
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[PDF] Tribe Mergini (Sea Ducks) - CORE
Length 22-28" (56-71 cm). Plate 50. Adult males in breeding plumage have a black forehead and black area around the eye and crown, which is divided in the ...<|separator|>
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Habitat and foods. Preferred breeding habitats of the king eider include fresh-water ponds, lakes, and streams on arctic tundra, usually near coastlines,.
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None
Below is a merged summary of the Mergini tribe's diet and diving patterns, combining all the information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the data into tables where appropriate (in CSV format for density) and supplemented with narrative text for additional context. All unique details, including diet percentages, diving durations, methods, and useful URLs, are retained.
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Costs of diving by wing and foot propulsion in a sea duck, the white ...
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Prey availability and foraging activity by tundra‐nesting sea ducks
Sea ducks often feed mostly on benthic prey, and in marine habitats they typically dive to forage.
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Sep 10, 2016 · The 21 species of sea ducks are one of the larger subgroups (Tribe Mergini) of the waterfowl family Anatidae, and the 16 species.
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(PDF) Breeding systems, spacing behavior, and reproductive ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Sea ducks in tribe Mergini exhibit a wide range of spacing, breeding, and broodrearing behaviors and have provided important insights in ...
[31]
Variation in migration strategies of North American sea ducks
Aug 7, 2025 · For each migration, we focus on timing, routes and stopover sites, nutrient reserve acquisition, stopover behavior, flight behavior ...
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Harlequin Duck | Audubon Field Guide
Mostly a short-distance migrant, moving from inland nesting areas to nearby coasts. Migrates in small flocks, usually following rivers or coastlines. All ...Missing: resident | Show results with:resident
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Variation in migration strategies of North American sea ducks
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[PDF] Atlantic and Great Lakes Sea Duck Migration Study
This study is a large scale, multi-year, collaborative project that will use satellite telemetry to document annual migration patterns and habitat use.Missing: Mergini navigation
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Spatially explicit network analysis reveals multi‐species annual ...
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The word “merganser” comes from the Latin and roughly translates to “plunging goose”—a good name for this very large and often submerged duck. You may see ...
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These prodigious divers can feed as deep as 200 feet, swimming with their wings, catching invertebrates and small fish. More ID Info · Range map for Long-tailed ...
[45]
Diet and Foraging - Long-tailed Duck - Clangula hyemalis
On breeding grounds, larval and adult aquatic insects, crustaceans (amphipods, fairy shrimp, cladocerans), fish roe, and vegetable matter (Cottam 1939 Cottam, C ...Feeding · Diet · Food Selection and Storage · Nutrition and Energetics
[46]
Harlequin Duck Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
The blue, chestnut, and white males, along with the grayish females, breed mainly along whitewater rivers and winter on rocky windswept coasts. Their lifestyle ...
[47]
Harlequin Duck Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Most nests are built close to water, on the ground in dense vegetation, among tree roots, or in rock crevices. Nesting females take full advantage of their ...
[48]
Steller's Eider (Polysticta stelleri) | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
The Alaska-breeding population was listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1997, due to concerns over apparent declines in numbers inferred ...<|separator|>
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https://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/spectacled-eider-somateria-fischeri
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Spectacled Eider Somateria Fischeri Species Factsheet
This species breeds on small lakes, pools, bogs and streams of the tundra. It mainly feeds on molluscs but will also take crustaceans.
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[PDF] Phylogenomics reveals ancient and contemporary gene flow ...
Mar 30, 2021 · Here, we investigate the evolutionary history of the Mergini tribe (sea ducks) by coupling multi-species comparisons with phylogenomic analyses ...
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Black Scoter Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
A stark velvety black seaduck with a bright pumpkin-orange knob at the base of its bill, the male Black Scoter is distinctive at almost any distance.Missing: shellfish | Show results with:shellfish
[54]
Common Goldeneye Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of ...
These distinctively shaped, large-headed ducks dive for their food, eating mostly aquatic invertebrates and fish. They nest in tree cavities in the boreal ...
[55]
Common Goldeneye | Ducks Unlimited
Common Goldeneyes are obligate cavity nesters using boreal lakes with an abundance of aquatic insects, with a preference for those that are free of fish to ...
[56]
Barrow's goldeneye | Washington Department of Fish & Wildlife
Females use tree cavities, including those excavated by pileated woodpeckers, and also nest in artificial nest boxes where natural cavities are limited. A ...
[57]
Smew Mergellus Albellus Species Factsheet | BirdLife DataZone
In Europe, the total population size is estimated at 21,700-34,000 mature individuals, with 10,800-17,000 breeding pairs and 48,700-166,000 non-breeding ...
[58]
Hooded Merganser Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of ...
Hooded Mergansers are fairly common on small ponds and streams across their breeding range. In fall through spring, head to unfrozen lakes or shallow, protected ...
[59]
Hooded Merganser | Ducks Unlimited
Their range is restricted to North America. ... Hooded Mergansers are cavity nesters and readily use constructed nest boxes. Males are easily distinguished by the ...<|separator|>
[60]
Common Merganser - Mergus merganser - Birds of the World
... mergansers in general, names such as sawbill, fish duck, and sheldrake. In flight, this duck has a flat, pointed profile. It generally nests in tree ...
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Goosander Duck Facts | Mergus Merganser - RSPB
How to identify. These handsome diving ducks are a member of the sawbill family, named for their serrated bills, used for catching fish.
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Distribution - Labrador Duck - Camptorhynchus labradorius
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Wildfowl Extinctions
Mar 20, 2021 · The majority of wildfowl that have disappeared since first human contact were never documented and are only known from sub-fossil remains.New Zealand · Indian Ocean · Continents<|separator|>
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Labrador Duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius) Extinct - Earth Life
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Diet and Foraging - Labrador Duck - Camptorhynchus labradorius
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Labrador Duck - Information and Photos
The last known Labrador Duck was shot by a hunter in 1878 on Long Island in New York. Very little is known of the bird's habits or breeding.
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[PDF] -Wo M Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ...
What seems the most likely cause of extinction of the Labrador Duck is deterioration in habitat quality (factors 1 or 2) combined with egg- collecting ...Missing: overhunting | Show results with:overhunting
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Labrador Duck Camptorhynchus labradorius - Birds of the World
The Labrador Duck has the dubious distinction of being the first species among endemic North American birds to go extinct.
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[71]
[PDF] Sea Duck Joint Venture Strategic Plan 2022 – 2031
Sources of mortality related to fisheries include incidental bycatch of sea ducks in fishing gear and collisions with fishing vessels. Understanding both the ...
[72]
Scaly-sided Merganser Mergus Squamatus Species Factsheet
The direct loss of individuals from accidental hunting and illegal poaching (primarily in Russia but also in China) and fishing nets are also considered high ...
[73]
Demographic responses to climate change in a threatened Arctic ...
Jul 14, 2021 · Our results indicate spectacled eiders may be vulnerable to climate change and the increasingly variable sea ice conditions throughout their wintering range.
[74]
Siberian Scoter Melanitta Stejnegeri Species Factsheet | BirdLife ...
Climate change is expected to impact this species in a number of ways. Remote sensing has shown the shrinkage and disappearance of lakes in Siberia which ...
[75]
Common Scoter Melanitta Nigra Species Factsheet
Oil spills and chronic oil pollution threaten this species in the winter moulting period where large and highly vulnerable concentrations of the population ...
[76]
Plastic and metal ingestion in three species of coastal waterfowl ...
Sep 15, 2015 · The ingestion of plastics and metal has rarely been reported in waterfowl species, except for species that live at sea (Provencher et al., 2014a) ...Missing: Mergini | Show results with:Mergini
[77]
An Arctic predator–prey system in flux: climate change impacts on ...
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[78]
Genomic Evidence for Sequestration of Influenza A Virus Lineages ...
Jan 24, 2021 · Sea ducks play a role in the movement and long-term persistence of IAVs and are likely harboring more undetected IAV diversity.
[79]
[PDF] Spectacled Eider Recovery Plan - ECOS
Cnrr~nLSIatus: This species is listed as threatened. Three breeding populations have been identified: Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta (YKD), North Slope of Alaska (NS), ...
[80]
[PDF] International Single Species Action Plan for the Conservation of the ...
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Ecology and conservation of North American sea ducks - USGS.gov
Capturing the current state of knowledge of this unique tribe, it provides a benchmark for where we are in conservation efforts and suggests future directions ...