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Microprinting

Microprinting is a security printing technique that involves the reproduction of extremely small text, patterns, or graphics—typically measuring 0.3 to 1 point in size or smaller—rendering them illegible to the naked eye and requiring magnification for verification.^[1]^[2] This method serves primarily as an anti-counterfeiting measure by exploiting the limitations of standard copying or scanning equipment, which often blurs or distorts the fine details into solid lines or dots.^[3]^[1] Developed as an overt security feature, microprinting has been employed since the late 20th century in high-value documents to deter forgery, with early uses including the U.S. $100 bill in 1990, though its effectiveness has diminished with advances in digital printing technology accessible to counterfeiters.^[3]^[4] It works by using high-resolution processes such as offset, intaglio, or laser engraving to produce precise line weights and spacings that maintain clarity only under scrutiny, often incorporating uppercase letters without spaces, deliberate misspellings, or multi-line patterns for added complexity.^[1]^[5] Common placements include borders, backgrounds, signature lines, or intersections with other features like portraits, enhancing both authenticity checks and resistance to alteration.^[5] In applications, microprinting is integral to banknotes, such as the microtext on the U.S. dollar and Euro, as well as checks, identification cards, vouchers, and pharmaceutical packaging where it encodes batch information or authentication codes.^[3]^[1]^[2] It is frequently combined with complementary technologies like holograms, UV inks, watermarks, or prismatic printing to create layered defenses against replication.^[1]^[3] Despite its simplicity and cost-effectiveness—no advanced software required—microprinting's limitations include vulnerability to high-end forgery tools and potential blurring from printing errors, prompting its evolution as of 2025 toward integration with digital elements like QR codes or AI-driven quality controls in modern packaging and displays.^[3]^[2]

Introduction

Definition and Principles

Microprinting refers to the production of extremely small text, patterns, or images in printed media, typically measuring 0.15 to 0.3 mm in height, which are legible only under magnification and appear as thin solid lines to the unaided eye.^[6] This technique produces recognizable characters or designs at a scale where the fine details, such as letter strokes and spacing, demand optical enlargement for readability, often using 5x to 10x magnification.^[7] For instance, advanced implementations like the MicroText font developed by Xerox achieve character heights as small as 1/100th of an inch (approximately 0.254 mm, equivalent to 0.72-point font size), enabling high-security personalization in documents.^[8] The core principle of microprinting as a security feature lies in its resistance to replication by common imaging technologies, such as photocopying or low-resolution scanning, which cause the intricate details to blur, fill in, or distort into indistinct lines rather than coherent text.^[9]^[3] This effect stems from the reliance on high-resolution printing processes—often exceeding 1000 dpi—to maintain the precision of microscopic line weights and separations, which consumer-grade devices cannot faithfully reproduce without specialized equipment.^[3] In originals, the microprinted elements retain sharp legibility under magnification, confirming authenticity through the clarity of the patterns, whereas copies exhibit smudging or loss of resolution.^[9] Basic verification involves simple optical tools, such as a magnifying loupe or microscope, to inspect the microprinted areas for intact, readable content against expected phrases or designs, like "AUTHORIZED SIGNATURE" on checks or denomination indicators on currency.^[9]^[7] Practical limits for readable text lines typically hover around 0.3 mm to ensure reliability across standard verification methods, though advanced techniques can achieve smaller sizes in optimal conditions.^[2] This foundational approach makes microprinting an effective, covert deterrent in high-value documents, including banknotes, where it integrates seamlessly into borders or threads without altering visible aesthetics.^[6]

Historical Development

Microprinting originated in 1934 when Albert Boni, a publisher and innovator in photographic technologies, conceived the technique as a means to miniaturize printed text for efficient storage and reproduction. Inspired by discussions on photographic enlargement during a social gathering and experiments with microphotography shown to him by writer Manuel Komroff, Boni adapted principles from 35mm microfilm to create opaque microcopy directly printable on paper. Using offset lithography, the process involved photographing text at high reduction, transferring the negative to a photosensitive plate, and printing it onto 6x9-inch cards capable of holding approximately 100 pages reduced by 12 to 18 diameters, thereby occupying about 2% of the original shelf space required for books.^[10]^[11] In 1939, Boni founded the Readex Microprint Corporation to commercialize the technology, initially focusing on producing microprint editions of extensive document collections, such as British sessional papers and U.S. government publications. The company leveraged advancements like the P.D. process from Philips Research Laboratories in the 1950s and 1960s to refine production. Early in the 1940s, librarian Fremont Rider advocated for micro-opaque formats, including microprint and his related microcard invention, as a solution to escalating space demands in research libraries, where collections were doubling every 16 years; Rider's 1944 book The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library highlighted microprint's potential for compact, catalog-integrated storage of up to 250 pages per card.^[11]^[12] Boni secured key patents for the microprint process in 1941, including U.S. Patent 2,260,551 for a method and apparatus to produce and project microprints arranged in a 10x10 grid on sheets, featuring precise mechanical adjustments for illumination and positioning, and U.S. Patent 2,260,552 for a projection apparatus with adjustable reflectors and lenses to enable focused viewing of the miniaturized images. By the mid-20th century, microprinting transitioned from library archiving applications to security contexts, evolving from analog film-based reductions to more direct printing techniques that emphasized fine-line text illegible without magnification. Microprinting began appearing in U.S. banknotes with the Series 1990 $5 and higher denominations.^[13] This shift facilitated its integration into anti-counterfeiting measures, culminating in the 1990s with widespread adoption in official documents.^[14]^[15] Significant milestones marked microprinting's entrenchment in security printing: the United States Postal Service introduced it in 1992 on the American Wildflower Series stamps, the first U.S. commemorative issue fully produced by offset lithography, incorporating tiny text like "USPS" visible only under magnification to deter counterfeiting. Similarly, the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing incorporated microprinting into the Series 2004 $20 note, issued in 2003, featuring phrases such as "USA TWENTY" along the security thread and portrait collar to enhance authenticity verification.^[16]^[17]

Applications

In Currency and Banknotes

Microprinting serves as a key anti-counterfeiting feature in currency and banknotes by embedding extremely fine lines of text, typically 0.1 to 0.2 millimeters in height, that appear as continuous solid lines or patterns to the unaided eye but resolve into readable words or phrases when viewed under magnification, such as with a jeweler's loupe. This technique exploits the limitations of standard printing and scanning equipment used by counterfeiters, which often result in blurred or illegible reproductions of the text. In banknotes, microprinting is strategically placed in borders, portraits, and backgrounds to integrate seamlessly with the overall design while providing verifiable security.^[18]^[19] In the United States, microprinting has been incorporated into Federal Reserve notes since the 1990s redesigns to enhance security. For instance, the Series 2004 $20 bill (issued in 2003) includes microprinting such as "USA20" along the border of the blue "TWENTY USA" ribbon to the right of the portrait and "THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 20 USA 20" in the border below the Treasurer’s signature, which blends into the design but becomes legible under 10x magnification.^[17] Similarly, the $100 bill features microprinting of "THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" along Benjamin Franklin's jacket collar and "USA 100" surrounding the portrait area, making it a prominent element in higher-denomination notes. These placements ensure the feature is both aesthetic and functional, deterring reproduction without specialized equipment.^[20]^[21] Globally, microprinting is employed in various national currencies to align with international standards for secure banknote production. Euro banknotes, introduced in 2002, incorporate microprinted text in the architectural motifs and around the central portrait; for example, on the €50 note, tiny letters spelling "EURO" and the denomination appear sharply in the silver stripe and main image under magnification, while counterfeits often show blurring in these areas. In Canada, polymer banknotes from the 2011 Frontier series onward feature microprinting in the transparent security windows and along portrait edges, such as fine text reading "BANK OF CANADA" integrated into the maple leaf window and security threads, which resists replication on standard printers. These implementations reflect a coordinated effort by central banks to standardize overt and covert security layers.^[22]^[19]^[23] The adoption of microprinting has proven effective in reducing counterfeiting rates, particularly when combined with complementary features like watermarks and security threads. In the US, the 1996 currency redesign, which introduced microprinting to $100 notes and later denominations, contributed to an over 85% decline in counterfeit $100 bills detected since the 1990s, as the feature raised the technical barriers for forgers and improved detection at processing centers. This multi-layered approach has similarly lowered overall forgery incidents worldwide, with studies showing parallel drops in counterfeit circulation relative to genuine notes post-redesign. Microprinting's role is amplified by its integration with raised intaglio printing, which provides tactile cues alongside the visual verification.^[24]^[25]^[18] Verification of microprinting in circulating currency relies on accessible tools and education to empower users. Bank tellers receive specialized training through resources like the U.S. Currency Education Program's Teller Toolkit, which instructs on using a magnifying device to check for crisp, readable text in designated areas, distinguishing genuine notes from fakes where lines appear fuzzy or filled in. Public awareness campaigns, including the U.S. Secret Service's "Know Your Money" initiative distributed via brochures and online modules, promote similar checks among retailers and consumers, emphasizing magnification to reveal the text and report suspects to authorities. These efforts ensure widespread adoption of the feature for everyday authentication.^[26]^[27]^[4]

In Checks and Identification Documents

Microprinting plays a critical role in securing banking checks by embedding fine text that resists reproduction and alteration. Typically, phrases such as "AUTHORIZED SIGNATURE," "MP," or "MICROPRINT SECURITY" are printed in text measuring 0.004 inches (0.1 mm) high along signature lines, borders, or endorsement areas, appearing as thin dotted or solid lines to the naked eye but resolving into readable words under magnification or with a loupe.^[9]^[28] This feature integrates with other elements like the Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) line at the check's base, which encodes routing and account data, to form a layered security system for automated processing and manual verification.^[29] In the United States, microprinting on checks adheres to standards outlined in ANSI X9/TG-8-2002, the Check Security Guideline, which rates traditional microprinting an 8 out of 10 for counterfeiting deterrence due to its difficulty in replication using standard copiers or scanners.^[30] For fraud prevention, the technology exploits the limitations of unauthorized duplication: alterations to signatures or amounts via erasure or overwriting distort the microprint, causing it to blur into illegible lines or dots, thereby revealing tampering during inspection.^[9] The widespread adoption of microprinting and related features in the 1990s, alongside advancements like MICR, contributed to declining check fraud rates by enhancing early detection, with U.S. banks reporting improved prevention of over 90% of attempts through such measures.^[31] Digital production techniques, including those using MICR-compatible toners, enable precise variable microprinting of personalized data like payee names, further bolstering security without added cost on modern presses.^[30] In identification documents, microprinting provides analogous protection against forgery in passports and driver's licenses. Passports commonly incorporate microtext in decorative borders, repeating the issuing country's name in lines as fine as 0.15–0.3 mm high, which forms intricate patterns visible only under magnification.^[6] Driver's licenses use similar fine-line patterns or text encircling photographs or data fields, deterring photo substitution or edge tampering by distorting upon alteration attempts.^[6] These elements exploit the same replication challenges as in checks, where photocopying or scanning fails to preserve clarity, alerting border agents or issuers to fakes.^[5] Regional standards vary, with EU passports mandating microprinting as part of enhanced security in machine-readable zones (MRZ) and biographical pages, often via intaglio or laser engraving to include personalized data like holder names in guilloche designs surrounding the MRZ.^[32]^[5] This integration ensures compliance with ICAO Doc 9303 for machine-readable travel documents while complicating identity theft, as any modification to personal details or zones disrupts the microtext alignment.^[33] Overall, microprinting in these documents has proven effective in reducing fraud by raising the technical barrier for counterfeiters, with verification tools confirming authenticity through undistorted fine details.^[6]

Non-Security Applications

In the 1940s, librarian Fremont Rider proposed microprinting as a solution to the escalating space requirements of research libraries, advocating for the miniaturization of book pages onto compact cards to enable efficient preservation of vast collections.^[12] Rider's concept of microcards envisioned these items functioning dually as catalogs and storage media, drastically reducing shelving needs while maintaining access to scholarly materials.^[34] This approach was particularly valuable for archiving rare and bulky texts that were prone to deterioration. The Readex Microprint Corporation, founded in the early 1940s by publisher Albert Boni, advanced these ideas by producing microprint editions of historical documents, government publications, and early American imprints, thereby aiding the digitization and preservation of otherwise inaccessible rare texts.^[35] Microprinting facilitated significant data compression, allowing up to 100 facsimile pages to be stored on a single 6x9 inch card through offset lithography, which arranged tiny images in a 10x10 grid for high-density storage.^[36] These cards offered cost-effective space savings in the pre-digital era, enabling libraries to house thousands of pages in minimal physical volume without compromising readability under magnification. By the 2000s, microprinting's prominence in archival storage waned as digital formats like PDFs emerged, providing superior accessibility, searchability, and lower maintenance costs compared to physical microforms.^[37] In contemporary non-security contexts, microprinting supports high-density labeling in pharmaceuticals, enabling the inclusion of detailed batch information, barcodes, and compliance text in ultra-small fonts to avoid visible clutter on packaging, including serialization for traceability under regulations like the U.S. Drug Supply Chain Security Act (DSCSA) as updated through 2023.^[38]^[39] Similarly, in electronics manufacturing, it allows precise batch coding on components and circuit boards, enhancing traceability while conserving surface space for functional elements.^[40] These applications underscore microprinting's enduring value for information-dense scenarios where space efficiency outweighs the need for overt visibility.

Production Methods

Traditional Printing Techniques

Traditional microprinting relies on analog mechanical processes that utilize engraved or photographic plates to produce fine text and lines at scales requiring magnification for readability. Offset lithography, a planographic method, involves creating photographic plates from high-resolution negatives, which transfer ink to a rubber blanket before imprinting onto the substrate, achieving high-resolution text suitable for security features but generally coarser than intaglio. Microprinting via these methods has been used since the mid-20th century for high-value documents. This technique allows for efficient mass production but lacks the tactile depth of other methods.^[41]^[3] Intaglio printing, in contrast, uses deeply engraved metal plates under high pressure—typically 7,500 to 15,000 psi—to deposit raised ink lines, enabling microprinting with features as fine as approximately 0.15 mm (6–7 thousandths of an inch), such as the lines on U.S. Series 1990 banknotes. This process imparts a distinctive embossed feel, making it particularly suitable for high-security applications like currency, where the precision and durability enhance anti-counterfeiting measures. Engraving for these plates can be performed by hand or machine, involving etching into steel or copper to create intricate patterns derived from microfilm or direct artwork, a practice dating back to the 1930s for producing detailed security elements.^[41] Materials in traditional microprinting emphasize high contrast and longevity, with black or dark inks applied to durable substrates like cotton-linen blend paper embedded with security fibers, ensuring legibility under magnification while resisting wear. Intaglio inks, in particular, are high-viscosity formulations applied in layers about 20 µm thick to maintain sharpness and opacity. These analog methods equate to resolutions exceeding 1000 dpi in effective detail, far surpassing typical consumer reproduction capabilities at the time.^[41] Despite their precision, traditional techniques present significant challenges, including labor-intensive plate preparation that requires skilled engravers and time-consuming etching processes. Plates are susceptible to wear during high-volume runs, potentially degrading fine lines after extended use and necessitating frequent replacements or rechroming to preserve quality. Registration errors between colors and limited palette options further complicate production, though these methods remain valued for their proven security in analog contexts.^[41]

Digital and Modern Production Techniques

In the realm of digital production, laser and inkjet printers have revolutionized microprinting by enabling precise, scalable output suitable for security applications. These systems utilize computer-aided design software to generate intricate patterns, achieving resolutions that support text as small as 0.5 points on compatible laser printers, such as those operating at 1,200 dpi.^[42] High-resolution digital presses, like the Xerox Versant series, further enhance this capability with 2,400 x 2,400 dpi output using enhanced toner formulations, allowing for commercial security printing of fine details that resist casual replication.^[43] MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Recognition) toner systems represent a specialized digital approach for check printing, incorporating magnetic particles into the ink to encode account and routing information at the document's base while integrating microtext for added security. These toners comply with ANSI X9 and ABA standards, ensuring machine-readable output with embedded fine-line patterns that deter forgery.^[44] For enhanced durability in such applications, polyester and styrene-acrylic toners are commonly employed, providing resistance to smudging and wear through strong adhesion to paper substrates and low-temperature fusing properties. Specialized dyes have expanded microprinting's versatility in digital workflows, particularly through UV- and infrared-sensitive inks that render microtext invisible under normal conditions but detectable with specific lighting or devices. These inks, often formulated for inkjet compatibility, enable covert features like infrared-absorbing patterns that appear only under IR illumination, bolstering anti-counterfeiting in documents.^[45] Font and software innovations have optimized digital microprinting for precision and ease of integration. Xerox's MicroText Specialty Imaging Font, developed in 2006, produces characters approximately 1/100th of an inch tall (equivalent to 0.72 points), designed specifically for embedding secure identifiers in printed materials using digital presses.^[8] Complementary software tools facilitate the creation of these patterns, allowing designers to generate and rasterize microtext at minimal sizes like 0.5 points for laser printing environments.^[42] As of 2025, advancements include the integration of 3D printing techniques for producing microstructures that incorporate microtext, such as multiphoton laser microprinting with deep eutectic inks to fabricate soft, elastic 3D features at sub-micron resolutions for enhanced security layers.^[46] Similarly, MXene-based nano-inks enable high-resolution 3D microprinting of hydrophilic microstructures, optimizing viscosity for detailed patterns in anti-counterfeiting applications.^[47] These developments build on digital presses' capabilities, like the RICOH Pro C7500 series with 2,400 x 4,800 dpi resolution for MICR-compliant security printing.^[48]

Security Aspects

Design and Verification Principles

Microprinting design strategies emphasize strategic placement to integrate seamlessly with the overall artwork while facilitating detection. Common placements include edges of borders, within portrait elements, or along security threads, where the microtext can blend into fine lines or patterns without drawing attention to the naked eye. This approach allows for redundancy across documents, such as consistent positioning in similar formats like passports or banknotes, enhancing user familiarity during inspection. Repeating phrases, such as "AUTHORIZED SIGNATURE," are often employed in continuous lines to enable quick recognition under magnification, providing an overt cue once located.^[5]^[9]^[49] Font and pattern selection plays a critical role in achieving optimal resolution and resistance to reproduction. Proprietary or customized fonts, derived from public typefaces with modifications like altered kerning, bolding, or italicization, are preferred to prevent easy replication using standard software. Multiple font sizes within a single element or dynamic scaling across patterns increase complexity, while distortions such as curvature or non-repeating arrangements deter step-and-repeat counterfeiting techniques. Line thickness is carefully controlled—typically below 0.1 mm—to ensure sharpness in original prints, as photocopying or low-resolution scanning causes lines to fill in or blur, rendering the text illegible. Sans-serif styles or custom variants are often favored over serifs for their cleaner edges at micro scales, improving legibility under magnification without excessive detail that could compromise during production.^[50]^[3] Verification protocols rely on magnification to reveal the microtext's integrity, with standard tools requiring 10x to 20x enlargement for clear readability. Inspectors are trained to locate predictable placements and assess for uniformity, sharpness, and absence of blurring, which indicates authenticity. Law enforcement and banking personnel undergo specialized training to recognize these features efficiently, while consumer education programs highlight basic checks using pocket magnifiers. Modern integrations include smartphone applications with digital magnification and image enhancement, allowing non-experts to verify features on-site by zooming into suspected areas; as of 2025, AI-assisted apps further improve detection accuracy.^[50]^[51]^[52] Effectiveness metrics demonstrate microprinting's value as a deterrent in controlled evaluations of security documents. However, limitations exist against high-end scanners or printers capable of 600 dpi or higher resolution, which can partially replicate fine lines, underscoring the need for layered security features. Standards such as ISO 14298 provide guidelines for security printing processes to ensure consistent quality and resistance to forgery across production.^[50]^[53]^[54]

Advanced Microstructures and Innovations

In the 2010s, researchers advanced microprinting into the nanoscale realm by employing gold nanoparticle inks deposited on glass substrates, followed by sintering through continuous Gaussian laser irradiation. This in-tandem process, utilizing drop-on-demand jetting systems, enabled the creation of conductive microstructures with line widths as fine as 8 μm, demonstrating high-resolution patterning suitable for secure applications.^[55] Such techniques leveraged the rapid heating from the laser's Gaussian beam profile to fuse nanoparticles without substrate damage, achieving electrical resistivities close to bulk gold while maintaining pattern fidelity at sub-micron scales.^[56] Integration of microprinting with other technologies has expanded its security potential, notably through holographic microprint, where microtext is embedded within diffractive optically variable devices (OVDs). These holograms incorporate nanoscale gratings alongside microprinted elements, visible only under magnification or specific lighting, enhancing tamper detection in high-value documents.^[57] Similarly, RFID-embedded microstructures combine inkjet-printed conductive patterns with radio-frequency identification chips, creating smart documents that allow wireless authentication while concealing serialized microtext within the embedded layers.^[58] Emerging applications of advanced microprinting extend to anti-counterfeiting in pharmaceuticals, particularly on pill packaging, where microtext below 0.1 mm is printed on blister foils or labels to verify authenticity under magnification. This covert feature deters replication by requiring specialized equipment for accurate reproduction, integrating seamlessly with serialization standards.^[59] Additionally, potential integrations with blockchain enable digital scanning of printed codes to confirm provenance via immutable ledgers in secure printing workflows for supply chain traceability.^[60] Despite these innovations, scalability remains a significant challenge in nanoscale microprinting, primarily due to limitations in processing speed and material throughput during laser-based or multi-photon techniques, hindering transition from lab prototypes to industrial production.^[61] Looking toward 2025, advancements in AI-designed patterns optimize generative algorithms for digital printing systems, enhancing adaptability and minimizing defects.^[62] A notable example of early innovation in advanced microtext systems is outlined in US Patent 7,270,918 (2007), which describes a printing process for embedding variable microprinting in documents like checks, using high-resolution inks to create non-reproducible patterns detectable only by magnification.^[63]

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Jun 25, 2025 · Using deep eutectic inks in multiphoton 3D laser printing enables excellent printability of soft and elastic complex 3D microstructures.
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Opening a new chapter in 3D microprinting with the dream material ...
Mar 12, 2025 · The researchers at KERI successfully developed a 3D printing nano ink by dispersing highly hydrophilic MXene in water without the use of a ...
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[PDF] RICOH Pro C7500PM
Produce superior quality images using VCSEL Technology with 2400 × 4800 dpi resolution. • Generate ASC X9- and ABA-compliant MICR output with E13B and CMC-7 ...
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[PDF] A Glossary of Security Features for Printed Documents
Microprint Signature Line The words “Authorized Signature” repeated in tiny, type, so small that the letters blur to a dotted line when copied or scanned ...
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Optimising microprinting: font and artwork - Keesing Platform
Oct 8, 2020 · Throughout this paper, example microprinting graphics are displayed as pairs, with the left image captured at lower magnification (usually 10X) ...Missing: minimum | Show results with:minimum
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Residence Permit Verification 101: All You Need To Know To Detect ...
Dec 17, 2024 · To verify documents with microprinting, experts would use at least 10x magnification and check the uniformity of the text. Fakes, on the ...Missing: levels | Show results with:levels<|separator|>
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Renewed Importance of Check Security Symbols in Check Fraud ...
Microprint is a widely used anti-fraud tool because it is extremely difficult to fake with common equipment. While scanners with resolutions of at least 600 dpi ...
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ISO 14298:2021 - Management of security printing processes
This document specifies requirements for a security printing management system for security printers.
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In-tandem deposition and sintering of printed gold nanoparticle inks ...
By employing continuous Gaussian laser irradiation in tandem with a specifically designed drop-on-demand jetting system, nanoparticle inks were printed and ...
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[PDF] Conductor microstructures by laser curing of printed gold ...
Jan 27, 2004 · The laser-based curing of printed nanoparticle ink to create microlines (resistors) of electrical resistivity approaching that of bulk gold ...
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30 years of holograms on banknotes - Giesecke+Devrient
Holograms, also known as diffractive Optically Variable Devices (OVDs), have become one of the most common Level 1 security features on banknotes.
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RFID Tag and RF Structures on a Paper Substrate Using Inkjet ...
Aug 5, 2025 · In this paper, inkjet-printed UHF and microwave circuits fabricated on paper substrates are investigated for the first time as an approach ...Missing: microstructures microprinting documents
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Intelligent packaging: combating counterfeits and extending drug ...
Apr 4, 2022 · The use of micro text on packaging is a solution being implemented in the fight against counterfeiting. It enables words to be printed below or ...Missing: microprinting | Show results with:microprinting<|separator|>
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Blockchain for Anti-Counterfeiting: Secure Traceability for printrunner
Sep 22, 2025 · Conclusion: Blockchain-secured, GS1-compliant unit codes cut counterfeiting exposure while shortening exception handling to within 24–48 h ...<|separator|>
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Recent Advances and Challenges in Multi-Photon 3D Nanoprinting
Insufficient processing speed has persistently been a key factor limiting the large-scale production and application of MPL. Due to their nonlinear absorption ...Missing: nanoscale | Show results with:nanoscale
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AI and Digital Printing Technologies in 2025
Jun 4, 2025 · AI is also making digital printing more sustainable. Intelligent ink control systems track usage patterns, temperature conditions, and humidity ...
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Printing system, process, and product with microprinting
The invention relates to printing of documents, for example bank checks, with security features. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION. Fraud associated with certain ...