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Middle Triassic

The Middle Triassic is the central epoch of the Triassic Period in the Mesozoic Era, spanning from 247.2 to 237 million years ago and subdivided into the Anisian Stage (247.2–241.5 Ma) and the Ladinian Stage (241.5–237 Ma).^[1] This interval marked a pivotal phase of ecological recovery following the devastating end-Permian mass extinction, with accelerating diversification of marine invertebrates, early reptiles, and terrestrial vertebrates amid a supercontinent-dominated world. It set the stage for the dominance of archosaurs and modern ecosystem structures that characterized later Mesozoic biotas.^[2] Geologically, the Middle Triassic featured the intact supercontinent Pangaea, though initial rifting commenced, particularly along its western margins, initiating the separation into northern Laurasia and southern Gondwana and fostering the expansion of the Tethys Sea.^[3] Subduction zones along Pangaea's edges generated mountain-building events, such as the Sonoma Orogeny in western North America, while volcanic activity and sediment deposition formed extensive red bed sequences in continental interiors.^[4] Paleoclimate was predominantly warm and arid across low latitudes, with vast deserts in Pangaea's interior, but regional monsoons and increased humidity in coastal and higher-latitude areas supported more varied habitats; no polar ice caps existed, contributing to a relatively even global temperature gradient.^[5] Reefs rebuilt by early scleractinian corals developed during this time.^[6] Biologically, the Middle Triassic witnessed robust rebound in marine life, including the proliferation of ammonoids, bivalves, and early scleractinian corals that rebuilt reefs after Early Triassic barrenness, alongside the first appearances of nothosaurs and other marine reptiles.^[7] On land, gymnosperm-dominated floras—featuring conifers, ginkgos, and cycads—expanded, with ferns and horsetails thriving in wetter locales, providing habitats for herbivorous tetrapods.^[3] Terrestrial faunas diversified among archosauromorphs, with predatory erythrosuchids and early rauisuchians emerging as apex forms, while therapsids like dicynodonts persisted and small dinosauromorphs began to appear, foreshadowing dinosaur radiation; amphibians and turtle precursors also contributed to increasingly complex food webs.^[8] These assemblages, documented in sites like Monte San Giorgio and the German Keuper, highlight a transition toward archosaurian dominance by the Ladinian.^[9]

Definition and Stratigraphy

Time Frame and Boundaries

The Middle Triassic epoch spans 246.7 to 237 million years ago (Ma), representing the central portion of the Triassic period following the recovery phase after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.^[1] This interval, equivalent to the Middle Triassic series in chronostratigraphy, is characterized by ongoing biotic diversification in marine and terrestrial realms amid stabilizing global conditions.^[1] The epoch is subdivided into two stages: the Anisian (246.7–241.5 Ma) and the Ladinian (241.5–237 Ma).^[1] These stages are defined primarily through biostratigraphy, with numerical ages calibrated via radiometric dating and astrochronology as outlined in the International Chronostratigraphic Chart.^[1] The lower boundary of the Middle Triassic, marking the base of the Anisian stage, lacks a formally ratified Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) but is approximated by the last occurrence of the conodont Chiosella timorensis in candidate sections such as Deşli Caira Hill in Romania. This boundary coincides with the recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction, with early Middle Triassic biostratigraphy further supported by the first appearance of conodonts such as Nicoraella kockeli, which defines substage transitions within the Anisian like the Bithynian-Pelsonian boundary. Ammonoid biozonations also contribute to correlating this transition across Tethyan sections. The internal boundary between the Anisian and Ladinian stages is defined by the ratified GSSP at Bagolino, southern Alps, Italy, marked by the first appearance of the ammonoid Eoprotrachyceras curionii.^[10] The upper boundary, at the base of the Carnian stage (~237 Ma), is defined by the first appearance of the ammonoid Daxatina canadensis at the ratified GSSP in Stuores Wiesen, southern Alps, Italy.^[11] This horizon aligns with the Ladinian-Carnian extinction event, a significant biotic turnover affecting marine invertebrates, and is corroborated by conodont markers such as the first occurrences of Quadralella polygnathiformis and Quadralella intermedia in various Tethyan and Panthalassic sections.^[12]^[13] Correlation of the Middle Triassic timescale integrates biostratigraphy with geomagnetic polarity records and radiometric methods. Magnetostratigraphic patterns, including reversals in the Longobardian and Fassanian substages of the Ladinian, are anchored to Tethyan sections and provide a framework for global synchronization.^[14] High-precision U-Pb zircon dating, such as a 237.77 ± 0.05 Ma age from ash beds near the Ladinian-Carnian boundary in the Dolomites, refines these ages and links them to the broader Triassic polarity timescale.^[15] These approaches ensure robust alignment with the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, accounting for uncertainties in unratified boundaries.^[1]

Key Formations and Lithology

The Middle Triassic stratigraphic record is characterized by prominent formations that reflect diverse depositional environments, primarily in shallow marine to lagoonal settings. In Europe, the Muschelkalk Formation represents a key carbonate-evaporite sequence, consisting of lower and upper porous carbonates separated by tight middle evaporites, deposited in the epicontinental Central European Basin under arid conditions during the Anisian to Ladinian stages.^[16]^[17] The upper layers of the underlying Buntsandstein Formation mark a transition from continental siliciclastics to marine influences, with the Röt Formation exhibiting initial marine incursions through variegated mudstones and evaporites in sabkha-like environments.^[18]^[19] In North America, the Thaynes Group exemplifies Middle Triassic lithology in the western United States, comprising fossiliferous gray limestones, thin-bedded yellow sandstones, and calcareous shales with interbedded wackestones, primarily exposed in Nevada, Utah, and Idaho.^[20]^[21] These units display cyclic repetitions indicative of minor transgressive-regressive events superimposed on broader regional trends. In Asia, the Guanling Formation in southwestern China features dolomites and argillaceous dolomites in its lower parts, transitioning to limestones and marls in the upper sections, with phosphatized layers preserving exceptional marine fossils during the Anisian.^[22]^[23] Lithological variations across Middle Triassic deposits emphasize a dominance of carbonates, evaporites, and siliciclastics, driven by transgressive-regressive cycles that record eustatic sea-level fluctuations and basin evolution.^[17]^[24] For instance, third-order cycles in European sections alternate between carbonate ramps and evaporitic sabkhas, while North American sequences show shale-limestone interbeds reflecting repeated marine incursions.^[25] These patterns highlight the interplay of shallow marine transgressions and regressions in tectonically active margins.^[26] Biostratigraphic correlation of these formations relies on index fossils such as daonellid bivalves (e.g., Daonella) and ceratitid ammonoids (e.g., Ceratites), which provide precise zonal markers for global synchronization of Middle Triassic strata.^[27]^[28] Daonella species, known for their thin, flat shells, serve as reliable indicators in carbonate and shale facies, enabling intercontinental ties from Europe to North America.^[29] Ceratitid ammonoids further refine subdivisions, with their ribbed coiling patterns defining key horizons in ammonoid biozonations across Tethyan and Panthalassic realms.^[30]^[31]

Paleogeography and Climate

Continental Configurations

During the Middle Triassic (approximately 247 to 237 million years ago), the supercontinent Pangea achieved its maximum configuration, uniting nearly all of Earth's landmasses into a single, C-shaped landmass that extended from high northern to high southern latitudes. This assembly included the northern promontory of Laurasia, comprising present-day Eurasia and North America, fused to the southern expanse of Gondwana, which encompassed South America, Africa, India, Antarctica, and Australia. The Tethys Ocean served as a narrow, east-west trending seaway along Pangea's eastern margin, partially separating Laurasia's southern edge from Gondwana's northern boundary and facilitating limited marine incursions into the continental interior.^[32]^[33] Paleomagnetic reconstructions position central Pangea astride the equator, with the North Pole located over northern Laurasia near the Siberian region and the South Pole over southern Gondwana adjacent to Antarctica, resulting in a longitudinally narrow supercontinent spanning about 60 degrees of longitude. This latitudinal alignment created a vast continental interior with limited coastal exposure, promoting extensive arid zones in northern Pangea while southern margins experienced relatively more humid conditions due to their proximity to the Tethys. Early tectonic instability marked the onset of Pangea's disassembly, with initial rifting in the Tethys realm driving the northward drift of Cimmerian terranes (such as Iran and Tibet) away from Gondwana's northeastern margin, initiating the Neo-Tethys Ocean as a narrow basin.^[32]^[33] The configuration was profoundly shaped by the lingering effects of Late Paleozoic mountain-building events, including the Variscan (Hercynian) orogeny in Europe and the Appalachian orogeny along the eastern margin of North America, which had sutured Laurasia to Gondwana during the Carboniferous-Permian. These orogenic belts, now deeply eroded, supplied vast volumes of sediment to adjacent basins, influencing depositional patterns across Pangea's interior and margins through the formation of foreland basins and fluvial systems. Such tectonic inheritance contributed to the supercontinent's overall stability during the Middle Triassic, while subtle extensional stresses foreshadowed later Jurassic fragmentation.^[33]^[5]

Oceanic and Climatic Conditions

The Middle Triassic climate was characterized by warm, arid conditions across the equatorial regions of Pangea, driven by the supercontinent's configuration, with evidence preserved in widespread evaporite deposits and paleosols indicative of low precipitation and high evaporation rates.^[34] In higher latitudes, monsoonal influences introduced seasonal humidity, as suggested by palynological records and sedimentary features in formations like the Paramillo Formation in Argentina, reflecting a shift from drier Permian conditions to more variable rainfall patterns.^[35] These climatic contrasts highlight a zonal pattern, with the vast interior of Pangea experiencing prolonged dry spells interrupted by episodic wet phases.^[36] Sea levels rose significantly during the Anisian stage, marking a major transgression that flooded large portions of the continents with shallow epicontinental seas, as recorded in sedimentary successions across the Tethys and adjacent regions.^[37] This eustatic rise, estimated at 10–20 meters above early Triassic levels, expanded marine habitats and led to the deposition of widespread carbonate platforms and mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sequences.^[38] The transgression facilitated connectivity between the Tethys Ocean and peripheral basins, altering depositional environments from terrestrial red beds to marine-dominated systems.^[39] Ocean circulation in the Middle Triassic was influenced by the restricted geometry of the Tethys Ocean, which separated the northern and southern margins of Pangea and limited exchange with the open Panthalassa, fostering stagnant conditions in deeper basins.^[40] This restriction promoted local anoxic events, evidenced by organic-rich black shales in Tethyan sections, such as those in the western Neo-Tethys, where stratified water columns inhibited oxygenation of bottom waters.^[41] Such deposits indicate episodic deoxygenation tied to the basin's semi-enclosed nature, though not on the scale of global oceanic anoxic events seen in other periods.^[42] Temperature proxies from oxygen isotope analysis of conodont apatite reveal global seawater temperatures averaging 20–25°C during the Middle Triassic, with short-term warming pulses in the mid-to-late Anisian and Ladinian stages, consistent with a greenhouse world lacking polar ice caps.^[43] These δ¹⁸O values, ranging from approximately 18.5‰ to 20.8‰ V-SMOW, suggest frost-free high-latitude conditions and an overall amelioration from Early Triassic extremes.^[44] No evidence of glaciation appears in the record, underscoring the period's hothouse climate.^[45] Precipitation patterns exhibited strong regional variability, with semi-arid conditions dominating Pangea's continental interiors, as inferred from calcic Aridisols in the Moenkopi Formation yielding mean annual rainfall estimates of 300–400 mm.^[46] Wetter coastal zones, influenced by monsoonal circulation, supported higher humidity, contrasting with the arid core and evidenced by sedimentary structures in red beds, such as fluvial channels and calcretes indicating seasonal aridity.^[35] This gradient is further supported by the distribution of red bed sequences, which reflect oxidative weathering under low-rainfall regimes in inland areas versus more humid marginal settings.^[34]

Biota and Evolution

Marine Ecosystems

The Middle Triassic marked a pivotal phase in the recovery of marine ecosystems following the Permian-Triassic mass extinction, with significant diversification occurring in the Anisian and Ladinian stages as ecosystems shifted toward greater functional evenness and complexity. Marine communities, particularly in the Tethys Ocean, exhibited increased nektonic dominance over benthic forms, reflecting adaptations to post-extinction conditions such as fluctuating oxygenation and nutrient availability. This period saw the rise of modern-style food webs, supported by planktonic productivity that fueled higher trophic levels, although full pre-extinction diversity levels were not regained until later in the Triassic.^[47]^[48]^[49] Among vertebrates, ray-finned fishes emerged as a dominant group, with predatory species like Saurichthys—a long-snouted actinopterygian reaching lengths of up to 1.5 meters—preying on smaller fish and invertebrates in open marine and lagoonal environments across the Tethys and Panthalassa. Early ichthyosaurs, such as Mixosaurus and Omphalosaurus, diversified rapidly, filling apex predator niches with streamlined bodies adapted for fast swimming; these reptiles, often exceeding 3 meters, hunted squid-like cephalopods and fish in epipelagic zones. Ammonoids also rebounded prominently, with ceratitid genera like Ceratites serving as key index fossils in shallow marine deposits, their coiled shells indicating a recovery in pelagic molluscan populations that contributed to biostratigraphic correlations worldwide.^[50]^[51]^[52] Invertebrate assemblages showed robust recovery, particularly among bivalves, where thin-shelled forms like Daonella formed dense monospecific beds in dysaerobic bottom waters of epicontinental seas, acting as opportunistic filter feeders in low-oxygen habitats. Brachiopods and crinoids repopulated reef-like settings, with articulate brachiopods achieving moderate diversity in articulate forms adapted to hard substrates, while crinoid holdfasts and stems indicate their role in stabilizing microbial buildups. These groups, alongside gastropods and echinoids, supported detrital food chains in benthic communities.^[27]^[53]^[54] Microbial reefs dominated shallow Tethyan platforms, constructed primarily by sponge-microbe associations that replaced the pre-existing Paleozoic coral frameworks decimated in the extinction; hexactinellid and demosponge spicules intertwined with microbial mats formed low-relief buildups up to several meters thick, fostering diverse encrusting communities in warm, nutrient-rich waters. These structures, evident in sites from the western Tethys to South China, highlight a transitional phase in reef evolution before metazoan frameworks fully reemerged.^[55]^[56]^[57] The food web structure emphasized plankton blooms—driven by dinoflagellates and coccolithophores—that sustained filter-feeding bivalves and brachiopods at the base, while mid-level predators like ray-finned fishes targeted zooplankton and smaller nekton. Evidence of intense predation comes from coprolites containing fish scales and bone fragments, attributed to ichthyosaurs and large actinopterygians, indicating a Mesozoic-style escalation in trophic interactions by the Anisian. Climatic warming likely enhanced upwelling and productivity, bolstering these dynamics in tropical Tethyan realms.^[51]^[58]^[59] Exceptional preservation in lagerstätten like the Luoping biota of Yunnan, China (Anisian stage), reveals a snapshot of this recovering ecosystem, with over 20,000 specimens including articulated marine reptiles (Cartorhynchos sauropterygians), diverse fishes, ammonoids, and invertebrates preserved in anoxic black shales linked to high productivity events. Recent discoveries, such as the small pachypleurosaur Dianmeisaurus mutaensis from the Anisian of Yunnan, China, further illustrate the rapid diversification of sauropterygian reptiles in coastal environments.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63] This site underscores rapid diversification, with soft tissues and stomach contents providing direct insights into predation and symbiosis absent in coarser deposits elsewhere.

Terrestrial and Freshwater Life

During the Middle Triassic, terrestrial ecosystems saw the early diversification of archosauromorphs, which included precursors to dinosaurs and served as key components of carnivorous guilds. Stem-archosaurs such as Asilisaurus kongwe from the early Middle Triassic of Tanzania represented small, bipedal herbivores or omnivores closely related to the ornithodiran lineage leading to dinosaurs.^[64] Larger archosauromorphs, including rauisuchians like those documented in Middle Triassic assemblages, acted as apex predators, occupying top trophic levels in continental environments with body sizes exceeding several meters.^[65] These predators, exemplified by forms from the Santa Maria Formation in Brazil, featured robust skulls and limbs adapted for active predation on smaller tetrapods.^[66] Therapsids, particularly cynodonts and dicynodonts, experienced a decline in diversity during this period but persisted in herbivorous and omnivorous roles. Cynodonts such as Diademodon tetragonus from the Middle Triassic of South Africa possessed specialized sternal structures indicative of advanced respiratory adaptations, marking a transitional phase toward mammalian traits.^[67] Dicynodonts, including genera like Kannemeyeria, contributed to Middle Triassic herbivore guilds, with their disparity decreasing as archosauromorphs expanded, though they maintained ecological importance in floodplain habitats.^[68] Remnants of earlier forms like Lystrosaurus, dominant in the Early Triassic, were largely replaced, reflecting ongoing post-extinction recovery dynamics.^[69] Amphibians, especially temnospondyls, thrived in freshwater environments, where large-bodied taxa preyed on fish and smaller vertebrates. Mastodonsaurus giganteus from the Middle Triassic Lettenkeuper of Germany reached lengths of up to 6 meters and inhabited lacustrine and riverine systems, with robust skulls suited for ambush predation.^[70] Ancestors of turtles, such as the stem-turtle Pappochelys rosinae from the Middle Triassic of Germany, displayed early shell-like structures formed by expanded ribs and gastralia, suggesting semi-aquatic lifestyles in coastal or fluvial settings.^[71] These reptiles bridged parareptilian and chelonian morphologies, with limb bones indicating adaptations for both terrestrial and aquatic locomotion.^[72] Insect communities diversified in riparian and terrestrial zones, with notable representation from the Monte San Giorgio Lagerstätte in Switzerland, preserving over 240 million-year-old specimens. Odonata (dragonflies) and Coleoptera (beetles) were prominent, with dragonfly wingspans reaching up to 10 cm in some taxa, facilitating predation on smaller arthropods near water bodies.^[73] Early beetle diversification included riparian forms adapted to decaying vegetation, contributing to nutrient cycling in floodplain ecosystems.^[73] Freshwater ecosystems supported diverse aquatic communities, including actinopterygian fish and invertebrates in lake and river deposits. Species of Saurichthys from the Middle Triassic Besano Formation inhabited marginal aquatic environments, with elongated bodies suited for piscivory in shallow waters.^[74] Non-marine bivalves and clam shrimps occurred in fluvial sediments, forming shell-rich beds that indicate stable riverine habitats, though specific Middle Triassic examples are less abundant than in later periods.^[75] These assemblages interacted with temnospondyl predators, forming complex food webs in continental lowlands.^[70]

Plant Life and Vegetation

During the Middle Triassic, gymnosperms emerged as the dominant vegetation in many terrestrial ecosystems, particularly in upland forests across both Laurasia and Gondwana. Voltzialean conifers, such as Voltzia and Albertia, were prominent components of these forests, forming dense stands in formations like the Early Anisian Grès à Voltzia in northeastern France and the Upper Anisian Dont Formation in northern Italy, where they adapted to semi-arid conditions through features like thick cuticles and reduced leaf sizes.^[76] Ginkgophytes, including Sphenobaiera and Ginkgoites, also contributed significantly to these upland assemblages, with fossil seedlings and leaves recorded in the Grès à Voltzia and the Burgersdorp Formation in South Africa, indicating their role in recovering post-Permian floras.^[76]^[77] In contrast, wetlands and lowland areas were often dominated by lycopods and ferns, creating lush, moisture-retaining environments. Sphenophytes, such as the giant horsetail Equisetites mougeotii, thrived in these settings, with stems reaching several meters in height and forming monotypic stands in siltstone deposits of the Anisian Dont Formation in the Italian Dolomites.^[78] Lycopods, including pleuromeiid forms, further characterized these lycopod-dominated wetlands, supporting dense undergrowth in humid basins of Gondwana.^[79] Pteridosperms, or seed ferns, persisted from the Early Triassic into the Middle but showed signs of decline as gymnosperms diversified. In Gondwana, Dicroidium-bearing plants remained common in mid-latitude forests, filling canopy niches left vacant by the end-Permian extinction, as seen in assemblages from the Middle Triassic Murrays Run Formation in Australia and equivalent units in South Africa.^[79] However, their abundance waned by the late Anisian and Ladinian, with reduced diversity in pollen records and replacement by conifer-dominated communities, signaling a broader transition in floral dominance.^[80] The palynological record from Middle Triassic sediments reveals increased floral diversity, particularly during the Anisian stage. Pollen assemblages from the Dont Formation in the Italian Dolomites show progressive enrichment, with early Pelsonian zones featuring Aratrisporites reticulatus and Dyupetalum vicentinense, transitioning to more diverse mid- to late Pelsonian and Illyrian assemblages including Cristianisporites triangulatus and Kraeuselisporites species, reflecting gymnosperm radiation and fern spore proliferation.^[81] Bisaccate pollen from conifers and seed ferns further underscores this diversification across low- to mid-latitude sites.^[82] Ecologically, Middle Triassic vegetation adapted to varied climates, with voltzialean conifers exhibiting fire-resistant traits like serotinous cones in arid zones of Pangea, promoting post-fire regeneration in seasonally dry uplands.^[76] In Gondwana, wetland communities of lycopods and sphenophytes contributed to early peat accumulation in swampy basins, laying the groundwork for localized coal formation despite the broader Triassic coal gap.^[79] These flora occasionally interacted with emerging herbivores, influencing leaf morphology in conifer and ginkgophyte assemblages.^[83]

Significant Events and Transitions

Post-Extinction Recovery

The post-extinction recovery following the Permian-Triassic mass extinction unfolded over several million years, with the Middle Triassic representing a pivotal phase of ecological rebound in marine environments. By the mid-Anisian stage, marine ecosystems achieved substantial stabilization, as evidenced by the emergence of complex communities in carbonate platforms and the hyperbolic increase in species diversity beginning in the early middle Anisian (Bithynian substage). Taxonomic diversity rebounded significantly during this interval in key groups like bivalves and gastropods, though full equivalence to Late Permian diversity was not attained until later stages.^[48]^[84] Key drivers of this recovery included markedly reduced extinction rates throughout the Early to Middle Triassic and enhanced niche partitioning among surviving taxa. For instance, ammonoids exhibited rapid diversification in the Anisian, partitioning ecological niches through morphological innovations that allowed coexistence in varied habitats, contributing to overall community restructuring. Biotic interactions, such as competition and habitat construction by early colonizers, further accelerated self-reinforcing diversification processes, as opposed to purely abiotic factors.^[85]^[48]^[86] Trophic structure recovery proceeded in a bottom-up manner, with the base of marine food chains—particularly planktonic producers—stabilizing first in the Early Triassic before cascading to higher levels in the Middle Triassic. Plankton communities, including acritarchs, underwent turnover and initial rebound, enabling subsequent proliferation of herbivores and predators by the Anisian, as seen in diverse benthic assemblages. This sequential rebuilding contrasted with the more abrupt losses at higher trophic levels during the extinction itself.^[87]^[49] Global recovery patterns exhibited regional disparities, with faster biotic rebound in the Tethys Ocean compared to the more isolated Panthalassa. Tethyan realms, benefiting from interconnected shallow-water habitats and reduced anoxia, saw accelerated diversification in the Anisian, while Panthalassa lagged due to prolonged oceanic isolation and persistent environmental stress. Genus richness curves derived from fossil databases, such as the Paleobiology Database, illustrate this dynamic, showing a steady increase through the Anisian followed by an inflection point in the Ladinian, where diversity plateaued at around 1,500–1,600 species across major marine invertebrate groups, signaling niche saturation. Recent studies as of 2023 highlight the role of resolving anoxic events in driving Tethyan recovery.^[48]^[88]^[84]^[89]

Evolutionary Innovations

The Middle Triassic marked a pivotal phase in archosaur evolution, with the emergence of key lineages that laid the groundwork for later radiations. Early pseudosuchians, such as rauisuchians, appeared during the Anisian and Ladinian stages, characterized by terrestrial adaptations and fully erect limb postures that enhanced locomotor efficiency. These forms exhibited a shift from sprawling to upright gaits, reducing bending stresses on limb bones and enabling greater stamina in larger-bodied individuals. Concurrently, pterosaur precursors, including dinosauromorphs like lagerpetids from the Anisian-Ladinian, displayed skeletal features bridging ornithodirans to flying reptiles, such as elongated limb elements suggestive of agile terrestrial locomotion. Cladistic analyses position these Middle Triassic archosauromorphs as critical stem groups, resolving the phylogeny of Archosauria through shared derived traits like the antorbital fenestra and osteoderm development.^[90]^[91]^[92] Marine reptile diversification during this epoch was exemplified by ichthyosaurs, transitioning from coastal to fully pelagic lifestyles. Mixosaurus, a dominant Middle Triassic form, retained primitive features like heterodont dentition while developing elongated snouts for piscivory, with forelimbs evolving into stabilizing flippers through hyperphalangy and reduced digit mobility. This limb-to-fin adaptation, involving the fusion and elongation of carpal elements, facilitated hydrodynamic efficiency, as seen in the progression toward larger, more specialized taxa like Shastasaurus by the Late Triassic, though foundational changes occurred in the Middle. Phylogenetic reconstructions based on cranial and postcranial morphology confirm ichthyosaurs' diapsid origins, with Middle Triassic fossils from Europe and North America anchoring the clade's basal radiation.^[93]^[94]^[95] Insect-plant coevolution advanced notably in the Middle Triassic, with fossil evidence indicating early pollination syndromes among gymnosperms. Assemblages from Monte San Giorgio, including thrips and beetle impressions on cycad and conifer structures, reveal sticky pollen grains and specialized floral architectures adapted for insect vectors, contrasting with dominant wind pollination in earlier periods. These interactions, documented in permineralized pollen cones from Antarctica, suggest helically arranged microsporophylls that promoted insect-mediated dispersal, fostering co-radiations between Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, and gymnosperm clades. Such syndromes, inferred from coprolites and mouthpart morphologies in the 239-million-year-old insect fauna, represent a shift toward biotic pollination modes that enhanced reproductive success in fragmented landscapes.^[96]^[97]^[98] Hints of endothermy emerged in Middle Triassic therapsids through elevated growth rates and metabolic proxies. Bone histology in cynodonts like Diademodon reveals rapid osteogenesis, with instantaneous rates of 6–42 μm/day akin to modern endotherms, implying sustained high body temperatures for extended activity periods. Oxygen isotope analyses of tooth enamel from Early to Middle Triassic forms, such as traversodontids, yield δ¹⁸O values elevated by 2–4‰ relative to contemporaneous ectotherms, supporting thermometabolic shifts toward regional endothermy in synapsid lineages. These physiological innovations, corroborated by vascular density in long bones, positioned therapsids as ecological dominants amid post-extinction recovery.^[99]^[100]^[101] Phylogenetic milestones in the Middle Triassic established the stem for Dinosauria and related clades via comprehensive cladistic frameworks. Matrix-based analyses incorporating 200+ taxa and 500+ characters recover dinosauromorphs from Middle Triassic deposits, such as those in the Madygen Formation, as immediate outgroups to Dinosauria, with synapomorphies including a fully perforated acetabulum and elongate pubis. This positions the clade's origin in the early Middle Triassic (~242 Ma), predating Carnian diversification, and highlights Gondwanan localities as key to resolving basal ornithischian and saurischian divergences. Such analyses underscore the period's role in assembling the archosaur tree, integrating fossil calibrations to refine divergence estimates for major amniote branches.^[102]^[103]^[104]

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The Thaynes Group disconformably overlies the Permian Gerster Formation and is mostly calcareous shale with interbedded wackestones that yield marine ...
[21]
[PDF] Taxonomic and ecologic transitions in Triassic marine bivalve ...
May 9, 2025 · The Guanling Formation is of Anisian age and characterized by dolomites and argillaceous dolomites in the lower part and limestone and marl with.
[22]
Youngest ambient inclusion trails from Middle Triassic phosphatized ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Exceptionally preserved carbonate reticulated ridge structures are documented from the lower Middle Triassic Guanling Formation of the Luoping ...
[23]
Facies and depositional environments of the Upper Muschelkalk ...
1. The Upper Muschelkalk represents the deposits of a homoclinal carbonate ramp that formed during a Middle Triassic 3rd-order transgressive–regressive ...Missing: lithology | Show results with:lithology
[24]
[PDF] brigham young university - BYU Geology
Cyclic repetition of lithology is representative of minor transgressions and regressions superimposed upon the regional upward regression of the Thaynes.
[25]
Middle Triassic (Muschelkalk) transgression in the West Tethys
Stratigraphic and palaeontological analyses of the Middle Triassic (latest Anisian–Ladinian) in Muschelkalk facies are performed here to further unravel the ...
[26]
Middle Triassic molluscan fossils of biostratigraphic significance ...
Stratigraphically controlled bedrock collections representing at least 20 successive levels have been made from the Fossil Hill area, which is the type locality ...
[27]
[PDF] An early Daonella from the Middle Anisian of Guangxi, southwestern ...
Nov 16, 2010 · widely distributed flat-shelled bivalves of the Triassic, making them excellent biostratigraphical index fossils in certain facies (e.g. ...Missing: ceratites | Show results with:ceratites
[28]
Triassic ammonoid biostratigraphy: an overview - Lyell Collection
Ladinian/Carnian ammonoids and conodonts from the classic Schilpario–Pizzo Camino area (Lombardy): revaluation of the biostratigraphic support to ...
[29]
[PDF] Middle Triassic Ammonoids from Aghdarband (NE-lran ... - Zobodat
Faqir Marl Bed (Agh 75/30) and a lower part of the shales (Agh 75/27) contain rare daonellid bivalves and a single ceratitid ammonite. Agh75/22b Daonella cf.
[30]
Ammonoid biostratigraphy of the Middle Triassic Latemar platform ...
Aug 6, 2025 · An extensive study of the ammonoid fauna occurring in the lagoonal facies of a Middle Triassic isolated carbonate platform (Latemar platform ...
[31]
Paleomap Project
The goal of the PALEOMAP Project is to illustrate the plate tectonic development of the ocean basins and continents, as well as the changing distribution of ...Earth History · Climate History · Pangea VR · Pangea Ultima
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[33]
Climatic controls on sedimentary environments in the Triassic of the ...
▻ The Early and Middle Triassic semi-arid climate was interrupted by wet pulses. ... climate-indicator facies (e.g. evaporites, various paleosols, carbonate ...
[34]
[PDF] Triassic Climates - PalaeoClimate Science
In this overview we summarize the current state of knowledge of Triassic climates as well as factors driving climatic change across the entire Triassic period.
[35]
[PDF] Climate of the Supercontinent ~angea'
Because of the great size of the continental area in mid-latitudes, a strong monsoonal circulation would be expected for Pangea.
[36]
Pre-Quaternary Sea-Level Changes - Astrophysics Data System
There was a rapid transgression in the early mid-Triassic (Anisian), with the seas spreading again after a minor interruption to a maximum in Ladinian ...
[37]
GSA Today - Triassic Eustatic Variations Reexamined
Oct 10, 2018 · In the Early and Middle Triassic, the long-term sea levels were similar to or 10–20 m higher than the present-day mean sea level (pdmsl). This ...
[38]
Middle Triassic - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The sedimentary successions of both realms reflect the long-term transgressive evolution after a global sea-level lowstand at the end of the Permian (Hallam, ...Missing: rise | Show results with:rise
[39]
The legacy of the Tethys Ocean: Anoxic seas, evaporitic basins, and ...
At the end of the Eocene, the demise of the Tethys Ocean led to the formation of one of the largest anoxic seas in the last 50 million years of Earth history.
[40]
"Black Shales of the Neo-Tethys: The Geochemical Record of the ...
The layer itself formed at a time when the basin was stratified creating a distinct oxic-anoxic boundary where Fe and Mn oxyhydroxide and Fe-Mn oxides were ...Missing: Middle | Show results with:Middle
[41]
[PDF] Recurrent marine anoxia in the Paleo-Tethys linked to ... - HAL
Jul 22, 2024 · Recurrent global marine anoxia marked the Early Triassic in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.
[42]
Ocean temperatures through the Phanerozoic reassessed - Nature
May 27, 2022 · For example, δ18O measurements of end-Permian and Early Triassic conodonts yield temperatures of ≥ 36 °C9,10.Results · Discussion · Materials And Methods
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Long-term cycles of Triassic climate change: a new δ 18 O record ...
Apr 1, 2015 · A new oxygen isotope (δ 18 O) record derived from conodont apatite reveals variable long-term climate trends throughout the Triassic period.
[44]
killing models during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction - Journals
Sep 3, 2018 · This Permian to early Mesozoic interval was a time of globally warm temperatures, no icecaps and the single supercontinent Pangaea [9]. It was ...
[45]
Multi-proxy paleosol evidence for middle and late Triassic climate ...
Prior investigations suggest that alluvial lowlands of Pangea in the southwestern U.S.A. during the middle to late Triassic experienced an arid to semiarid ...
[46]
Functional diversity of marine ecosystems after the Late Permian ...
We find that marine ecosystems did not return to their pre-extinction state, and by the Middle Triassic greater functional evenness is recorded, resulting from ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[47]
The main stage of recovery after the end-Permian mass extinction
Jul 20, 2021 · Our data indicate an explosive increase in benthic diversity at the beginning of the Middle Triassic that followed an extended Early Triassic ...
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Decoupled taxonomic and ecological recoveries from the Permo ...
Oct 10, 2018 · We show that marine ecosystems dominated by non-motile animals shifted to ones dominated by nektonic groups after the extinction.
[49]
Recovery tempo and pattern of marine ecosystems after the end ...
Aug 1, 2011 · Diversity trends in Late Permian–Middle Triassic interval showing total diversity consisting of foraminifer species present plus range ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
[50]
Triassic Revolution - Frontiers
Among marine reptiles, there was substantial diversification in the Early and Middle Triassic, documented especially well in the south of China (Chaohu ...Missing: Ceratites | Show results with:Ceratites
[51]
Middle Triassic (Anisian) diversified bivalves - ScienceDirect.com
Middle Triassic (Anisian) diversified bivalves: depositional environments and bivalve assemblages in the Leidapo Member of the Qingyan Formation, southern China.
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Middle Triassic Pteriomorphian Bivalvia (Mollusca) from the New ...
A unique, endemic assemblage of pteriomorphian bivalves with Triassic Northern Hemisphere biogeographic relationships.
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Unusual brachiopod fauna from the Middle Triassic algal meadows ...
Aug 6, 2025 · bivalves, ammonoids, brachiopods, crinoids, and conodonts. The ammonoid assemblage is composed of both leiostraca. (Proarcestes sp.) and ...Missing: Daonella | Show results with:Daonella
[54]
SPONGE-MICROBIAL STROMATOLITES AND CORAL-SPONGE ...
In Middle Triassic times (Pelsonian), the hexactinellid sponges accompanied first by scleractinian corals gave rise to the oldest in situ reefs found in the ...Missing: microbe | Show results with:microbe
[55]
Sedimentary aspects of Middle Triassic continental rifting in Neotethys
Apr 21, 2022 · Sponge‒microbe reefs played a crucial role in the shallow-ramp area. ... middle-ramp one, where the microbial and Tubiphytes–microbial reefs ...
[56]
Sponge Takeover from End-Permian Mass Extinction to ... - Frontiers
“Sponge-microbial stromatolites and coral-sponge reefs recovery in the Triassic of Western Tethys and Northern Peri-Tethys basins,” in Proceedings of the 9 ...
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Bromalites from the Middle Triassic of Poland and the rise of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · One of the most dramatic predation-driven changes in marine ecosystems occurred during the middle and late Mesozoic, which has been called the ...<|separator|>
[58]
Crustacean microcoprolites from the Middle Triassic Luoping Biota ...
Dec 15, 2023 · We present evidence of microcoprolites from the Luoping biota (early Anisian, Middle Triassic) that lophogastrid shrimps were feeding on cyanobacteria.
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High productivity promoted exceptional fossil preservation of the ...
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[61]
The link between exceptional fossil preservation and palaeo‐redox ...
Feb 15, 2021 · We demonstrate that anoxic conditions played a key role in the exceptional fossil preservation of the Luoping Biota.
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An exceptional fossil skull from South America and the origins of the ...
Mar 11, 2016 · We report a new, exceptionally preserved skull from the Triassic of Brazil, which is the most complete tetrapod fossil yet discovered from the Lower Triassic ...
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A Short-Snouted, Middle Triassic Phytosaur and its Implications for ...
Apr 11, 2017 · Following the end-Permian extinction, terrestrial vertebrate diversity recovered by the Middle Triassic, and that diversity was now ...
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Early crocodylomorph increases top tier predator diversity during ...
Mar 19, 2015 · In the Middle Triassic, terrestrial predator assemblages included the small-bodied mesopredators Gracilisuchidae and top tier predator ...
[65]
The earliest segmental sternum in a Permian synapsid and its ...
Aug 5, 2022 · Previously, the earliest record of a mammal-like ossified segmental sternum was in the Middle Triassic Diademodon tetragonus, a member of ...
[66]
Niche partitioning shaped herbivore macroevolution through the ...
May 14, 2021 · Terrestrial ecosystems underwent significant remodelling during the Triassic via floral and faunal turnovers that established many of the ...
[67]
The base of the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone, Karoo Basin ...
Mar 18, 2020 · An emerging vertebrate-fossil record, first investigated in the early 20th Century, formed the basis for subdividing the relatively monotonous ...
[68]
Comparative 3D analyses and palaeoecology of giant early ... - Nature
Jul 26, 2016 · Comparative osteology of Mastodonsaurus giganteus (Jaeger, 1828) from the Middle Triassic (Lettenkeuper: Longobardian) of Germany (Baden- ...
[69]
Microanatomy of the stem-turtle Pappochelys rosinae indicates a ...
Jul 18, 2019 · We report palaeohistological data for Pappochelys, a taxon that exemplifies earlier evolutionary stages in the formation of the bony shell than Odontochelys.
[70]
Osteology of the Middle Triassic stem-turtle Pappochelys rosinae ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Pappochelys extends the fossil record of Triassic stem-turtles back by some 20 million years and provides important new insights into how and in what sequence ...
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The contribution of the Middle Triassic fossil assemblage of Monte ...
Aug 20, 2024 · The exceptionally preserved 239 million-year-old fossil insect fauna recorded at Monte San Giorgio (Switzerland), including 248 fossils representing 15 major ...
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(PDF) Two new species of Saurichthys (Actinopterygii - ResearchGate
Here, we describe two new species from the Middle Triassic Besano Formation of Monte San Giorgio, Switzerland, Saurichthys breviabdominalis sp. nov. and ...
[73]
Dispersal of Late Triassic clam shrimps across Pangea linking ...
Jul 1, 2024 · This study demonstrates that the basins of northwestern Gondwana shared Norian clamp shrimp species with rift basins of central Pangea.
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274008844_Two_new_species_of_Saurichthys_Actinopterygii_Saurichthyidae_from_the_Middle_Triassic_of_Monte_San_Giorgio_Switzerland_with_implications_for_character_evolution_in_the_genus
[75]
Fossil ginkgophyte seedlings from the Triassic of France resemble ...
Aug 27, 2013 · An assemblage of seedlings from the early Middle Triassic of France is assigned to the ginkgophytes based on leaf morphology.
[76]
(PDF) Horsetails and seed ferns from the Middle Triassic (Anisian ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The sphenophytes are represented by stem fragments, strobili and isolated sporangiophore heads of Equisetites, as well as by a few specimens of ...
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Comprehensive survey of Early to Middle Triassic Gondwanan floras ...
We survey records of Gondwanan Early to Middle Triassic floral assemblages for evidence of PAIs as an indication of ecosystem recovery following the EPE.
[78]
Systematics and Paleoecology of a New Peltaspermalean Seed ...
The Middle Triassic Antarctic Dicroidium plants, by contrast, have been reconstructed as 20–30-m-tall forest trees with a Ginkgo-like habit based on ...Missing: decline | Show results with:decline
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https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2024.1419254/full
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Middle Triassic (Anisian-Ladinian) Palynomorphs - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Bisaccate pollen is commonly present in the assemblages. Representatives of Triadispora and Lunatisporites are also frequently recorded. On the ...
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Plant–insect interactions from Middle Triassic (late Ladinian) of ...
Apr 28, 2015 · Nevertheless, an impressive adaptive radiation of herbivorous insects occurred on gymnosperm-dominated floras not earlier than during the Middle ...
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Early and Middle Triassic trends in diversity, evenness, and size of ...
Mar 3, 2017 · Rarefaction curves relating the number of individuals sampled to the expected genus diversity increase in slope steadily from the Griesbachian ...
[83]
Ammonoid recovery from the Late Permian mass extinction event
The first stage of the Middle Triassic (Anisian) can be divided into three stages Early (Aegean), Middle (Pelsonian), and Late (Illyrian). Ammonoid zones can be ...
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(PDF) Ammonoid recovery after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction
Aug 6, 2025 · Some authors have invoked biotic factors such as niche partitioning (Pietsch et al. 2019), competition (Erwin 2007; Brosse et al. 2013 ...
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The plankton turnover at the Permo-Triassic boundary, emphasis on ...
In this paper we present the state of the art of the plankton turnover at the Permo-Triassic and we review more precisely the pattern of extinction and recovery ...<|separator|>
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Biotic and environmental changes in the Panthalassa Ocean across ...
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[PDF] Fossil Focus: Thalattosuchia - Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld
May 1, 2018 · The first crocodylomorphs (the term used for living crocs and various fossil groups) are known from the. Late Triassic Period, approximately ...
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[PDF] EVOLUTION OF HINDLIMB POSTURE IN ARCHOSAURS: LIMB ...
Erect posture may have evolved as a strategy to reduce large bending stresses on the limb bone caused by heavy body weights in larger forms. Key words: limb, ...
[89]
A tiny ornithodiran archosaur from the Triassic of ... - PNAS
Jul 28, 2020 · Early members of the dinosaur–pterosaur clade Ornithodira are very rare in the fossil record, obscuring our understanding of the.
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[PDF] The higher-level phylogeny of Archosauria (Tetrapoda
The archosaurs (“ruling reptiles”, Cope 1869) are a speciose and diverse group that includes birds, dinosaurs, and crocodylomorphs, as well as a range of ...
[91]
[PDF] Sea Dragons-- Predators of the Prehistoric Oceans
the fin-to-limb-to-fin transition." He wrote: The recolonization of the ... The most common of the middle Triassic ichthyosaurs was Mixosaurus. ("mixed ...
[92]
[PDF] Phylogeny, systematics, and origin of the Ichthyosauria – the state of ...
Abstract. A historical overview and a synopsis of the current knowledge on the phylogeny, systematics, and phylogenetic position of the Ichthyosauria are ...
[93]
[PDF] A new phylogeny of ichthyosaurs (Reptilia: Diapsida)
Cymbospondylus-Mixosaurus group, and the Middle–Late Triassic Shastasaurus-Shonisaurus. 822 group. The former group includes taxa that represent the early ...
[94]
Thrips pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms - PMC - PubMed Central
May 21, 2012 · Within modern gymnosperms, conifers and Ginkgo are exclusively wind pollinated whereas many gnetaleans and cycads are insect pollinated.
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[PDF] Pollination and Mesozoic gymnosperms - Smithsonian Institution
The mid-Triassic to mid-Cretaceous co-radiations of insects and gymnosperms are contrasted with the fourth phase of the radiation of angiosperms and their ...
[96]
[PDF] The origin of endothermy in synapsids and archosaurs and arms ...
ian and Early Triassic forms, to semi-erect in Middle and early Late Triassic ... endothermic-like instantaneous bone growth rates of 6–42 μm per day, similar ...
[97]
Oxygen isotopes suggest elevated thermometabolism within ...
Jul 18, 2017 · Here we investigate the origin of mammalian thermoregulation by analysing apatite stable oxygen isotope compositions (δ 18 O p ) of some of their Permo- ...
[98]
[PDF] Oxygen isotopes suggest elevated thermometabolism ... - HAL-SDE
d18Op differences between Early to Middle Triassic therapsids and other tetrapods. Differences in d18Op values between therapsids and stereospondyls (white ...
[99]
Models for the Rise of the Dinosaurs - Cell Press
Jan 20, 2014 · New fossils suggest that dinosaurs originated early in the Middle Triassic, during the recovery of life from the devastating Permo-Triassic mass ...
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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF DINOSAURS - Annual Reviews
The dinosaurian radiation began in the Middle Triassic, significantly predating the global dominance of dinosaurs by the end of the pe- riod. The phylogenetic ...
[101]
[PDF] Origin and Early Evolution of Dinosaurs
The cladogram shows suggested relationships of basal dinosaurs. Dinosaurs arose in the Triassic, initially as small bipedal carnivores, and cladistics helped ...