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Hexactinellid

Hexactinellida, commonly referred to as glass sponges, comprise a class of exclusively marine sponges (phylum Porifera) characterized by siliceous spicules exhibiting hexactine (six-rayed) and triaxonic symmetry, which form rigid, translucent skeletal frameworks. These organisms are predominantly deep-sea dwellers, occurring worldwide at depths typically ranging from 200 to over 6,000 meters, with notable abundances in polar regions such as Antarctica.^[1]^[2]^[3] Distinct from other sponge classes, hexactinellids feature a syncytial tissue organization, wherein choanocyte chambers and surrounding tissues fuse into multinucleate syncytia, enabling efficient filter-feeding and rapid electrical signal propagation akin to neuronal conduction. Their upright, often radially symmetric body plans include specialized basal structures for substrate attachment, and they contribute to ecosystem engineering through the formation of biogenic reefs that enhance benthic biodiversity.^[3]^[4]^[2] Fossil evidence traces hexactinellids to the Ordovician period, approximately 450 million years ago, highlighting their evolutionary antiquity among metazoans and resilience in deep-water niches, with molecular phylogenies affirming their monophyletic status within Silicea alongside demosponges. Recent studies underscore their materials science potential due to the biomechanical properties of their silica lattices, while conservation concerns arise from vulnerabilities to deep-sea disturbances like bottom trawling.^[1]^[4]^[5]

Taxonomy and Classification

Historical and Morphological Taxonomy

Hexactinellida, a class within the phylum Porifera, is characterized by siliceous spicules exhibiting hexactine symmetry, featuring six rays arranged in a cubic configuration.^[6] These spicules form the primary skeletal elements, distinguishing hexactinellids from other sponge classes such as Demospongiae, which lack true hexactines, and Calcarea, which possess calcareous spicules.^[3] The class was formally established by Anton Schmidt in 1870, building on observations of deep-sea specimens that revealed their glassy, siliceous frameworks.^[7] Historical taxonomy of Hexactinellida relied heavily on the morphology of spicules, particularly microscleres, as macroscopic features were often insufficient for differentiation due to the sponges' fragile, lattice-like skeletons.^[8] In the 19th century, microscopists like Ernst Haeckel emphasized spicule ray counts and symmetries, noting that while primitive forms retained tetractine (four-rayed) spicules, derived taxa predominantly featured hexactines.^[6] This approach facilitated early groupings, with approximately 500 species described by the early 21st century, nearly all exclusively marine and adapted to deep-sea environments.^[7] Morphological classification traditionally divides Hexactinellida into two subclasses based on diagnostic microscleres: Amphidiscophora, defined by amphidiscs (spicules with opposing umbellate ends), and Hexasterophora, characterized by hexasters (spicules with six rays branching into secondary rays).^[4] These divisions, rooted in 20th-century refinements of 19th-century work, underscore the reliance on skeletal architecture for familial and ordinal distinctions, as soft tissues are minimally preserved in specimens.^[9] Such frameworks prioritized observable traits like spicule fusion and dermal layer composition, enabling identification despite the challenges posed by the sponges' syncytial organization.^[10]

Molecular Phylogeny and Recent Revisions

Molecular phylogenetic analyses of Hexactinellida, primarily using ribosomal DNA (rDNA) markers such as 18S, 28S, and internal transcribed spacer regions, have established the class as monophyletic and distinct within Porifera, with a close relationship to Demospongiae.^[5] The earliest comprehensive studies, including a 2008 analysis of 34 species across multiple families, revealed unexpectedly high genetic diversity and supported the division into two primary subclasses: Amphidiscophora and Hexasterophora, the latter encompassing orders Lyssacinosida and Euplectellida.^[11] A 2009 follow-up incorporating three rDNA markers confirmed monophyly of Lyssacinosida and the subfamily Euplectellinae, while highlighting discrepancies with purely morphological classifications, as genetic data resolved relationships among deep-sea taxa that spicule morphology alone could not differentiate.^[12] These findings underscored the limitations of traditional taxonomy, which often underestimated cryptic diversity in hexactinellids due to their remote habitats and sparse sampling.^[13] Subsequent expansions of taxon sampling, including mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), have refined these phylogenies but maintained congruence with rDNA-based trees, though with variable nodal support.^[14] Recent deep-sea expeditions have leveraged integrated molecular-morphological approaches to describe new taxa, such as in a 2022 study from a seamount transect in the northwestern Pacific, which identified two new species and one new genus within Euplectellidae and Euretidae, emphasizing the role of genetic barcoding in uncovering biodiversity hotspots.^[15] These discoveries highlight ongoing taxonomic revisions driven by molecular data, particularly for pedunculate and dictyonal forms previously underrepresented in phylogenies. Genomic sequencing has further challenged assumptions about siliceous skeleton evolution, with the 2023 assembly of the reef-building hexactinellid Aphrocallistes vastus genome indicating that silica biomineralization pathways evolved independently across Porifera classes, rather than representing a shared synapomorphy.^[16] This polyphyletic origin of siliceous spicules—evident from distinct silicatein gene families and biosilicification proteins in Hexactinellida versus Demospongiae—contrasts with earlier views of a single evolutionary event and aligns with molecular evidence for multiple acquisitions of silica deposition machinery.^[17] Such insights from whole-genome data continue to inform debates on deep poriferan relationships, prioritizing genetic over skeletal homology in classification.^[18]

Anatomy and Morphology

Siliceous Spicules and Skeletal Structure

Hexactinellids construct their skeletons from siliceous spicules composed primarily of amorphous hydrated silica (SiO₂·nH₂O), deposited via biosilicification processes mediated by proteins such as silicateins.^[19] These spicules form a rigid, interconnected framework that contrasts with the organic spongin fibers often reinforcing siliceous spicules in demosponges or the calcium carbonate-based spicules in calcareous sponges.^[20] The silica composition imparts glass-like transparency and exceptional fracture toughness, enabling structural integrity under deep-sea pressures without relying on flexible organic matrices.^[21] The foundational spicule type is the hexactine, a six-rayed structure exhibiting triaxial symmetry derived from cubic arrangements, which serves as the building block for the entire skeletal lattice.^[21] Derived forms include hexasters—star-shaped microscleres with multiple rays—in the subclass Hexasterophora, and amphidiscs—dumbbell-like spicules with umbels at each end—in the Amphidiscophora, both contributing to subclass-specific architectural variations.^[7] These spicules often fuse directly at their tips or overlap to create hierarchical, cylindrical or basket-like lattices, as exemplified in species like Euplectella aspergillum, where diagonal reinforcements enhance load-bearing capacity.^[22] This purely siliceous architecture differs markedly from demosponge skeletons, which typically combine siliceous megascleres and microscleres with spongin for flexibility, and from the rigid but dissolvable calcareous frameworks of Calcarea, allowing hexactinellids to achieve lightweight rigidity suited to stable deep-water environments.^[3] The material's high specific stiffness and resistance to brittle failure have drawn interest in biomimicry, informing designs for advanced composites and lightweight structures in engineering.^[23]

Syncytial Tissue Organization

Hexactinellids exhibit a distinctive syncytial tissue organization, where much of the body comprises multinucleated syncytia rather than discrete cells, setting them apart from the predominantly cellular tissues of demosponges and other metazoans.^[24] The primary syncytial components include the trabecular syncytium, which forms an outer reticular network enveloping the body, and the choanosomal syncytium, which lines the flagellated chambers responsible for water propulsion.^[25] These syncytia arise from cell fusion during development, creating extensive cytoplasmic strands that interconnect across the sponge, supported by a thin collagenous mesohyl.^[26] Electron microscopy of fixed and freeze-fractured specimens reveals the trabecular reticulum as a continuous, multinucleate cytoplasmic layer that embeds isolated cells, such as archaeocytes and oocytes, while facilitating nutrient transport and structural integrity.^[25] In contrast to demosponges, where cellular boundaries limit coordination, this fused architecture enables hexactinellids to maintain efficient pumping over larger body volumes, as evidenced by the propagation of action potentials through the syncytium at speeds of 0.5–2 mm/s, synchronizing flagellar arrests for regulated filtration.^[27] Physiological recordings confirm that these impulses halt water flow across the entire body, demonstrating causal efficacy in adapting to sparse deep-sea currents by optimizing energy use in nutrient-poor environments.^[27]^[28] This syncytial network thus underpins hexactinellid functionality by providing a unified cytoplasmic conduit for both passive diffusion and active signaling, absent in cellular sponges where intercellular junctions impose fragmentation.^[29] Studies on species like Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni highlight how the choanosomal syncytium directly interfaces with choanocyte collars, enhancing particle capture efficiency through collective beating rather than isolated cellular efforts.^[30] Such organization likely evolved to support the metabolic demands of deep-water habitats, where sustained, low-energy filtration is paramount.^[24]

Physiology

Growth Rates and Longevity

Hexactinellids display highly variable growth rates depending on species, habitat, and specimen size, typically ranging from less than 1 cm per year in deep-sea solitary forms to 1–3 cm per year in reef-building species. In situ measurements of the Northeast Pacific hexactinellid Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni yielded an average linear extension of 1.98 cm per year over three years, with volumes increasing by approximately 167 ml annually, though rates slowed in larger individuals. Similarly, tagging studies of the cup-shaped Asconema setubalense in the Atlantic recorded average annual increases of 2.2 cm in diameter and 2.5 cm in height for smaller specimens, dropping to near zero in mature ones exceeding 20 cm. These rates align with those of massive demosponge congeners, reflecting energy allocation toward skeletal reinforcement in stable, low-food deep-sea environments rather than rapid biomass accrual.^[31]^[32] The solitary deep-sea species Monorhaphis chuni, characterized by its giant basal spicule up to 3 m long, exhibits exceptionally slow axial growth, averaging roughly 0.3 mm per year based on spicule length and radiometric dating of growth layers. This incremental deposition, akin to tree rings but in silica, enables reconstruction of millennia-scale environmental histories from banded isotopic signatures in the spicule axis. Growth rings in M. chuni spicules, analyzed via secondary ion mass spectrometry, reveal annual banding from silicon and oxygen isotope variations tied to seasonal productivity pulses.^[33]^[34] Longevity in hexactinellids far exceeds that of most metazoans, with M. chuni specimens dated to 11,000 ± 3,000 years via radiocarbon and uranium-thorium profiling of spicule cores, and individual spicules preserving records up to 18,000 years old. Antarctic hexactinellids like Scolymastra joubini reach mean ages of about 440 years, determined by radiocarbon assays on basal holdfasts, while smaller temperate species average 35–200 years. These estimates derive from direct aging of siliceous structures, which accumulate without resorption, contrasting with calcareous skeletons prone to overprinting. Observations across taxa show no histological or functional decline with age; syncytial tissues maintain choanocyte chamber integrity and pumping efficiency, supporting continuous, albeit minimal, appositional growth until external disruption like physical breakage or predation intervenes. This pattern implies negligible senescence, as modular tissue organization and silica-based stability circumvent telomere shortening or proteostatic failures common in cellularly discrete metazoans.^[33]^[35]^[36]

Reproduction and Nutrient Acquisition

Hexactinellids reproduce primarily through sexual means, with gametogenesis occurring seasonally in many species and embryos developing internally until the release of free-swimming larvae.^[37] These larvae are lecithotrophic, relying on yolk reserves rather than external feeding during their brief pelagic phase, which facilitates dispersal by ocean currents before settlement on suitable substrates.^[38] Larval types include the trichimella in species like Oopsacas minuta, characterized by a syncytial organization and spicule development during embryogenesis.^[39] Asexual reproduction, such as budding or bipartition, is documented but rare, observed in approximately 28% of Antarctic hexactinellids and potentially contributing to local population persistence in stable environments.^[40] Nutrient acquisition in hexactinellids centers on suspension feeding via a unique syncytial aquiferous system, where choanocyte-like chambers drive water flow through a network of canals and trabecular tissue, capturing bacterioplankton and particulate organic matter.^[41] This system achieves high filtration efficiency, removing up to 99% of abundant bacterial cells in processed water volumes that can exceed hundreds of times the sponge's body volume per day, as measured in situ using dye tracers and particle tracking.^[42] In oligotrophic deep-sea settings, adaptations include enhanced pumping augmented by ambient currents and selective filtration of ultraplankton, independent of particle size in some species, optimizing energy gain from sparse resources.^[43] Symbiotic associations with bacteria further support nutrient cycling, forming bacteriosyncytia that fix nitrogen and process dissolved organic carbon, as evidenced by stable isotope analyses (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) indicating mixed pelagic-benthic trophic inputs and microbial contributions to host metabolism.^[41]^[44] These interactions, verified through in situ flux measurements, enable hexactinellids to thrive in low-nutrient abyssal zones by recycling microbial nitrogen, though reliance on symbiosis varies by species and depth.^[45]

Ecology and Distribution

Global Distribution and Habitat Preferences

Hexactinellid sponges exhibit a global distribution confined primarily to deep marine environments, spanning bathyal zones from approximately 200 meters to abyssal depths beyond 6000 meters, with verified occurrences as deep as 7180 meters in the Java Trench.^[1]^[46] They are notably absent from shallow coastal waters, where their delicate siliceous spicules—composed of fragile, glass-like silica—render them vulnerable to mechanical stress from currents and waves, as evidenced by bathymetric and distributional data from deep-sea surveys.^[47]^[48] Regional hotspots underscore their biogeographic patterns, including high diversity in the deep waters surrounding New Zealand, polar Antarctic regions, and the Northeast Atlantic from Iceland to Morocco at depths of 800–1350 meters.^[49]^[50] These concentrations correlate with geophysical features such as continental slopes and seamounts, where stable substrates like mud support attachment, often via stalked or basal holdfasts.^[50]^[51] Habitat preferences favor cold, silica-rich waters conducive to spicule biosynthesis, with elevated dissolved silica concentrations observed in association with hexactinellid assemblages, facilitating their skeletal construction.^[52] Such environments typically feature low turbulence and consistent hydrostatic pressures, optimizing the syncytial tissue organization characteristic of the class.^[46] While some tolerance for varying oxygen levels exists in deep-sea settings, preferences align with abyssal and bathyal niches where silica availability exceeds that of shallower realms.^[53]

Ecological Roles and Reef Formation

Hexactinellid sponges engineer biogenic reefs by accumulating fused siliceous spicules into rigid, three-dimensional frameworks that trap sediment and stabilize substrates over millennia. In Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound off Canada's Pacific coast, these reefs—dominated by species such as Aphrocallistes vastus, Heterochone calyx, and Farrea occa—cover approximately 1,000 km² at depths of 140–240 m, with structures reaching up to 25 m in height and ages estimated at around 9,000 years.^[54]^[55] Reef growth occurs via larval settlement on dead sponge skeletons, maintaining mechanical integrity essential for persistence in dynamic deep-sea environments.^[55] These reefs enhance habitat complexity, fostering elevated megafaunal densities and biodiversity compared to surrounding sediments, as documented in regional surveys. They provide refuge, nursery, and foraging sites for epifaunal invertebrates and demersal fish assemblages, including commercially valuable rockfish (Sebastes spp.), with juvenile densities up to tenfold higher than in adjacent areas.^[54] In analogous hexactinellid aggregations, such as sponge gardens on the Rio Grande Rise, branching forms support diverse suspension feeders, shrimps, lobsters, and fishes like macrourids, underscoring their role in bolstering local trophic diversity.^[56] As primary consumers, hexactinellids filter enormous water volumes—A. vastus reefs process 465–47,300 L/m²/day, removing up to 90% of bacteria and linking pelagic microbial production to benthic food webs.^[55] This filtration sustains ecosystem functions like nutrient cycling while the structural habitat indirectly supports higher trophic levels through prey availability and shelter. Modern formations parallel Mesozoic sponge reefs, which were prevalent in Jurassic Tethyan settings and presumed extinct post-Cretaceous until the 1987 rediscovery of living analogues, offering a window into ancient reef-building dynamics.^[37]^[48]

Conservation and Human Interactions

Direct Anthropogenic Threats

Bottom trawling inflicts mechanical damage on hexactinellid sponges by abrading their siliceous spicules and skeletal structures, leading to fragmentation and impaired filtration efficiency. Experimental simulations of trawling-induced sediment exposure demonstrate clogging of feeding tissues after 40 minutes at concentrations of 15-35 mg/L, substantially reducing water pumping rates essential for nutrient acquisition.^[57] In deep-sea habitats like the Gulf of Alaska, submersible observations confirm that damaged large erect hexactinellids exhibit lingering structural integrity loss and delayed mortality spanning multiple years post-impact, with vulnerability heightened by their erect growth forms.^[58]^[59] Such effects are localized to trawled grounds, where dense aggregations may be depleted, but global population-level declines remain undocumented due to sparse baseline data on hexactinellid abundances.^[60] Fixed fishing gear, including traps and downriggers, entangles on hexactinellid reefs, causing tears, partial dislodgement, and secondary sediment resuspension that exacerbates tissue clogging. Surveys of impacted sites in regions like Hecate Strait reveal physical scarring on sponges such as Aphrocallistes vastus, with recovery timelines extended by recruitment limitations and lifespans potentially exceeding 2,000 years for reef frameworks.^[61]^[62] These incidents are acute and gear-specific, primarily affecting accessible shelf-edge populations rather than abyssal distributions, and empirical modeling estimates that sustained directed trawling would require thousands of passes to eradicate standing stocks in closure areas.^[63] Dredging and submarine cable laying present episodic risks through seabed disruption and burial, though confined to coastal or infrastructural corridors overlapping hexactinellid ranges. Elevated suspended sediments from dredging arrest in situ pumping in species like Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni, mirroring lab thresholds where filtration halts under dredging-simulated loads.^[64] Cable installations physically disturb reefs, as evidenced by pre- and post-laying assessments showing localized fragmentation without detectable broad-scale megafaunal shifts or population crashes in monitored hexactinellid assemblages.^[65] Overall, these threats underscore fragility in vulnerable marine ecosystems, yet documented impacts emphasize site-specific rather than ubiquitous declines, with peer-reviewed data highlighting slow but observable persistence in undisturbed areas.^[66]

Climate and Environmental Stressors

Laboratory experiments conducted in 2020 on the hexactinellid sponge Aphrocallistes vastus demonstrated that combined ocean warming and acidification impair pumping capacity, reduce skeletal silica deposition, and decrease structural stiffness, with warming exerting a stronger effect than acidification alone within projected near-future ranges.^[55] These effects manifested as increased tissue damage, curtailed growth rates, and diminished filtration efficiency, potentially hindering reef formation essential for habitat provision.^[55] However, the study's short-term exposure (weeks) limits extrapolation to chronic deep-sea conditions, where hexactinellids' slow metabolic rates may confer partial tolerance.^[55] Hindcast modeling from 2022, integrating ocean circulation and biogeochemical data, reconstructed half-century shifts in deep-sea environmental parameters at hexactinellid habitats, including gradual warming, deoxygenation, and pH declines attributable to anthropogenic influences.^[67] Such models predict altered silica availability and temperature regimes could stress siliceous skeleton formation, yet empirical validation remains sparse, as deep-sea observations are confounded by natural cycles like those during Pleistocene glaciations, when hexactinellid assemblages persisted amid fluctuating ocean chemistry.^[67]^[68] Hexactinellids exhibit resilience through deep-water refugia, where temperature and pH changes propagate slowly, and low metabolic demands buffer against acute stressors, as inferred from their endurance over geological timescales encompassing greater variability than current anthropogenic trends.^[69] Direct causation from climate drivers is challenging to isolate due to sparse long-term monitoring and overlapping natural forcings, underscoring the need for field-based attribution over laboratory or modeled inferences alone.^[55]^[67]

Protection Efforts and Efficacy

In Canada, the Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs Marine Protected Area was established in February 2017 under the Oceans Act, encompassing approximately 2,410 km² of seabed and prohibiting all bottom-contact fishing gear to prevent physical damage to hexactinellid reefs.^[70]^[71] This measure builds on earlier voluntary closures and aims to conserve structural habitat complexity formed by species such as Aphrocallistes vastus.^[72] In the Northeast Atlantic, the OSPAR Commission has classified deep-sea sponge aggregations, including hexactinellid-dominated grounds, as threatened and/or declining since 2008, prompting protective measures such as identification of vulnerable marine ecosystems and recommendations to avoid destructive fishing practices.^[73]^[74] Monitoring within the Canadian MPA has focused on risk-based indicators for reef integrity and biodiversity, with ongoing surveys enhancing awareness of sponge filtration dynamics and sediment tolerance thresholds, though assessments indicate persistent vulnerability due to the organisms' longevity exceeding 200 years and slow skeletal growth rates.^[72]^[70] OSPAR evaluations report aggregations in poor condition across multiple regions, with gear modifications and bycatch reforms proposed but limited empirical demonstration of bycatch reductions specific to hexactinellids.^[74]^[73] While these efforts have stabilized some sites against acute physical disturbance, no verified evidence exists of significant population recoveries, as hexactinellid biomass restoration post-impact is projected to require 13–36 years even under optimal conditions.^[60] Critics highlight substantial opportunity costs to fisheries, including annualized profit losses of up to $147,000 for halibut operations within the Hecate Strait closure, without corresponding data on spillover benefits or reef rebound sufficient to justify blanket prohibitions over targeted, evidence-based zoning.^[70] Such regulatory approaches risk economic displacement for low-impact sectors like prawn and groundfish trawling, particularly given the absence of causal links between MPA designations and measurable hexactinellid population growth amid their inherent low recruitment rates.^[70] Prioritizing adaptive management informed by in-situ monitoring and hydrodynamic models could better balance habitat preservation with sustainable resource use.^[72]

Evolutionary Biology

Fossil Record and Ancient Origins

The fossil record of Hexactinellida extends to the Late Proterozoic, with hexactine spicules reported from Ediacaran deposits in southwestern Mongolia and China, dating to approximately 550 million years ago (Ma).^[75]^[11] These early siliceous structures indicate that hexactinellids were among the first sponges to develop rigid biomineralized skeletons, predating the Cambrian boundary. However, some Ediacaran spicule interpretations face scrutiny for potential taphonomic artifacts, though clusters preserving hexactine morphology support their assignment to Hexactinellida.^[76] By the early Cambrian (Terreneuvian stage, ~529 Ma), indisputable hexactinellid spicules appear in formations like China's Yanjiahe, coinciding with the Cambrian explosion's onset and marking a rapid diversification of siliceous sponges.^[77] During the Paleozoic Era, hexactinellids proliferated, forming extensive reefs that dominated shallow to deep marine environments, particularly in the Devonian Period (~419–359 Ma).^[78] Fossil assemblages from Devonian fore-reef settings reveal reticulate frameworks of hexactinellid spicules mirroring modern glass sponge architectures, with tissue decay contributing to micrite and peloidal microstructures.^[79] These reefs, built by lyssacinosid and hexactinosid orders, achieved bioherm heights comparable to contemporary rare examples, underscoring conserved skeletal fusion and biomineralization processes.^[80] Ordovician taxa, such as Pattersonia ulrichi, further document this era's diversity in nearshore settings.^[1] Hexactinellid abundance waned after the Paleozoic, with reef-forming capabilities declining sharply by the Mesozoic, leaving only sparse records and modern remnants in deep-sea locales.^[81] This persistence and early success likely stemmed from elevated silica concentrations in ancient oceans, driven by intense silicate weathering and minimal biogenic drawdown prior to diatom radiation, enabling efficient spicule silicification without competitive exclusion by calcareous or organic alternatives.^[82] Such geochemical conditions, rather than inherent adaptive superiority, causally facilitated hexactinellid dominance until oceanic silica depletion favored other biomineralizers.^[83]

Genomic Insights and Independent Evolutions

The genome assembly of the reef-building glass sponge Aphrocallistes vastus, completed in 2023 with a contig N50 of 1.2 Mb and 95% completeness, identified over 25,000 protein-coding genes, including novel silica biomineralization factors absent in demosponges.^[16] Key among these are hexaxilin and perisilin, proteins extracted directly from spicule silica, which facilitate intracellular patterning and thickening of siliceous structures, respectively.^[18] These proteins exhibit domain architectures—such as silk-like motifs in hexaxilin for axial filament formation and repetitive motifs in perisilin for extracellular matrix deposition—unrelated to the cathepsin-derived silicateins of demosponges, indicating convergent evolution of biosilica deposition despite shared environmental pressures for rigid skeletal support.^[18] ^[16] Gene expression profiling in hexactinellid tissues, integrated with the A. vastus genome, elucidates the molecular basis of syncytial organization, a hallmark distinguishing this class from asyncytial poriferans.^[84] Transcriptomic data reveal upregulated cytoskeletal and fusion-related genes (e.g., actin-binding proteins and plasmalemma-modifying enzymes) in syncytial regions, enabling multinucleate tissue formation for efficient silicification and water flow, adaptations absent in demosponge cellular architectures.^[84] Molecular clock calibrations, incorporating hexactinellid genomic divergences and fossil constraints, estimate crown-group Hexactinellida emergence around 550–600 million years ago, positioning them as basal metazoans with syncytial traits potentially plesiomorphic or independently derived early in poriferan radiation.^[85] A 2024 proteomic analysis of hexactinellid spicules further substantiates polyphyletic origins of siliceous biomineralization within Porifera, as hexaxilin and perisilin lack homology to demosponge or homoscleromorph silicatins/glassins, undermining monophyletic models of spicule evolution reliant on shared enzymatic cores.^[18] This evidence aligns with phylogenetic reconstructions showing class-specific protein innovations, where hexactinellid intracellular silica deposition contrasts demosponge extracellular polymerization, suggesting multiple gene recruitment events from ancient metazoan toolkits rather than a singular ancestral pathway.^[18] Such findings necessitate revised phylogenomic frameworks, prioritizing biomineralization gene trees over morphology-based assumptions of homology.^[18]

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Mar 18, 2012 · ... growth of the specimens of Monorhaphis during its estimated 11000 ± 3000 years of growth history. The enormous longevity of these sponges ...
[34]
Glass sponge as a living climate archive - Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
Apr 4, 2012 · With the help of the skeleton of a sponge that belongs to the Monorhaphis chuni species and that lived in the East China Sea for 11,000 years, ...
[35]
Silicon Content of the Oceans 15,000 Years Ago Higher than Today
Jan 11, 2018 · By examining five cross-sections of Monorhaphis chuni spicules that were only a few millimeters thick and aged between 5,000 and 18,000 years, ...
[36]
A simple radiocarbon dating method for determining the age and ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Fallon et al. (2010) found that Antarctic deep-sea hexactinellid sponges have extremely long life expectancies (∼440 years). ...
[37]
The biology of glass sponges - PubMed
As the most ancient extant metazoans, glass sponges (Hexactinellida) have attracted recent attention in the areas of molecular evolution and the evolution ...
[38]
Oogenesis and lipid metabolism in the deep-sea sponge Phakellia ...
... reproductive cycle: during embryogenesis and larval development. ... Phakellia ventilabrum is an oviparous species with potentially lecithotrophic larvae ...
[39]
Embryogenesis in the hexactinellid Oopsacas minuta. (A–F) Stages ...
These sessile organisms rely primarily on larval dispersal for their reproduction. ... Interestingly all sponge larvae known so far are lecithotrophic (non- ...
[40]
Observations of asexual reproductive strategies in Antarctic ...
Asexual reproduction in Antarctic hexactinellid sponges includes bipartition and budding, with about 28% of sponges exhibiting these strategies. Budding is ...
[41]
A Microbial Nitrogen Engine Modulated by Bacteriosyncytia in ...
A microbial nitrogen engine modulated by bacteriosyncytia in hexactinellid sponges: ecological implications for deep-sea communities.
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In situ feeding and metabolism of glass sponges (Hexactinellida ...
Sep 25, 2006 · and excretion: We measured directly the efficiency by which the glass sponges remove (or discharge) substances from. (to) the water they filter.
[43]
(PDF) Size dependent selective filtration of ultraplankton by ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Both sponges showed a similar (but not identical) feeding pattern, efficiently removing up to 99% of the most abundant bacterial cells, whereas ...
[44]
Trophic ecology of glass sponge reefs in the Strait of Georgia, British ...
Jan 15, 2018 · Glass sponges are one of the few filter-feeding species that are common in the deep ocean even though heterotrophic plankton concentrations ...
[45]
Nutrient fluxes, oxygen consumption and fatty acid composition from ...
In the deep sea, LMA glass sponges (Hexactinellida) host a microbiome with a different taxonomic composition compared to the microbiome of LMA demosponges, HMA ...
[46]
extending the depth range of glass sponges (Porifera: Hexactinellida)
May 24, 2025 · Hexactinellida ord. inc. 2 was the dominant morphotype forming the sponge garden in the recess, with over 120 individuals, almost all located on ...<|separator|>
[47]
Hexactinellida: Life History and Ecology
Hexactinellids are marine, found in deeper waters, often on soft substrates, and some form reefs. They are abundant in polar regions and may structure ...
[48]
Hexactinellid sponge reefs on the Canadian continental shelf
Aug 10, 2025 · The slow growth and fragility of the reef-building sponge species makes them particularly vulnerable to damage and disturbance, since recovery ...
[49]
Diversity and Distribution Patterns in High Southern Latitude Sponges
However, 45% of Hexactinellida species had depth ranges that are less than 100 m. Forty-two percent of Hexactinellida had maximum depth records of less than ...<|separator|>
[50]
High Resolution Spatial Distribution for the Hexactinellid Sponges ...
Feb 22, 2021 · These appear in the East Atlantic from southern Iceland to Morocco at 800–1,350 m depth. It fixes to the muddy substrate through a large number ...
[51]
Habitat types and megabenthos composition from three sponge ...
We collected seafloor imagery of three seamounts at the Langseth Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean to assess habitats and megabenthos community composition.
[52]
Utilizing sponge spicules in taxonomic, ecological and ...
Dec 18, 2020 · Among the four sub-clades of Porifera, three (Demospongiae, Hexactinellida, and Homoscleromorpha) produce skeletons of amorphous silica (Hooper ...Figure 1. Spicule ``life... · Sponge Spicules In Taxonomic... · Sponge Spicules As Proxies...<|separator|>
[53]
Sponges - MarineBio Conservation Society
Deep-Sea Habitat: Hexactinellida sponges are predominantly found in deep-sea environments, particularly in cold waters. They are known to inhabit areas with ...
[54]
Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs ...
Apr 13, 2018 · The sponge reefs provide refuge, habitat, and nursery grounds for aquatic species, including commercially important rockfish, other finfish and ...<|separator|>
[55]
Warming and acidification threaten glass sponge Aphrocallistes ...
May 18, 2020 · Thermal and acidification stress significantly reduced skeletal stiffness, and warming weakened it, potentially curtailing reef formation.<|separator|>
[56]
Deep-sea dives reveal an unexpected hexactinellid sponge garden ...
2011). Hexactinellid sponges are known to form dense aggregations in many areas of the deep sea. Notable examples among these are the hexactinellid reefs off ...
[57]
[PDF] Effects of Sediment on Glass Sponges (Porifera, Hexactinellida) and ...
These sponges have been found to take up dissolved organic carbon; this is thought to 'feed' the symbionts, which in turn must provide nutrients to the sponge.Missing: bacterioplankton | Show results with:bacterioplankton
[58]
Long-term effects of bottom trawling on large sponges in the Gulf of ...
Our results suggest that sponges damaged by trawls suffer lingering damage and may experience delayed mortality over the course of many years.
[59]
Trawling Effects on Sponges in Alaska - NOAA Fisheries
May 21, 2021 · Scientists have observed the effects of bottom trawling on large erect sponges in the Gulf of Alaska over multiple time scales.
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The First Cut Is the Deepest: Trawl Effects on a Deep-Sea Sponge ...
Dec 22, 2020 · The loss of dense sponge aggregations is a detrimental outcome of bottom trawling because it can lead to a loss of ecosystem functioning and ...
[61]
Fishing damage to cloud sponges may lead to losses in associated ...
However, glass sponges (class Hexactinellida) are delicate and susceptible to damage from fishing gear such as downriggers.
[62]
[PDF] Hexactinellid Sponge Reefs: Areas of Interest as Marine Protected ...
The structural damage caused by bottom trawling activity is believed to have detrimental effects on the growth and development of sponge reef complexes.
[63]
Removal of deep-sea sponges by bottom trawling in the Flemish ...
Nov 1, 2019 · Therefore, it would take an estimated 2,947 directed trawling events to eliminate the entire sponge standing stock within the closures under ...
[64]
Suspended sediment causes feeding current arrests in situ in the ...
While increased suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) are known to cause glass sponges to arrest filtration in lab studies, the response of sponges to ...Missing: dredging | Show results with:dredging
[65]
Effects of submarine power transmission cables on a glass sponge ...
We examined the effects of submarine power transmission cable installation and operation on glass sponge reef condition and associated megafauna.
[66]
Effects of combined dredging-related stressors on sponges - Nature
Jul 12, 2017 · Dredging can cause increased suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs), light attenuation and sedimentation in marine communities.
[67]
Environmental Change at Deep-Sea Sponge Habitats Over the Last ...
Mar 23, 2022 · The hindcast was generated using the ocean general circulation model HYCOM, coupled to the biogeochemical model ECOSMO.
[68]
[PDF] Mediterranean hexactinellid sponges, with the description of a new ...
During the Pleistocene though, the hexactinellid fauna seems to have been important and fossilized skeletons from this period have been found in the south of ...
[69]
Climate change winner in the deep sea? Predicting the impacts of ...
While the strong natural environmental variability that charac- terizes these sponge grounds suggests this species is resilient to a changing environment, its ...
[70]
Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs ...
Feb 22, 2017 · Each Marine Protected Area consists of the seabed, the subsoil to a depth of 20 m and the water column above the seabed.
[71]
Hecate Strait/Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs Marine ...
Apr 10, 2025 · In February 2017, the Hecate Strait and Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs MPA was designated under the Oceans Act. MPA designation ...Missing: hexactinellid | Show results with:hexactinellid
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[PDF] Development of risk-based indicators for the Hecate Strait/Queen ...
2019. Development of risk-based indicators for the Hecate. Strait/Queen Charlotte Sound Glass Sponge Reefs Marine Protected Area. DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Res.
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[PDF] Background Document for Deep-sea sponge aggregations 2010
OSPAR agreement 2008-7: Deep sea sponge aggregations are principally composed of sponges from two classes: Hexactinellida and Demospongiae. They are known to ...
[74]
Deep-sea sponge aggregations - OSPAR - Assessments
Deep-sea sponge aggregations are assessed as being in poor condition in Arctic Waters (Region I), Greater North Sea (Region II), Celtic Seas (Region III), ...Missing: hexactinellid | Show results with:hexactinellid
[75]
Ediacarian sponge spicule clusters from Southwestern Mongolia ...
Aug 6, 2025 · All are referred to the Phylum Porifera, Class Hexactinellida. These sponge spicules provide the oldest remains that can be assigned without ...<|separator|>
[76]
The earliest sponge spicule tufts from the Cambrian Lower Yanjiahe ...
Jul 18, 2025 · Second, all purported early hexactine sponge spicules from Ediacaran strata have been critically reassessed as unreliable (Antcliffe, 2013 ...
[77]
Sponge spicules from the lower Cambrian in the Yanjiahe Formation ...
Here we present the first and earliest indisputable record of hexactinellid spicules in the lowest Cambrian, Terreneuvian, below the small shelly fossil ...
[78]
Massive cryptic microbe-sponge deposits in a Devonian fore-reef ...
Sep 22, 2021 · Reticulate framework is rich in hexactinellid glass sponges, the tissue decay of which led to the formation of abundant micrite as well as ...
[79]
[PDF] Massive cryptic microbe-sponge deposits in a Devonian fore-reef ...
Reticulate framework is rich in hexactinellid glass sponges, the tissue decay of which led to the formation of abundant micrite as well as peloidal and ...<|separator|>
[80]
Introduction
Hexactinellid sponges appeared with the Order Lyssacinosida in the Late Proterozoic. Although the Order Hexactinosida appeared in the Late Devonian, ...
[81]
Molecular paleobiology of early-branching animals - BioOne
Dec 1, 2012 · In general, after a Late Cretaceous peak hexactinellid diversity underwent a gradual decline ... hexactinellid sponge reefs off British Columbia, ...
[82]
[PDF] The unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida ...
Feb 6, 2007 · identified by application of molecular biological techniques (Pfeifer et al., 1993). Before, it had been speculated that the sponges are ...
[83]
[PDF] The unique skeleton of siliceous sponges (Porifera; Hexactinellida ...
May 3, 2007 · During this period the ocean was richer in sil- ica due to the silicate weathering. The oldest sponge fossils. (Hexactinellida) have been ...
[84]
Tracing animal genomic evolution with the chromosomal-level ...
Jul 27, 2020 · Glass sponges (Hexactinellida) have syncytial tissues and are ... expression analysis of digital gene expression data. Bioinformatics ...
[85]
[PDF] integrating DNA and fossils elucidates the evolutionary history of ...
We estimate divergence times of crown-group Hexactinellida from the larg- est molecular phylogenetic data set assembled to date for this class of sponges ( ...