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Mini-Neptune

A mini-Neptune, also known as a sub-Neptune, is a class of exoplanet intermediate in size between Earth and Neptune, typically possessing radii of 1.6 to 4 times Earth's and masses ranging from about 2 to 20 Earth masses, with a composition featuring a rocky or icy core enveloped by a thick hydrogen- and helium-dominated atmosphere.^[1]^[2] Unlike any planet in our solar system, mini-Neptunes represent a distinct planetary regime, often classified separately from super-Earths due to their gaseous envelopes that contribute to lower overall densities, sometimes as low as one-third of Earth's.^[3]^[2] Exoplanets in the size range between super-Earths and mini-Neptunes comprise over half of the known exoplanets with measured sizes, with mini-Neptunes being a common subtype detected primarily through the transit method by surveys like NASA's Kepler and TESS missions.^[1]^[2] Mini-Neptunes likely form through the accretion of solid materials into a core, followed by the capture of a substantial gaseous envelope, potentially including water-rich ices that form deep subsurface oceans beneath their atmospheres.^[2] Their atmospheres, studied via transmission spectroscopy, often reveal water vapor, haze layers, and elevated levels of heavy elements—up to hundreds of times the solar abundance—making them key targets for understanding planetary diversity and atmospheric retention.^[2] Recent observations suggest that some mini-Neptunes may evolve by losing their outer envelopes over time due to stellar radiation, potentially transitioning into super-Earths or even chthonian planets with exposed rocky surfaces.^[4] Notable examples include GJ 1214 b, a warm mini-Neptune about 2.6 times Earth's radius orbiting a red dwarf star 48 light-years away, whose hazy, metal-rich atmosphere has been probed by the James Webb Space Telescope to reveal possible steam or hydrogen layers.^[5]^[2] Another well-studied case is HAT-P-11b, a Neptune-sized world with detected water vapor and low atmospheric metallicity in its hydrogen-rich atmosphere.^[6] More recently, TOI 4633 c, a mini-Neptune in a binary star system with a 272-day orbit akin to Earth's, highlights their potential for temperate conditions despite their gaseous nature.^[7] Ongoing research with telescopes like Cheops and JWST continues to uncover warm mini-Neptunes, such as those in the TOI 833 and TOI 177 systems, expanding our knowledge of their potential habitability and evolutionary paths. As of 2025, JWST observations continue to reveal denser atmospheres in mini-Neptunes, challenging prior models of their composition.^[8]^[9]

Definition and Classification

Definition

Mini-Neptunes are a class of exoplanets with radii typically ranging from 1.7 to 3.9 times that of Earth (R_\Earth), featuring thick hydrogen-helium atmospheres that envelop a rocky or icy core and distinguish them from smaller, predominantly rocky super-Earths.^[10] These gaseous envelopes, often comprising several percent of the planet's mass, result in overall low densities that decrease with increasing radius, reflecting the growing influence of the volatile layer.^[10] The nomenclature "mini-Neptune" emerged in exoplanet research following NASA's Kepler mission, around 2013, to categorize these worlds as scaled-down analogs to ice giants like Neptune, filling the gap between terrestrial planets and larger gas giants.^[10] This classification highlights their transitional nature in size and composition within the observed exoplanet population.^[11] Alternative terms for mini-Neptunes include sub-Neptunes, gas dwarfs, and transitional planets, emphasizing their gaseous characteristics or intermediate status.^[3]^[10] The radius boundary separating mini-Neptunes from super-Earths is often placed at approximately 1.6–2.0 R_\Earth.^[11] Mini-Neptunes exhibit densities typically in the range of 0.5–2.5 g/cm³, attributable to their substantial hydrogen-helium envelopes overlying denser interiors.^[10]

Distinction from Other Planets

Mini-Neptunes are distinguished from other exoplanet types primarily by the radius valley, a pronounced gap in the distribution of planetary radii around approximately 1.75 times Earth's radius (R⊕), which separates these gaseous worlds from smaller, rocky super-Earths with iron or silicate-dominated cores.^[12] This bimodal distribution, identified through analysis of Kepler mission data, highlights mini-Neptunes as planets typically exceeding 2 R⊕, where substantial hydrogen-helium envelopes contribute to their inflated sizes, in contrast to super-Earths below the valley that lack such thick gaseous layers.^[12] The valley's location underscores a compositional transition, with mini-Neptunes exhibiting lower bulk densities due to volatile-rich atmospheres, while super-Earths maintain higher densities from minimal volatile content.^[13] In terms of mass-radius relationships, mini-Neptunes occupy a regime where increasing mass does not proportionally increase radius as sharply as in denser super-Earths, reflecting their envelope-dominated structures and resulting in average densities often below 2 g/cm³—lower than Neptune's 1.638 g/cm³ owing to proportionally thicker gaseous layers relative to the core.^[14] This relationship, derived from transit and radial velocity observations, positions mini-Neptunes as intermediate between terrestrial planets and gas giants, with their lower densities serving as a key metric for classification.^[14] Atmospheric thickness emerges as a hallmark differentiator, enabling mini-Neptunes to retain extended envelopes that super-Earths cannot sustain under similar irradiation. Some mini-Neptunes may overlap with ocean worlds if water or other volatiles constitute a significant fraction of their mass, potentially hosting deep liquid layers beneath hazy atmospheres, though such compositions remain compositionally distinct from purely rocky super-Earths. They differ from hot Jupiters by their smaller sizes, generally under 4 R⊕, and cooler equilibrium temperatures due to wider orbital separations, avoiding the extreme inflation and dissociation seen in the hotter, more massive gas giants.^[15] The nomenclature for these planets evolved in the 2010s with Kepler observations revealing the radius valley, prompting a shift from broadly lumping them as "super-Earths" to recognizing mini-Neptunes as a separate category characterized by gaseous envelopes rather than rocky interiors.^[12] This reclassification, based on the statistical scarcity of planets in the 1.5–2 R⊕ range, emphasized the role of atmospheric retention in defining planetary types beyond mere size.^[12]

Physical Characteristics

Size and Mass

Mini-Neptunes are characterized by radii typically spanning 1.7 to 3.9 Earth radii (R_\oplus), with the majority of confirmed examples clustering between 2 and 3 R_\oplus as revealed by transit surveys from the Kepler and Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) missions.^[12] This range distinguishes them from smaller super-Earths and larger ice giants like Neptune, which has a radius of approximately 3.9 R_\oplus. The empirical distribution arises from precise photometric measurements of thousands of transiting exoplanets, enabling statistical analyses of their size demographics.^[12] Masses of mini-Neptunes generally fall between 2 and 20 Earth masses (M_\oplus), with estimates derived from radial velocity follow-up observations or transit timing variations in multi-planet systems.^[16] These measurements are challenging due to the small signals induced by low-mass planets, but they confirm a population dominated by worlds several times more massive than Earth yet substantially less massive than Neptune (17 M_\oplus). The resulting bulk densities are often low, linking to the dominance of extended gaseous envelopes over rocky cores.^[16] Observational data indicate a bimodal distribution in exoplanet radii, with a pronounced gap or "radius valley" around 1.5–2.0 R_\oplus separating super-Earths from mini-Neptunes, whose peak occurrence is near 2.4 R_\oplus.^[12] Beyond 3 R_\oplus, mini-Neptunes significantly outnumber full Neptune-sized planets in occurrence rates among short-period systems detected by Kepler and TESS.^[12] For gaseous planets like mini-Neptunes, the mass-radius relation approximates M \propto R^3 under the assumption of constant density, though atmospheric opacity and compression effects flatten this scaling for larger radii, yielding radii larger than expected for pure rock-ice compositions at given masses.

Composition and Atmosphere

Mini-Neptunes are characterized by a dominant hydrogen-helium (H/He) envelope that constitutes 10–50% of their total mass, overlying a rocky or icy core composed primarily of silicates, metals, and water ice.^[17] This gaseous envelope arises from the accretion of primordial gas during formation, with the core mass typically ranging from 1 to 10 Earth masses, providing the gravitational binding necessary to retain the atmosphere.^[17] The H/He composition dominates the outer layers, contributing to the planets' low mean densities compared to rocky worlds, though the exact envelope fraction varies with formation location and disk conditions.^[17] The atmospheres of mini-Neptunes feature extended H/He envelopes with temperatures ranging from 200 K for temperate examples to 1000 K for hotter, closer-in orbits, influenced by stellar insolation and internal heat.^[18] These envelopes often include hazy layers formed by photochemical reactions, such as hydrocarbon hazes in carbon-rich environments, which scatter light and result in flat transmission spectra observed during transits.^[19] For instance, the sub-Neptune K2-18 b exhibits spectral flattening attributed to haze particles, masking deeper molecular features in the infrared.^[19] Key volatiles in mini-Neptune atmospheres include water (H₂O), ammonia (NH₃), and methane (CH₄), which can condense into clouds or exist as vapors depending on temperature and pressure.^[20] Atmospheric metallicity, defined as the abundance of elements heavier than helium relative to solar values, can reach up to 100 times solar levels in models fitting observations, enhancing the presence of these volatiles and influencing cloud formation.^[16] Spectroscopic observations, particularly from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), reveal absorption features from H₂O and CH₄ in the infrared transmission spectra of mini-Neptunes, providing evidence for their volatile-rich envelopes.^[16] For K2-18 b, JWST data show tentative detections of CH₄ at levels around 4% and CO₂ near 0.1% in high-metallicity scenarios, alongside water vapor, confirming the dominance of H/He with trace heavier molecules.^[16] These signatures are often subdued by hazes but remain detectable in clearer atmospheric windows.^[19]

Internal Structure

Theoretical models of mini-Neptune interiors typically adopt a layered structure consisting of a central rocky or icy core, an overlying mantle of high-pressure ices, and an outer hydrogen-helium (H/He) envelope. The core is composed primarily of iron and silicates, with masses ranging from 1 to 10 Earth masses (M⊕), providing the gravitational foundation for retaining the envelope.^[17] The mantle, rich in volatiles like water, ammonia, and methane, exists under extreme conditions where materials transition into high-pressure ice phases, such as ice VII or superionic ice XVIII. This structure is modeled using equations of state (EOS) tailored to each layer, with the H/He envelope often approximated as polytropic to capture its compressibility.^[21] Phase transitions play a critical role in these models, particularly at pressures exceeding 1 Mbar, where hydrogen may dissociate into atomic or metallic forms, and water can form supercritical fluids or exotic phases like ice X. In the deep mantle, high-pressure ices can melt into supercritical states, blurring boundaries between solid, liquid, and gas phases, which affects heat transport and overall planetary radius. For the H/He envelope, the EOS is frequently described by the polytropic relation for adiabatic compression:

P = K \rho^{\gamma}

where P is pressure, \rho is density, K is a constant, and \gamma (typically 1.0–2.0 for convective envelopes) reflects the adiabatic index; more advanced EOS, such as those from ab initio simulations, account for dissociation at megabar pressures. These transitions contribute to the planets' low bulk densities by allowing extended, diffuse envelopes.^[21] Mini-Neptunes exhibit structural diversity, ranging from "pure" gas dwarfs dominated by thick H/He envelopes (up to 20% of total mass) to hybrid ocean planets featuring steam atmospheres over deep water mantles. In gas dwarf models, the envelope dominates the radius, while ocean variants may have thinner H/He layers atop supercritical steam oceans, with water fractions up to 50% by mass. This variability arises from differences in core mass, envelope opacity, and thermal evolution, leading to distinct interior profiles without altering the fundamental layered architecture.^[21]

Formation and Evolution

Formation Mechanisms

Mini-Neptunes are thought to form primarily through the core accretion model, in which solid cores composed largely of ice and rock accumulate in the outer regions of protoplanetary disks beyond the snow line. These cores grow rapidly to masses of approximately 5–10 Earth masses (M⊕) by accreting planetesimals and pebbles, enabling the subsequent runaway accretion of a hydrogen-helium (H/He) envelope before the disk gas disperses.^[22] This process favors the development of extended gaseous atmospheres, distinguishing mini-Neptunes from smaller super-Earths that retain thinner envelopes or none at all.^[23] Disk migration plays a crucial role in explaining the prevalence of mini-Neptunes at short orbital periods (0.1–1 AU), as they likely originate beyond the snow line (~2–5 AU) where ices are abundant and then migrate inward due to gravitational interactions with the disk gas. Migration halts through mechanisms such as disk torques or resonance capture, resulting in the observed population of close-in planets.^[22] Simulations indicate that this inward drift occurs efficiently in disks with low viscosity, allowing cores to accrete significant H/He envelopes during transit.^[23] Pebble accretion enhances the efficiency of core growth by enabling the rapid accumulation of centimeter- to meter-sized particles in turbulent protoplanetary disks, leading to diverse core compositions enriched in water and volatiles for mini-Neptunes formed beyond the snow line. This mechanism operates at rates of about 10⁻⁶ M⊕ per year in low- to intermediate-mass disks, particularly those with higher metallicity, and supports the formation of water-rich cores that promote substantial atmospheric retention.^[24]^[25] In contrast to planetesimal accretion, pebble flux provides a steady supply of solids, facilitating the buildup of the necessary core masses within the disk's lifetime of a few million years. Recent models as of 2025 suggest that super-Earths and mini-Neptunes may form from distinct rings of planetesimals and pebbles, with mini-Neptunes arising beyond the water snowline via pebble accretion, explaining the radius valley between the two classes.^[26] The predicted occurrence rates of mini-Neptunes are higher around metal-rich stars ([Fe/H] > 0), where enhanced solid abundances in the disk promote faster core growth and envelope accretion, with frequencies increasing by a factor of up to 10 from subsolar to supersolar metallicities for short-period Neptune-sized planets. This metallicity dependence aligns with observations from surveys like LAMOST, which detect such planets preferentially in metal-rich hosts. However, the abundance of close-in mini-Neptunes challenges traditional models of Solar System formation, as our system lacks such planets despite similar disk conditions, suggesting variations in disk viscosity, migration efficiency, or envelope retention that prevented their assembly or survival.^[22]

Atmospheric Evolution and Loss

The atmospheric evolution of mini-Neptunes is profoundly influenced by hydrodynamic escape, a process driven primarily by extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and X-ray radiation from the host star, which heats the upper atmosphere and induces the outflow of hydrogen and helium envelopes. This escape mechanism is particularly effective for close-in planets, where high incident flux leads to the expansion and loss of volatile envelopes, potentially transforming mini-Neptunes into denser super-Earths. The rate of mass loss in these energy-limited regimes scales approximately as \dot{M} \propto \frac{F_{\mathrm{XUV}} R^3}{GM}, where F_{\mathrm{XUV}} is the XUV flux, R is the planetary radius, M is the mass, and G is the gravitational constant; more detailed hydrodynamic simulations yield refined scalings such as \dot{M} \propto (F_{\mathrm{XUV}})^{0.78} R^{1.1} / M^{0.5}.^[27]^[28] Photoevaporation models illustrate how this loss sculpts planetary structures, with outcomes depending on the core mass and irradiation level. Planets with core masses below approximately 5–10 Earth masses often lose their entire H/He envelopes under intense irradiation, leaving behind rocky or water-rich super-Earth remnants, while higher-mass cores (10–20 Earth masses) may retain tenuous envelopes of 1–5% of total mass if irradiation is moderate. These models, incorporating radiative cooling and XUV-driven escape, predict that envelope retention is favored for larger cores due to deeper gravitational wells, but prolonged exposure erodes even substantial atmospheres over time.^[28]^[29] The bulk of atmospheric loss occurs on short timescales, primarily within the first 100 million years after formation, when young stars emit elevated X-ray and UV flux—up to 100–1000 times the present solar value—fueling vigorous hydrodynamic outflows. After this active phase, mass loss rates decline sharply as stellar activity wanes, allowing surviving envelopes to cool and contract. This early dominance of XUV-driven escape explains the observed scarcity of planets in the radius range around 1.6 Earth radii, marking a transition where photoevaporation efficiently strips envelopes from lower-mass mini-Neptunes.^[27]

Detection and Observation

Discovery Methods

Mini-Neptunes are primarily discovered through transit photometry, a technique that detects the periodic decrease in stellar brightness caused by a planet passing across the face of its host star. The depth of this dip in the light curve directly yields the planet's radius relative to the star's, enabling identification of planets with sizes between approximately 2 and 4 Earth radii. Space telescopes like Kepler and TESS have driven the majority of these detections, with transit photometry responsible for the majority of confirmed mini-Neptunes due to their favorable geometry for short-period orbits.^[30] Radial velocity measurements complement transit data by constraining planetary masses through the detection of Doppler shifts in the host star's spectral lines, induced by the planet's gravitational tug. For mini-Neptunes, which typically have masses of 5–20 Earth masses, the resulting stellar velocity semi-amplitudes are small, often below 5 m/s, presenting significant challenges for ground-based spectrographs due to instrumental noise and stellar activity.^[31]^[32] In systems with multiple planets, transit timing variations (TTV) offer an alternative method to infer masses without relying on radial velocity, by analyzing deviations in predicted transit times caused by gravitational perturbations from neighboring planets. This technique has proven particularly useful for mini-Neptunes in compact multi-planet configurations, where interactions amplify timing shifts into detectable signals on the order of minutes to hours. Kepler observations reveal that 30–50% of Sun-like stars host at least one mini-Neptune with orbital periods between 1 and 100 days, highlighting their prevalence among close-in exoplanet populations after correcting for observational biases. Follow-up transmission spectroscopy can briefly probe atmospheric compositions, though detailed characterization remains limited for most candidates.

Notable Observations and Missions

The Kepler space telescope, operational from 2009 to 2018, revolutionized the study of mini-Neptunes by discovering thousands of small exoplanets through the transit method, with precise radius measurements from the California-Kepler Survey revealing a bimodal distribution in planet radii that highlighted the prevalence of mini-Neptunes around 2-4 Earth radii.^[12] NASA's Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), launched in 2018 and ongoing, has built on Kepler's legacy by targeting brighter host stars, facilitating easier follow-up observations and atmospheric characterization of mini-Neptunes; for instance, detections between 2023 and 2025 include the TOI-2096 system, featuring a mini-Neptune candidate orbiting a nearby mid-M dwarf.^[33] The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), operational since 2021, has provided groundbreaking spectroscopic data on mini-Neptune atmospheres, with observations from 2023 of K2-18b detecting methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) at levels around 1% each, suggesting a hydrogen-rich envelope and informing models of atmospheric composition.^[34] ESA's Cheops mission, launched in 2019 and ongoing as of 2025, has contributed to the characterization of mini-Neptunes through precise photometry, including studies of warm mini-Neptunes in systems like TOI-833 and TOI-177, aiding in density measurements and atmospheric escape investigations.^[35] Ground-based instruments such as HARPS and ESPRESSO have complemented space missions by measuring radial velocity masses of mini-Neptunes, enabling density determinations; notable 2025 updates include ESPRESSO follow-up on TOI-283 b, a mini-Neptune transiting a bright K-type star at 82 parsecs, yielding a mass of approximately 6.5 Earth masses and reinforcing studies of these worlds around cooler hosts.^[36]^[37]

Examples

Hycean Worlds and Candidates

Hycean worlds represent a subclass of mini-Neptunes characterized by water-rich interiors supporting global liquid water oceans beneath hydrogen-dominated atmospheres. These planets combine elements of hydrogen-rich envelopes, akin to those on gas giants, with extensive liquid water layers that could enable habitable conditions under the right pressures and temperatures. The concept was introduced to describe worlds where the hydrogen atmosphere provides sufficient pressure to maintain liquid oceans on the surface, distinguishing them from purely gaseous mini-Neptunes.^[38] A prominent candidate is K2-18 b, a mini-Neptune with a radius of approximately 2.6 R_{\oplus} and mass of 8.6 M_{\oplus}, orbiting a cool M-dwarf star at a distance that places it within the habitable zone. Observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) in 2023 revealed methane and carbon dioxide in its atmosphere, consistent with a hydrogen-rich envelope over a water ocean, while the absence of ammonia further supports a Hycean composition.^[39] Subsequent JWST data from 2025 tentatively detected dimethyl sulfide (DMS), a potential biosignature gas produced primarily by marine life on Earth, though this detection remains controversial and requires confirmation.^[40] Another candidate is TOI-270 d, with a radius of about 2.1 R_{\oplus}, identified through JWST transmission spectroscopy as potentially hosting a global ocean beneath a hydrogen-helium atmosphere enriched in carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor. This absence of ammonia in its spectrum suggests dissolution into an underlying ocean, aligning with Hycean characteristics. Habitability considerations for such worlds include stellar irradiation levels that avoid runaway greenhouse effects and ocean depths that maintain liquid water stability under the atmospheric pressure, potentially allowing for diverse geochemical environments.^[41]^[42] Distinguishing Hycean worlds from pure gas dwarfs poses significant challenges, primarily through spectroscopic analysis of atmospheric compositions. Key indicators include elevated water vapor signals and depleted ammonia, which suggest an ocean interface, but degeneracies arise from overlapping spectral features in hydrogen-rich envelopes; for instance, models must differentiate shallow ocean-topped atmospheres from deeper gaseous layers using mid-infrared observations to probe pressure-temperature profiles. Advanced retrieval techniques on JWST data are essential to resolve these ambiguities and confirm ocean presence.^[43]^[41]

Other Notable Mini-Neptunes

Kepler-11f exemplifies an early example of a mini-Neptune in a compact multi-planet system orbiting the Sun-like star Kepler-11, discovered by NASA's Kepler mission. With a radius of 2.61 ± 0.13 Earth radii and a mass of 2.0 ± 0.6 Earth masses derived from transit timing variations (TTVs), it demonstrates the low-density composition typical of these worlds, featuring a substantial hydrogen-helium envelope. Orbiting at 0.25 AU with a period of 46.7 days, Kepler-11f resides in a tightly packed configuration with five inner siblings, all transiting within 500 hours of each other, highlighting the dynamical stability of such systems.^[44] A more recent discovery, TOI-283 b, announced in 2025, represents a mini-Neptune orbiting a bright K-type dwarf star approximately 269 light-years away, detected via transits from the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). It has a radius of 2.34 Earth radii—about 0.6 times that of Neptune—and a mass of 6.54 Earth masses, confirmed through radial velocity measurements with the ESPRESSO spectrograph, yielding a density of 3.1 g/cm³ indicative of a thick gaseous atmosphere.^[36] With an orbital period of 17.6 days, TOI-283 b receives significant stellar irradiation yet retains its envelope, as evidenced by its equilibrium temperature of around 800 K.^[45] In a challenging binary star environment, TOI-4633 c, validated in 2024 through citizen science efforts with TESS data, orbits one of two Sun-like stars separated by about 1.2 AU, posing a puzzle for planet formation models due to the disruptive gravitational influences in such systems. This mini-Neptune has a radius of 3.2 ± 0.2 Earth radii and an orbital period of 272 days around its host, placing it in the habitable zone despite its gaseous nature likely precluding surface habitability.^[46] The planet's retention of a hydrogen-rich envelope under moderate irradiation underscores the resilience of mini-Neptunes, even in dynamically complex architectures.^[7] Many well-studied mini-Neptunes, including those with short orbital periods of 3–10 days, exhibit envelope retention despite intense stellar irradiation, as modeled in evolutionary simulations incorporating radiative cooling and atmospheric mass loss.^[29] These properties highlight their role as archetypes of gas dwarfs, bridging super-Earths and full Neptunes in exoplanet populations.

Comparisons and Implications

Radius Valley

The radius valley denotes a pronounced depletion in the occurrence rate of exoplanets with radii between approximately 1.5 and 2.0 Earth radii (R_\oplus), demarcating the boundary between super-Earths (typically \lesssim 1.5 R_\oplus) and mini-Neptunes (\gtrsim 2 R_\oplus).^[47] This gap arises in the radius distribution of close-in planets (orbital periods \lesssim 100 days) and reflects a fundamental dichotomy in planetary architectures.^[12] Statistical analyses of Kepler mission data reveal that planets in this radius range are 3–5 times less common than those in the adjacent super-Earth and mini-Neptune populations, based on precise radius measurements for over 900 confirmed planets.^[47] This depletion has been independently verified using Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) observations, with recent studies from 2023 to 2025 confirming a valley location around 1.6–1.9 R_\oplus and a depth of roughly 45% (indicating the minimum occurrence rate is about half the peak values) across a sample of thousands of candidates, particularly around low-mass stars.^[48] The primary theoretical explanation attributes the radius valley to photoevaporation, in which extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation from the host star erodes the hydrogen-helium atmospheres of sub-Neptune-mass planets (\sim 3–$10 M_\oplus) during the early stellar evolution phase, transforming them into stripped rocky super-Earths while sparing more massive planets with deeper gravitational wells.^[49] An alternative paradigm posits a primordial origin through disk-driven formation dynamics, where the dissipation of the protoplanetary disk halts gas accretion onto cores below a critical mass threshold (\sim 2–$5 M_\oplus), preventing the formation of intermediate-radius planets altogether and imprinting the gap during the assembly phase.^[50] This bimodal distribution implies the emergence of two discrete planetary classes during formation and evolution, with super-Earths representing failed mini-Neptunes or purely rocky outcomes. The valley's depth is formally derived from occurrence rate histograms via the metric

D = 1 - \frac{f_\text{valley}}{(f_\text{small} + f_\text{large})/2},

where f_\text{valley}, f_\text{small}, and f_\text{large} denote the normalized occurrence rates in the valley bin (\sim 1.5–$2.0 R_\oplus) and the flanking super-Earth (\sim 1–$1.5 R_\oplus) and mini-Neptune (\sim 2–$3 R_\oplus) bins, respectively; values of D \approx 0.7–$0.8$ align with Kepler observations, underscoring the gap's prominence.^[51]

Habitability Potential

Mini-Neptunes face significant challenges to habitability due to their thick hydrogen-helium (H/He) atmospheres, which can block a substantial portion of incoming stellar radiation, limiting energy availability for potential surface or subsurface processes.^[52] These envelopes often create high internal pressures that inhibit the formation of stable liquid water surfaces, rendering traditional surface habitability unlikely for gas-rich variants.^[53] Additionally, the deep atmospheric layers may trap heat inefficiently or lead to extreme temperature gradients, further complicating conditions suitable for life as known on Earth.^[54] Despite these obstacles, certain mini-Neptunes offer opportunities for habitability through Hycean configurations, where a hydrogen-rich atmosphere overlies a global subsurface ocean, potentially maintaining liquid water under high-pressure conditions.^[55] In such worlds, biosignatures like dimethyl sulfide (DMS), produced by marine phytoplankton on Earth, could accumulate in the atmosphere and become detectable in transmission spectra, providing indirect evidence of biological activity.^[38] Recent JWST observations have hinted at such biomarker possibilities in temperate sub-Neptunes, though interpretations remain tentative. Key factors influencing habitability include placement within the habitable zone (HZ), typically spanning 0.5–2 AU for G-type stars, where mini-Neptunes could receive sufficient insolation for ocean stability without total atmospheric stripping. Volatiles in their atmospheres, such as water vapor and H/He mixtures, can enhance greenhouse effects, potentially extending the outer HZ boundary and sustaining temperate conditions beneath the envelope.^[54] Studies from 2024–2025 highlight that mini-Neptunes are more likely to retain substantial water inventories compared to super-Earths, owing to their higher masses and gravities that resist hydrodynamic escape during atmospheric evolution.^[56] This retention contrasts with super-Earths, which often lose volatiles more readily, positioning mini-Neptunes as prime candidates for water-rich interiors despite envelope loss scenarios. These insights underscore the diverse pathways for long-term habitability in sub-Neptune populations.

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Jun 3, 2021 · We use our models to explore the possible phase structures of water worlds and find that a diverse range of interiors are possible, from oceans ...
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[1709.04736] The formation of mini-Neptunes - arXiv
Sep 14, 2017 · In this work we investigate the possible formation histories and predicted occurrence rates of mini-Neptunes assuming the planets form beyond ...
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The Formation of Mini-Neptunes - IOPscience
In this work we investigate the possible formation histories and predicted occurrence rates of mini-Neptunes, assuming that the planets form beyond the iceline.
[24]
Formation of super-Earths and mini-Neptunes from rings of ... - arXiv
Jan 6, 2025 · Mini-Neptunes primarily originate from rings located beyond the water snowline, forming via pebble accretion. Our simulations broadly match the ...
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Formation of Super-Earths and Mini-Neptunes from Rings of ...
The radius valley constrains the typical total mass available for rocky planet formation to be less than 3–6 M⊕. Our results predict that planets at ∼1 au in ...
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[PDF] arXiv:1303.3899v3 [astro-ph.EP] 6 Aug 2013
Aug 6, 2013 · KEPLER PLANETS: A TALE OF EVAPORATION. James E. Owen. Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics, 60 St. George St., Toronto, M5S 3H8 ...
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None
### Summary of Key Information from arXiv:1311.0329
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EVOLUTIONARY MODELS OF SUPER-EARTHS AND MINI ...
We construct models of the structural evolution of super-Earth- and mini-Neptune-type exoplanets with H2–He envelopes, incorporating radiative cooling and ...
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Exoplanet and Candidate Statistics
On this page we have assembled statistics for various categories of confirmed exoplanets, TESS candidates, and Kepler candidates.
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Occurrence rates of small planets from HARPS
This work provides a first estimate of the close-in small planet occurrence rates in the solar neighbourhood of the thin and thick disks of the Galaxy.Missing: mini- | Show results with:mini-
[31]
Statistical Methods for Exoplanet Detection with Radial Velocities
Mar 9, 2023 · However, the detection of such small planets is not yet possible due to very complex, temporally correlated instrumental and astrophysical ...
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A super-Earth and a mini-Neptune near the 2:1 MMR straddling the ...
The TOI-2096 system has a super-Earth (1.24 R⊕) and a mini-Neptune (1.90 R⊕) with orbital periods of 3.12 d and 6.39 d, respectively.
[33]
https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2023/04/aa45440-22/aa45440-22.html
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Homogeneous planet masses - I. Reanalysis of archival HARPS ...
We perform a homogeneous and consistent re-analysis of the radial velocity (RV) observations of 87 small exoplanets using publicly available HARPS RV data and ...
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Habitability and Biosignatures of Hycean Worlds - IOPscience
Aug 26, 2021 · Habitability and Biosignatures of Hycean Worlds. Nikku Madhusudhan, Anjali A. A. Piette, and Savvas Constantinou. Published 2021 ...Introduction · Hycean Mass–Radius Plane · Hycean Habitable Zone · Biosignatures
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Webb Discovers Methane, Carbon Dioxide in Atmosphere of K2-18 b
Sep 11, 2023 · A new investigation with NASA's James Webb Space Telescope into K2-18 b, an exoplanet 8.6 times as massive as Earth, has revealed the ...
[37]
Possible Hycean conditions in the sub-Neptune TOI-270 d
We report our atmospheric characterisation of the outer planet TOI-270 d, a candidate Hycean world, with JWST transmission spectroscopy.
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New Insights from Geochemical Models of TOI-270 d - IOPscience
Temperate sub-Neptunes are of special interest because some could be habitable. Here, we consider whether these planets might instead be rocky worlds with thick ...
[39]
Toward a Self-consistent Evaluation of Gas Dwarf Scenarios for ...
We briefly note that, in addition to gas dwarf and Hycean world scenarios, a mini-Neptune scenario with a thick H2-rich atmosphere has also been proposed for K2 ...
[40]
Kepler-11 f - NASA Science
Discovery Date: 2010 ; Orbital Radius: 0.25 AU ; Orbital Period: 46.7 days ; Eccentricity: 0.01.
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TOI-283 b: A transiting mini-Neptune in a 17.6-day orbit discovered ...
Oct 14, 2025 · The planet has an orbital period of P = 17.617 days, a size of Rp = 2.34 ± 0.09 R⊕, and a mass of Mp = 6.54 ± 2.04 M⊕. With an equilibrium ...
[42]
Planet Hunters TESS. V. A Planetary System Around a Binary Star ...
Apr 30, 2024 · We report on the discovery and validation of a transiting long-period mini-Neptune orbiting a bright (V = 9.0 mag) G dwarf (TOI 4633; R = 1.05 R ⊙ , M = 1.10 M ...
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The California-Kepler Survey. III. A Gap in the Radius Distribution of ...
A Gap in the Radius Distribution of Small Planets. Authors:Benjamin J. Fulton, Erik A. Petigura, Andrew W. Howard, Howard Isaacson, Geoffrey W.
[44]
Radius valley scaling among low-mass stars with TESS
We employ a Gaussian mixture model, GMM (Section 2.2), to measure the locations of super-Earth and mini-Neptune peaks and the radius valley among GKM type stars ...
[45]
https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/pdf/forth/aa53968-25.pdf
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A primordial radius valley as a consequence of planet formation
The goal of this work is to explore the conditions for forming a primordial radius valley from the first principles of planet formation theory, rather than ...Missing: disk- | Show results with:disk-
[47]
Sculpting the valley in the radius distribution of small exoplanets as ...
Recent work showed that thermal evolution models with photoevaporation can reproduce the observed radius distribution (e.g. Owen & Wu 2017; Van Eylen et al.
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Could super-Earths or mini-Neptunes host life among the stars?
Jun 20, 2024 · In the Solar System, planets with hydrogen-rich atmospheres, such as Saturn, also contain small amounts of ammonia and methane. Sunlight breaks ...Missing: volatiles | Show results with:volatiles
[49]
JWST observations of K2-18b can be explained by a gas-rich ... - arXiv
Jan 20, 2024 · JWST observations of K2-18b can be explained by a gas-rich mini-Neptune with no habitable surface. JWST recently measured the transmission ...
[50]
Potential long-term habitable conditions on planets with primordial H ...
Jun 27, 2022 · Our results indicate that habitable conditions underneath H–He-dominated atmospheres might be long-lasting and prevalent. Planets that retain ...Missing: thick | Show results with:thick
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[2108.10888] Habitability and Biosignatures of Hycean Worlds - arXiv
Aug 24, 2021 · With densities between those of rocky super-Earths and more extended mini-Neptunes, Hycean planets can be optimal candidates in the search for ...
[52]
Building wet planets through high-pressure magma–hydrogen ...
Oct 29, 2025 · If a sub-Neptune undergoes massive gas loss while water is retained because of its high mean molecular mass, it is feasible that the limited ...Missing: retention mini-