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Mugger crocodile

The Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris), also known as the marsh crocodile, is a medium-sized crocodilian species distinguished by its broad snout—the widest among all living members of the genus Crocodylus—and robust body covered in thick, rough scales.^[1] Adult males typically reach lengths of 2.5–3.5 meters and weights of 200–450 kilograms, while females are smaller at up to 2.5 meters and 150–300 kilograms, with exceptional individuals exceeding 4 meters.^[2] Native to freshwater habitats across the Indian subcontinent and southeastern Iran, this species prefers slow-moving rivers, lakes, marshes, ponds, and irrigation canals, though it can tolerate brackish water and even excavate burrows for shelter during dry seasons.^[2] Its geographic range spans India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and parts of Iran, where it plays a key ecological role as an apex predator and ecosystem engineer by maintaining wetland health through foraging and burrow creation.^[3] As an opportunistic carnivore, the Mugger crocodile preys on fish, birds, mammals, and occasionally reptiles or carrion, using ambush tactics in shallow waters; it is generally less aggressive toward humans than other crocodilian species but has been involved in attacks, particularly near human settlements.^[2] Breeding occurs from March to May in most regions, with females laying 25–40 eggs in earthen nests, and hatchlings emerging after a 55–75 day incubation period, facing high mortality from predators and environmental factors.^[4] Classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1982, the global population is estimated at 5,000–10,000 mature individuals as of recent assessments (2024), with significant declines due to habitat loss from agricultural expansion, dams, and urbanization, as well as poaching for skin and meat, pollution, and increasing human-crocodile conflicts.^[5] Conservation efforts, including protected areas in India and Nepal, captive breeding programs, and reintroduction initiatives—such as India's 50-year Crocodile Conservation Project milestone in 2025—have stabilized populations in some regions, but ongoing threats underscore the need for enhanced habitat protection and conflict mitigation strategies.^[1]

Taxonomy and evolution

Taxonomy

The mugger crocodile bears the binomial name Crocodylus palustris, proposed by French naturalist René Primevère Lesson in 1831 based on specimens from the Indian subcontinent.^[6] The type locality was originally designated as the Ganges River basin in India, though early descriptions referenced broader mainland Indian origins.^[6] Historical synonyms include Crocodilus palustris (reflecting orthographic variations in early nomenclature) and Crocodylus palustris indicus, the latter proposed as a potential subspecies for Indian populations but later synonymized due to insufficient differentiation.^[7] Taxonomic revisions in the 20th century clarified its distinction from sympatric species like the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), which was reclassified into a separate genus based on cranial morphology and ecological adaptations, resolving earlier confusions in Asian crocodilian identifications.^[6] Within the family Crocodylidae, C. palustris is placed in the genus Crocodylus and subfamily Crocodylinae, comprising the "true crocodiles" characterized by broad snouts and V-shaped tooth rows.^[6] Phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial DNA and morphological data position it within the Crocodylus clade, with closest living relatives including the saltwater crocodile (C. porosus) and Siamese crocodile (C. siamensis), forming a basal Indopacific assemblage that diverged during the Miocene.^[8] Some studies also highlight affinities with the Nile crocodile (C. niloticus) based on shared osteological traits, though molecular evidence supports a closer tie to Asian congeners.^[9] No subspecies of C. palustris are currently recognized by major taxonomic authorities, despite historical proposals like C. p. indicus for mainland forms and C. p. kimbula for Sri Lankan populations, which were invalidated due to overlapping traits and gene flow.^[6]

Evolution

The evolutionary history of the mugger crocodile, Crocodylus palustris, traces back to the Miocene epoch in Asia, with the genus Crocodylus originating from ancestors in the Indo-Pacific region approximately 9–16 million years ago during the mid-Miocene.^[10] Key fossil evidence includes specimens of Crocodylus sivalensis (a junior synonym of Crocodylus palaeindicus), discovered in the Siwalik Hills of India and Pakistan, dating from the late Miocene to the early middle Pleistocene.^[11] These fossils represent early members of the Crocodylus lineage in South Asia and exhibit morphological similarities to the extant mugger crocodile, suggesting C. palaeindicus as a potential direct ancestor.^[9] Following the Miocene diversification of Crocodylus, the mugger crocodile's lineage underwent adaptive radiation in South Asia, coinciding with tectonic and climatic shifts that facilitated dispersal from Asian origins into freshwater ecosystems.^[12] This radiation involved the evolution of specialized traits for ambush predation, such as the broad, U-shaped snout adapted for capturing prey in shallow, vegetated wetlands, distinguishing it from more slender-snouted relatives.^[11] Phylogenetic analyses based on morphology and the fossil record place C. palustris within a clade of Indopacific Crocodylus species, with the oldest unequivocal fossils of the genus appearing in the late Miocene, aligning with estimates of crown-group divergence around 10–12 million years ago.^[9] Mitochondrial DNA studies support an Asian origin for C. palustris, indicating divergence from African congeners such as Crocodylus niloticus during the late Miocene, with low genetic divergence among living Crocodylus species reflecting a relatively recent radiation.^[13] Evidence from genetic analyses also highlights risks of interspecific hybridization within the genus, particularly in overlapping ranges, which can complicate phylogenetic resolution and pose conservation challenges for C. palustris.^[13] During the Pleistocene, climate-driven cooling and associated habitat shifts led to range contractions for South Asian crocodylians, as evidenced by the disappearance of C. palaeindicus fossils after the early middle Pleistocene, likely restricting ancestral populations to refugia in riverine and wetland systems.^[11] Recent osteological revisions confirm this temporal restriction, underscoring the impact of glacial-interglacial cycles on the lineage's distribution.^[11]

Physical description

Morphology

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) exhibits a distinctive broad, U-shaped snout that is the widest among all extant species in its genus, setting it apart from the narrower, V-shaped snout of related species like the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). This robust cranial structure supports a powerful bite, housing 64–68 conical, sharp teeth specialized for crushing shells and bones of prey. The dorsal surface features prominent osteoderms—bony plates embedded in the skin—that form a heavily armored "mugger" pattern along the back, providing robust protection against predators and environmental hazards.^[1]^[2]^[14] Sexual dimorphism is evident in adults, with males larger overall than females. Coloration varies ontogenetically: juveniles display a yellowish hue with black spots for camouflage in shallow waters, while adults adopt an olive-brown tone that blends with muddy habitats. The body is covered in rough, thick scales, contributing to its armored appearance.^[2]^[15]^[2] Sensory adaptations enhance its semi-aquatic lifestyle, including a palatal valve that seals the throat for underwater breathing and feeding, and integumentary sensory organs (dome pressure receptors) on the snout that detect vibrations and pressure changes in water. Webbed hind feet facilitate efficient swimming, while the eyes and nostrils positioned atop the head allow for stealthy surveillance. Internally, like other crocodilians, it possesses dual aortic arches that enable physiological shunting of blood during dives, optimizing oxygen delivery to vital organs.^[2]^[16]

Size and growth

Adult males of the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) typically attain lengths of 2.5–3.5 m, with an average of 2.8 m, though exceptional individuals reach up to 4 m.^[2] Females are smaller, measuring up to 2.5 m in total length.^[2] The maximum recorded length is 4.6 m from historical accounts, but this may be exaggerated, as most reliable observations confirm a maximum of 4–5 m.^[1] Adult males generally weigh 200–450 kg, while females weigh 150–300 kg, with larger specimens exceeding 450 kg and reaching up to 700 kg.^[2] Growth slows significantly after 6–8 years, as the species approaches maturity.^[17] Hatchlings emerge at 25–30 cm in length and 70–100 g in weight.^[17] Early growth is rapid, with individuals increasing by 20–30 cm per year during the first 5 years, heavily influenced by food availability and environmental conditions.^[17] For instance, hatchlings can grow to 1 m by the end of their first year under favorable circumstances.^[17] In the wild, mugger crocodiles have a lifespan of up to approximately 30 years, while those in captivity often live longer, up to 44 years or more.^[7]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is native to the Indian subcontinent, where it occurs in India across numerous rivers and lakes, Pakistan primarily along the Indus River system, southern Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.^[3] Isolated populations persist in southeastern Iran, particularly in the Sistan-Baluchestan province near the Makran coast, and in Pakistan's Balochistan region along rivers such as the Hingol, Dasht, and Hab.^[5]^[3] Historically, the species' range extended further, including eastern Afghanistan and possibly western Myanmar, but it has been extirpated from Bhutan and is considered regionally extinct in Bangladesh since 2000, though recent sightings and captures as of 2023 suggest possible surviving individuals or vagrants.^[1]^[18] Fossil records indicate past presence in parts of southern China, though no viable populations remain there today.^[19] The current global population is estimated at around 10,000–12,000 individuals as of 2025, with ongoing increases in some regions due to conservation efforts; the majority is concentrated in India, where key strongholds include the Chambal River (approximately 900 individuals as of 2024) and the Rann of Kutch region (around 400 individuals as of 2022).^[20]^[21]^[22] In Pakistan, populations number around 700–1,000 as of 2024, mainly in Sindh and Balochistan, while Nepal supports 400–500 individuals as of 2022 and Sri Lanka 2,400–3,500 as of 2013 with stable trends.^[23]^[24]^[5] Iran's population is stable at 100–200 individuals.^[5] Conservation efforts in Pakistan include ongoing habitat restoration in the Indus River basin, including monitoring in the Nara Canal. Climate change is driving gradual southward shifts in some distributions, such as increased sightings in southern Sri Lankan wetlands due to altered flooding patterns and temperature rises.^[25]^[26]^[27]

Habitat preferences

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) primarily inhabits freshwater environments across South Asia, favoring slow-moving rivers, lakes, marshes, and man-made water bodies such as reservoirs and irrigation canals.^[1] These habitats provide the shallow, still waters preferred for thermoregulation and hunting, while the species generally avoids fast-flowing currents that could disrupt its ambush strategy.^[1] Although it shows some tolerance for brackish conditions, including coastal lagoons and estuaries, it largely shuns fully saline marine environments.^[1] Within these aquatic systems, muggers select specific microhabitats to meet their physiological and reproductive needs, such as deep pools for basking and ambushing prey, and vegetated or sandy banks for nesting and burrowing.^[1] Nesting sites are typically chosen on gently sloping areas with sand, clay, or grass cover, often 20 meters from the water's edge, to ensure suitable incubation conditions and protection from floods.^[28] The species occupies elevations up to approximately 450 meters in riverine and wetland systems, where ambient temperatures between 20°C and 35°C support active foraging and basking, though individuals retreat to burrows during extremes below 5°C or above 38°C.^[1] During dry seasons, mugger crocodiles exhibit seasonal movements, often trekking long distances overland—sometimes many kilometers—to reach permanent water sources or deeper pools, demonstrating adaptability to fluctuating water levels in semi-arid regions.^[1] They readily utilize human-modified wetlands, such as reservoirs created by dams, which can serve as refuges but also introduce challenges.^[1] Recent studies highlight a preference for undisturbed riparian zones, with habitat fragmentation from dams in India and Nepal reducing access to these optimal areas and increasing physiological stress in altered environments.^[28]^[1]

Behavior

Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) display a bimodal activity pattern influenced by temperature and season, combining diurnal basking for thermoregulation with predominantly nocturnal foraging during hot periods to minimize heat stress and predation risk. In cooler months, they aggregate at basking sites along riverbanks or sandbars, often in groups of varying sizes to share warmth, while shifting to more solitary nocturnal movements in summer. This diel cycle supports energy conservation in their subtropical habitats, where daytime temperatures can exceed 40°C.^[29] Socially, mugger crocodiles are largely solitary outside of breeding periods, maintaining loose dominance hierarchies in high-density populations based on body size and age, with larger individuals displacing smaller ones from preferred sites. Adult males actively defend linear territories along rivers or wetlands, typically spanning 1-2 km stretches, using displays such as open-mouth threats and body posturing to deter intruders. Communication occurs through a repertoire of vocalizations, including defensive hisses for close-range warnings and deep bellows that propagate over distances up to several hundred meters to signal territory or attract mates. In winter, non-breeding aggregations form at communal basking areas, fostering temporary social tolerance without strict hierarchies.^[30]^[31]^[32] Movement patterns reflect their semi-aquatic lifestyle, with capable swimmers reaching bursts of 15-20 km/h using powerful tail propulsion, while cruising at 1-2 km/h for efficient patrolling. Overland travel occurs during dry seasons or monsoons for dispersal, covering distances up to several kilometers between water bodies, though typical walks are shorter at 500 m or less to conserve energy. A 2024 genetic study in the Chambal Sanctuary indicates limited dispersal and philopatry among mugger crocodiles, suggesting site fidelity that may imply loose social associations in select populations, contrasting the species' general solitary nature.^[33]^[34]^[35]

Foraging and diet

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is primarily an ambush predator, employing stealthy tactics to capture prey by lying motionless in shallow water or along riverbanks, often covered by vegetation, before launching sudden lunges at approaching animals. Once seized, it uses powerful jaws to clamp down and performs a "death roll"—rapid, twisting rotations in the water—to disorient, tear apart, and drown larger prey, facilitating consumption.^[36] This opportunistic feeding strategy allows it to exploit a wide range of habitats, from rivers to marshes, targeting prey that comes to water sources for drinking or foraging.^[37] The diet of the mugger crocodile is carnivorous and varied, dominated by fish, which comprise 30–41% of its intake across seasons based on scat analysis in Gujarat, India.^[38] Other major components include mammals (23–28%, such as deer, monkeys, and domestic buffalo), birds (11–27%, including waterfowl and owls), and reptiles (6–13%, like snakes and turtles), with occasional scavenging of carrion.^[38] Juveniles focus on smaller invertebrates and vertebrates, primarily insects, crustaceans, amphibians, and small fish, transitioning to larger prey as they grow.^[39] Adults can tackle vertebrates up to 50 kg, such as chital deer (Axis axis), using ambush tactics at watering holes, and occasional cannibalism has been documented, particularly among adults preying on juveniles during resource scarcity.^[40]^[37] Dietary composition exhibits seasonal shifts tied to environmental changes and prey availability; during monsoons, aquatic prey like fish (31%) and birds (20%) increase due to flooding, while in dry seasons, terrestrial mammals (28%) become more prominent as animals congregate at shrinking water bodies.^[38] Near human settlements, muggers opportunistically incorporate anthropogenic food sources, including livestock and discarded waste, contributing to higher conflict rates, as evidenced by scat containing domestic animal remains and interactions with garbage in Gujarat.^[38]^[41]

Reproduction and development

Mating and nesting

The breeding season of the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) varies by region, occurring from November to June in southern India and approximately one month later in northern populations, aligning with the dry season when water levels are lower.^[42] In tropical or southern ranges, breeding can extend more continuously, though peak activity remains seasonal. Courtship involves a series of displays to attract mates, including the male adopting a "head-out-tail-arch" posture, performing jaw claps (similar to head slaps), producing bubbles in water, and engaging in vocalizations such as grunts or bellows, often in duets with the female.^[43]^[44] These behaviors, lasting 30-40 minutes, may include the male circling the female, snout touching, and body rubbing, signaling receptivity before mating.^[45] Nesting typically occurs in late dry season, with females selecting sites near water bodies on sandy or clay substrates. The mugger is primarily a hole-nesting species, where the female excavates a flask-shaped chamber 50-100 cm deep using her hind legs, though some populations construct low mounds (up to 45-75 cm high) incorporating vegetation and sand for added structure.^[1]^[46] Clutch sizes range from 20-40 eggs, averaging 25-30, laid in a single layer within the nest chamber, which is then covered with soil or debris for camouflage and protection.^[42]^[47] Eggs incubate for 55-75 days, with optimal temperatures between 30-34°C; development is temperature-dependent, where lower nest temperatures (28-31°C) produce exclusively females, transitional ranges (31.5-33°C) yield mixed sexes, and higher temperatures (above 32.5°C) result in predominantly males.^[48]^[2] Overall wild clutch success rates, accounting for predation and environmental factors, range from 50-70%, with sex ratios skewed toward females (approximately 1 male:3 females) across multiple seasons due to cooler nest microclimates.^[48] Recent studies from 2023-2024 highlight how rising temperatures and wetland vegetation shifts influence nest site selection, with females increasingly choosing shaded or vegetated areas to moderate microclimates and mitigate male-biased sex ratios from warmer conditions.^[49] These adaptations may help buffer against climate-driven changes, though prolonged warming could still skew population demographics.^[50]

Growth and parental care

Hatchlings of the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) emerge synchronously after an incubation period of 55–75 days, a process facilitated by the female's manipulation of eggs to synchronize development.^[51] Upon hatching, the young measure approximately 25–30 cm in total length and weigh around 70–90 g, enabling them to vocalize with distress calls that prompt the mother to excavate the nest.^[52] This synchronous emergence, typically occurring during the monsoon season, reduces individual vulnerability to predators by allowing collective movement to water bodies. The female provides intensive parental care immediately post-hatching, gently transporting the hatchlings to nearby water in her mouth to avoid injury and ensure safe relocation from the nest site.^[51] She defends the group against predators, including monitor lizards, birds of prey, and conspecifics, by aggressive displays and physical intervention, guarding them for 1–2 months in the initial nursery areas.^[1] Alloparenting is uncommon but documented in social aggregations, where subadult or non-parental adults occasionally contribute to vigilance and protection, enhancing group cohesion.^[51] During the juvenile phase, survival rates are low, with high mortality in the first year primarily due to predation by larger reptiles, mammals, and avian species, as well as starvation from limited foraging success.^[53] Juveniles remain in familial or creche groups, relying on parental proximity for safety until dispersal at 1–2 years of age, when they establish independent territories. Recent radio-tracking data from Sri Lanka indicate that in fragmented habitats, parental care may extend up to 6 months, potentially improving juvenile retention in altered landscapes.^[54]

Ecology

Interactions with other species

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) occupies a key position in South Asian freshwater ecosystems as both a predator and prey species, influencing trophic dynamics through its interactions with sympatric fauna. Its diet encompasses a broad range of prey, including fish such as mahseer (Tor spp.), which form a staple in riverine habitats, waterfowl like ducks and herons during foraging ambushes near water edges, and ungulates such as spotted deer (Axis axis) that venture to drink at water bodies.^[55]^[56] Juveniles and hatchlings face significant predation pressure from large carnivores such as big cats, which target them along riverbanks, as well as birds of prey such as eagles that snatch smaller individuals from nests or shallow waters.^[57] In contrast, adult muggers, reaching lengths over 3 meters, function as apex predators within wetlands, exerting top-down control on prey populations with minimal natural threats beyond occasional intraspecific aggression.^[58] In shared habitats, mugger crocodiles engage in resource competition with other aquatic predators, particularly for fish prey with gharials (Gavialis gangeticus), where spatial partitioning—gharials favoring deeper channels and muggers shallower pools—helps mitigate direct overlap.^[59] Similarly, competition occurs with smooth-coated otters (Lutrogale perspicillata) for crustaceans and smaller fish in overlapping riverine zones, though studies indicate limited aggressive encounters due to the otters' group foraging strategies deterring solitary mugger attacks.^[60] Mugger crocodiles contribute to ecosystem engineering by excavating wallows and burrows in mudflats and banks, which retain water during dry seasons and serve as refuges for fish, amphibians, and invertebrates, thereby supporting local biodiversity.^[61] As apex regulators, they indirectly enhance habitat heterogeneity through prey population control, preventing overgrazing by ungulates and maintaining aquatic vegetation balance, which benefits herbivorous and insectivorous species in the food web.^[61] Recent community ecology research in Gir National Park highlights spatial overlap between muggers and Asiatic lions (Panthera leo leo), with documented conflicts including lions predating on juvenile crocodiles near dams, underscoring the dynamic predator-prey tensions in semi-arid wetlands.^[57]

Tool use

Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) exhibit notable instances of tool use, particularly in hunting strategies that demonstrate cognitive sophistication among reptiles. One well-documented behavior involves balancing small sticks or twigs on their snouts to lure nesting birds during the breeding season. This tactic exploits birds seeking nesting materials, drawing them within striking range for an ambush attack. The behavior was first observed in 2007 and formally reported in 2013 from field studies in Gujarat, India, where mugger crocodiles selectively displayed sticks near waterbird colonies during peak nesting periods in spring.^[62] Beyond active luring, mugger crocodiles incorporate vegetation into nest construction, which provides shade and protection for eggs from environmental threats. Females build mound nests using a combination of soil, sand, and nearby plant material, such as grasses and reeds, often sited in vegetated areas to benefit from cover. Observations from conservation assessments in India and Iran confirm that such nests are typically located in areas with thick vegetation.^[17] These behaviors suggest advanced cognitive capabilities in mugger crocodiles, comparable to those observed in American alligators, including foresight and environmental awareness. The stick-luring strategy, in particular, aligns with an evolutionary adaptation for ambush predation, allowing these reptiles to exploit temporal ecological opportunities without expending excess energy. Such tool use underscores a level of behavioral complexity previously underestimated in crocodylians, positioning them as models for studying reptilian intelligence.^[63]

Conservation

Threats

The mugger crocodile faces significant threats from habitat loss, primarily driven by human activities such as the construction of dams, expansion of agriculture, and urbanization, which have fragmented and degraded essential wetland ecosystems across its range. In India, where the species is most abundant, wetlands have declined by approximately 50% since the mid-20th century due to these pressures, severely limiting available breeding and foraging areas.^[64] Damming projects alter river flows and inundate nesting sites, while agricultural conversion and urban sprawl replace marshlands with croplands and settlements, reducing the connectivity of remaining habitats.^[65] Pollution exacerbates habitat degradation, with agricultural pesticides and industrial effluents contaminating water bodies and bioaccumulating in the food chain, leading to physiological stress and impaired reproduction in mugger crocodiles. Recent studies indicate that exposure to such contaminants elevates stress hormones, potentially disrupting nesting success and juvenile survival in disturbed environments.^[66]^[67] Although direct hunting and poaching for skins and meat have decreased due to legal protections under CITES Appendix I and national wildlife laws, illegal activities persist in some regions, contributing to localized population declines. Incidental capture in fishing gear, such as nets and traps, also results in drownings and injuries, particularly in rivers and reservoirs where muggers overlap with human fishing activities.^[19]^[68] Human-crocodile conflict poses a growing danger, with muggers preying on livestock and occasionally attacking humans near water bodies, prompting retaliatory killings that further threaten populations. In India, such conflicts have been documented in dozens of incidents annually, often in agricultural areas bordering habitats, leading to the loss of adult individuals and heightened persecution.^[69]^[3] Climate change intensifies these anthropogenic threats by exacerbating droughts and altering precipitation patterns, which reduce water availability in wetlands and contract suitable habitats for the species. Projections based on 2024 modeling suggest that suitable habitat could diminish by up to 20% by 2050 in key regions like the Indian subcontinent, compounded by rising temperatures that affect prey distribution and nesting conditions.^[70]^[3]

Status and efforts

The mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, a designation it has held since 1982 due to ongoing habitat loss and human-crocodile conflict. The global population is estimated at over 10,000 individuals as of 2024, though the number of mature individuals was approximately 5,700–8,700 according to the 2014 IUCN assessment, with the largest concentrations in India, where numbers have increased from fewer than 2,000 in the 1970s to around 9,000–10,000 wild individuals as of 2025, reflecting successful recovery efforts.^[34]^[71] In 2025, India marked the 50th anniversary of its Crocodile Conservation Project, which has contributed to the rebound of the mugger population. In Iran, the population remains small at 100–200 individuals but has stabilized through targeted protections, while smaller fragmented groups persist in Pakistan and Nepal.^[5]^[72] Key protected areas support remnant populations, including India's National Chambal Sanctuary, which harbors a significant breeding population along the Chambal River, and Iran's Bahukalat Protected Area in Sistan and Baluchestan Province, designated specifically for the species.^[35] Legally, the mugger crocodile is afforded stringent protections under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which bans commercial international trade, and under Schedule I of India's Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, granting it the highest domestic safeguards against hunting and trade.^[17]^[19] Conservation initiatives emphasize captive breeding, headstarting, and reintroduction to augment wild populations. The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust in India has been pivotal, breeding thousands of muggers since 1976 and releasing juveniles into protected habitats with notable survival rates through headstarting techniques that raise hatchlings to reduce predation risks.^[73]^[1] In Pakistan, ongoing reintroduction efforts from captive sources aim to restore populations in rivers like the Indus and Hingol, including releases of headstarted juveniles to suitable wetlands.^[74] Recent advancements in Nepal incorporate community-based monitoring, enhanced by drone surveys in Chitwan National Park, to track population dynamics and nesting sites while engaging local communities in habitat stewardship.^[75]^[76]

Cultural significance

In human culture

In Hindu mythology, the mugger crocodile is linked to the mythical creature known as the Makara, a composite being often depicted with crocodile-like features that serves as the vahana (vehicle) of Varuna, the god of waters and the cosmic ocean.^[77] This association underscores the reptile's symbolic role in representing aquatic realms and divine protection in ancient texts and iconography.^[78] In Pakistani folklore, mugger crocodiles hold sacred status at sites like the Manghopir shrine in Karachi, where they are revered as spiritual descendants of the Sufi saint Mangho Pir and fed offerings by devotees seeking blessings and healing from the site's sulfur springs.^[79] This veneration contrasts with historical fears but highlights the crocodile's integration into local spiritual practices. Archaeological evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization includes depictions of crocodiles on seals and artifacts, which scholars interpret as representations of native species such as the gharial, reflecting the prominence of crocodilians in early South Asian riverine cultures.^[80] Historically, across India and Pakistan, mugger crocodiles were hunted for their durable skins used in traditional leather goods and their meat incorporated into tribal diets, contributing to population declines before conservation bans in the 1970s.^[81]^[46] In contemporary media, the mugger crocodile features prominently in documentaries such as BBC's Planet Earth III (2023), which captures its ambush hunting behaviors in Sri Lankan watering holes, raising global awareness of its ecological role.^[82] It also serves as a symbol in Indian conservation initiatives, including annual population surveys and community events like the Charotar Crocodile Count in Gujarat, which engage locals in habitat protection efforts.^[83] Recent ethnographic research in 2024 documents indigenous rituals in Goa's Ponda region, India, such as the Maange Thapnee ceremony performed by Khazan farmers along the Zuari River, where offerings are made to mugger crocodiles inhabiting local water bodies to ensure crop prosperity and foster human-reptile coexistence.^[84]

Etymology

The common name "mugger" for the crocodile derives from the Hindi and Urdu word magar, which translates to "water monster," reflecting its fearsome reputation in local folklore as a formidable aquatic predator.^[85] This term entered English usage in the 19th century through colonial accounts of Indian wildlife, where it was anglicized to "mugger" to describe the species' broad-snouted appearance and habitat in rivers and marshes. An alternative English name, "marsh crocodile," emphasizes its preference for wetland environments rather than the monstrous connotation.^[85] The scientific binomial Crocodylus palustris was formally proposed by French naturalist René Primevère Lesson in 1831, based on specimens from the Gangetic plains of India. The genus name Crocodylus originates from the Ancient Greek krokodeilos, a compound of krokē (meaning "pebble" or "shingle," alluding to the scaly skin) and deilos (meaning "worm" or "lizard"), originally used in reference to the Nile crocodile as "the lizard of the river" in classical texts.^[86] The specific epithet palustris comes from the Latin adjective meaning "marshy" or "swamp-dwelling," aptly describing the species' affinity for palustrine habitats across South Asia. In regional languages of its range, the mugger crocodile bears names tied to its watery domains, such as Geta kimbula in Sinhala (Sri Lanka)^[87] and mosali in Telugu (southern India)^[88], both evoking its lurking presence in ponds and streams. Historically, early European naturalists in the 18th century sometimes misidentified it as the "Ganges crocodile" in travelogues and zoological descriptions, conflating it with the more slender gharial due to shared riverine habitats in the Indian subcontinent.^[85]

References

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[PDF] Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris
The Mugger is a medium-sized crocodile (maximum length 4-5 m), and has the broadest snout of any living member of the genus Crocodylus.
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Crocodylus palustris - Mugger crocodile - Animal Diversity Web
Habitat. The mugger crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris ) is most commonly found in freshwater environments such as rivers, lakes, hill streams, and village ponds.
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Crocodylus palustris is distributed throughout India, Sri Lanka, southern Pakistan, southern Nepal and southeastern Iran [1]. The area of occurrence has ...
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Sep 13, 2013 · The mean total length and weight for 19 hatchlings was 30.47 cm (29.2–33.9 cm) and 84.3 g (66.2 to 90.3 g) respectively. Based on the number of ...
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The species is listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red Data Book (IUCN, 2020) and Appendix I of Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES).
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Common Names, E: Mugger crocodile, Swamp crocodile, Marsh crocodile. G: Sumpfkrokodil ; Synonym, Crocodilus palustris LESSON 1831: 121. Crocodilus vulgarts var.
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Species: Crocodylus palustris ; Common name: Mugger, or Marsh crocodile ; Synonyms: Crocodylus palustris palustris, Crocodylus palustris kimbula, Crocodilus ...Missing: binomial | Show results with:binomial
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Apr 1, 2011 · palustris (mugger crocodile) exemplars, and this clade was the sister group to the C. porosus group. The com- bined group that included all ...Missing: relatives | Show results with:relatives
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Aug 1, 2000 · The Indian Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) is closely related to the Indopacific assemblage. Most fossils assigned to Crocodylus do not belong to ...
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[PDF] Living Crocodylians of the World (2024) - Crocodile Specialist Group
Oct 1, 2025 · 7. Deraniyagala (1936) described the Crocodylus palustris of Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) as a separate subspecies from that of the Indian Mugger.Missing: closest | Show results with:closest
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Population status and genetic assessment of mugger (Crocodylus ...
Mar 28, 2024 · We observed a moderate level of genetic diversity in the mugger, which was relatively higher compared to the gharial in the Sanctuary. The rapid ...
[12]
Role of Chromosome Changes in Crocodylus Evolution and Diversity
The role of chromosomal rearrangement led us to understand the evolutionary history of crocodilians to sauropsids and within the crocodilian lineage.Missing: subspecies | Show results with:subspecies
[13]
Osteology of Crocodylus palaeindicus from the late Miocene ...
We present a detailed anatomical description of the extinct species Crocodylus palaeindicus, which we restrict to the late Miocene to early middle Pleistocene ...
[14]
A TIME‐CALIBRATED SPECIES TREE OF CROCODYLIA ...
Jun 3, 2011 · Rather, Crocodylus originated from an ancestor in the tropics of the Late Miocene Indo-Pacific, and rapidly radiated and dispersed around the ...
[15]
A phylogenetic hypothesis for Crocodylus (Crocodylia) based on ...
The phylogenetic relationships among extant species of Crocodylus (Crocodylia) have been inconsistently resolved by previous systematic studies.
[16]
Mugger Crocodile - Aquatic Community
Mugger Crocodile size and appearance. On average, male Mugger crocodiles attain a length of 10 feet (3 metres) while the average female is 7.4 feet (2.45 metres) ...
[17]
Mugger Crocodile - Our Breathing Planet
Mugger Crocodile Facts. This impressive reptile most often goes by the somewhat ... Mugger Crocodile, Crocodylus ...
[18]
Genome analysis and signature discovery for diving and sensory ...
Aug 6, 2013 · Comparisons of the DMRT1 genes of the Chinese alligator, chicken, and Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) revealed large discrepancies in ...
[19]
Role of the left aortic arch and blood flows in embryonic American ...
These data suggest the four-chambered crocodilian heart and dual aortic arch system are plesiomorphic characters that have not been selected against. Electronic ...
[20]
Investigating reproductive biology of female mugger crocodiles ...
Oct 7, 2025 · Using an ultrasound device to take images of the reproductive structures of adult females, we observed individuals with vitellogenic ...
[21]
[PDF] Sustainable Management and conservation of the Mugger Crocodile ...
Estuarine crocodiles have the widest distribution (India to. Vanuatu), although the Nile crocodiles cover the greatest area (most of Africa and. Madagascar).
[22]
[PDF] Mugger (Crocodylus palustris) - IUCN Red List
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™. Mugger (Crocodylus palustris). Country. Min. Population. Size. Max. Population. Size. Population Trend. India. 3,021.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Conserving the Indian Mugger Crocodile - Wiley Online Library
Sep 28, 2025 · It is currently distributed in India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, while it is possibly extinct in Bangladesh and extinct in Bhutan and ...
[24]
(PDF) Conservation status of the mugger (Crocodylus palustris)
Oct 16, 2021 · Mugger crocodile is a freshwater crocodilian species that lives in diverse habitats, ranging from semi-arid deserts to ponds and lakes in ...
[25]
Conservation Status - Crocodiles Of The World
IUCN Red List Status of the living crocdilians ; Mugger crocodile, marsh crocodile, or Indian crocodile, Crocodylus palustris, Vulnerable ; Saltwater crocodile or ...
[26]
Here, There, Everywhere: The Muggers of Chambal
Mar 3, 2025 · Around 928 muggers were recorded in the Chambal in 2024, a significant rise from the 19 recorded in 1984. According to a study published in ...Missing: core Rann Kutch
[27]
Ongoing Assessment of Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris ...
Feb 15, 2022 · The population of mugger crocodiles in Kutch is approximately 408 individuals within a desert ecosystem, having a mixed habitat of rivers, ponds ...Missing: core Rann
[28]
population estimate for mugger crocodiles (crocodylus palustris) in ...
The total mugger population was predicted to be between 400 and 500 individuals in Nepal (Baral and Shah 2013). However, according to the latest published ...
[29]
[PDF] (15 April 2024) South Asia and Iran - Crocodile Specialist Group
Apr 15, 2024 · Iran and India as strongholds for the Mugger Crocodile. (Crocodylus palustris). This puts more importance for more serious attention on the ...
[30]
As Sri Lanka floods swell with climate change, so does human ...
Jan 5, 2024 · The mugger crocodile, too, tends to end up in human settlements, as it has the habit of moving around when its water holes are drying out, ...Missing: induced | Show results with:induced
[31]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325157900_Crocodilia_Communication
[32]
Factors influencing the habitat selection of Mugger crocodile ...
The highest percentage of muggers (39.1%) was observed on the sandy river bank, followed by the grass and forest bank (19.5%), and clay and sandy bank (15.1%), ...
[33]
Hussain, S.A. (2013). Activity Pattern, Behavioural Activity and ...
This paper describes the activity pattern, behavioural activities and its interaction with crocodilians along the Chambal River in National Chambal Sanctuary, ...
[34]
(PDF) Body temperature and basking behaviour of Nile crocodiles ...
... Crocodylus palustris), also. use burrows as refugia during periods of temperature. extreme (Ross et al., 1989). Cott (1975) concluded that. crocodilian ...
[35]
Mugger Crocodile - "OCEAN TREASURES" Memorial Library
The eye is protected by a clear third eyelid for underwater vision and the windpipe can be covered with a flap of skin to allow the Mugger Crocodile to attack ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
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(PDF) Crocodilia Communication - ResearchGate
Recent opportunistic observations of hunting and parental care show that crocodilians, especially mugger crocodiles, have spectacular multifaceted behaviors. ..
[37]
Marsh Crocodile: Habitat-Adapted Reptile, Behavior & Conservation
May 9, 2025 · Marsh crocodiles inhabit the Indian subcontinent, flourishing across India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Bangladesh. They thrive in Gujarat's ...
[38]
MUGGER CROCODILES: CHARACTERISTICS, BEHAVIOR AND ...
MUGGER CROCODILES. mugger crocodile sunning itself. Mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) are also called Indian, Indus, Persian, and ...
[39]
Mugger - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio
The Mugger crocodile has the broadest snout among living crocodiles. It has ... This animal's scientific name of 'Crocodylus palustris' has the meaning “crocodile ...
[40]
The 'death roll' hunting behavior of crocodiles. - ResearchGate
In this study, we assessed the population size, occupancy, and spatial interactions of gharials and muggers in the Eastern Rapti River and its tributaries ...<|separator|>
[41]
Notes on Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson, 1831 ...
Dec 6, 2016 · Notes on Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson, 1831) hunting on Axis axis in Bardia National Park, Nepal. October 2015. Authors:.Missing: locality | Show results with:locality
[42]
[PDF] Determination of prey base and prey preference of marsh crocodile ...
Crocodiles feed majorly on fish, amphibians, mammals, reptiles and birds14. However, very little attention has been given on the foraging behavior of the marsh ...
[43]
[PDF] Reintroduction of the Mugger Crocodile, Crocodylus palustris, in India
Like other crocodilians, this species is known to dig burrows and nest in holes. Females generally lay on average of twenty five to thirty eggs once a year. The ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
(PDF) Cannibalism by a Mugger Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) in ...
Oct 4, 2023 · It is defined as the Cannibals feeding or preying upon their conspecifics. Cannibalism can be attributed to stress related to resources, ...
[45]
[PDF] CROCODILE SPECIALIST GROUP NEWSLETTER
MUGGER CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS). INTERACTIONS WITH DISCARDED RUBBISH IN. CENTRAL GUJARAT, INDIA. The management of solid waste garbage, especially ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Noteworthy observations on food and feeding behaviors of mugger ...
Aug 5, 2024 · Noteworthy observations on food and feeding behaviors of mugger crocodiles ... research from leading experts in Crocodile and many other ...
[47]
[PDF] reproductive biology of the mugger (crocodylus palustris)
mugger breeding behaviour. An account of captive breeding behaviour was made by. Whitaker and Whitaker (1977 ...
[48]
Investigating reproductive biology of female mugger crocodiles ...
Oct 3, 2025 · The study revealed a fixed behavioural mating repertoire for the mugger crocodiles, including 13 behaviours having a sequential progression, ...
[49]
Social Signals and Behaviors of Adult Alligators and Crocodiles
... mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) by using behaviour and endocrine ... All crocodilians use long-distance signals, composed of vocal sounds, head slaps or ...
[50]
(PDF) Monitoring a Breeding Mugger (Crocodylus palustris ...
Jan 23, 2020 · Observations recorded in this note include courtship, mating and nesting activities, along with long distance (178 meters) hatchling ...
[51]
(PDF) STATUS OF MUGGER CROCODILE (Crocodylus palustries ...
The Rapti River is regarded as suitable habitat for muggers, as it is characterized by deep waterholes, large sandy and muddy islands for basking.
[52]
[PDF] CAG_RCP_2012 - Crocodilian Advisory Group
Apr 3, 2013 · MUGGER CROCODILE, CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS ... Females build mound nests, and clutch size is typically 20 - 30 eggs. It has been bred at ...
[53]
https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1157&context=honorstheses
[54]
(PDF) Wetland Vegetation Shifts and Their Role in Modulating ...
Oct 25, 2025 · This study investigated how these vegetation transitions influence nest micro-climates during two consecutive breeding seasons (2023–2024).
[55]
[PDF] Effects of Climatic Factors on Crocodilians in North India
Aug 28, 2025 · Therefore, increasing mean and extreme temperatures during nesting seasons may bias sex ratios. 3.2 River flow, nesting beaches and habitat.
[56]
(PDF) Male parental care in mugger crocodiles. - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Male parental care in crocodilians varies in response to specific features of a species' organisation, mating system, and pattern of reproduction.
[57]
(PDF) Reproductive biology of the Mugger Crocodile, Crocodylus ...
Sep 13, 2013 · The breeding season in Iran starts in March with mating, followed by nesting in May and hatching in July (Mobaraki 2015; Mobaraki et al. 2013) .Missing: mound | Show results with:mound
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[PDF] Ileisy Lobaina - Digital Commons @ USF - University of South Florida
Like any of the other Crocodilian species, temperature determines the sex of the offspring. Eggs hatched at 34 °C or more become males while those hatched at 30 ...<|separator|>
[59]
(PDF) Current State of Mugger Populations - ResearchGate
Feb 11, 2024 · We believe this work can be used as a basis to understand the current state and challenges faced by muggers today. Abstract The mugger ( ...
[60]
Predation by Mugger Crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) on Spotted ...
May 29, 2023 · Mugger Crocodiles preying on Spotted Deer in the Cauvery River represents an unusual and intriguing phenomenon in predator-prey interactions.
[61]
Mugger Crocodile Crocodylus palustris (Lesson, 1831) predation on ...
Jun 26, 2024 · In the present study, the first observation of Mugger Crocodile predation on an owl, specifically the Brown Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis, is reported.
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World Crocodile Day: How crocodilians square off against big cats
Jun 17, 2021 · Previously, there have been cases where predators devoured young muggers or eggs, thus including hatchlings, juveniles and large adults too.
[63]
Status, distribution and habitat use by Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus ...
Aug 17, 2022 · Status, distribution and habitat use by Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) in and around Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Divya ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
Gharials and mugger crocodiles coexist by separating resources
Apr 29, 2019 · Gharials and mugger crocodiles are found living in overlapping habitats. · Researchers found that gharials preferred basking on mid-river islands ...
[65]
The Role of Predation in Shaping Crocodilian Natural History
Dec 1, 2013 · In Caiman crocodilus, Crocodylus palustris, C. niloticus, C. novaeguinae, and O. tetraspis, adult males have been recorded opening the nest and ...
[66]
The ecological importance of crocodylians: towards evidence‐based ...
Mar 10, 2020 · The ecological importance of crocodylians within four broad categories: Apex predators/Keystone species, Ecosystem engineers, Cross-ecosystem linkages and ...
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(PDF) Crocodylia Cognition - ResearchGate
Oct 20, 2023 · ... mugger crocodiles. (Crocodylus palustris) supposedly display sticks ... issues like unrealistic alligator densities and food provisioning.
[68]
Study finds crocodiles are sophisticated hunters - Phys.org
Oct 13, 2014 · Recent studies have found that crocodiles and their relatives are highly intelligent animals capable of sophisticated behavior such as advanced parental care.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Status of wetlands in India: A review of extent, ecosystem benefits ...
Reasons for wetlands loss in India are urbanization, land use changes and pollution. ... More than 50% of specific types of wetlands in parts of North ...
[70]
Mugger crocodiles may be physiologically stressed in disturbed ...
Aug 12, 2024 · New research in India reveals that mugger crocodiles in Vadodara, with high human-mugger conflict, exhibit chronic stress levels which could be harmful for the ...
[71]
Monitoring the stress physiology of free-ranging mugger crocodiles ...
Jun 5, 2024 · However, to validate the chosen assay for our target species, the mugger crocodiles, we conducted a study on a captive population of muggers in ...Missing: shifts southward
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Human-Crocodile Conflict - iucncsg.org
incidental capture in fishing gear and the resulting ... Status, Distribution and Conservation of Mugger Crocodiles in Charotar, Gujarat, India.
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Review and analysis of human and Mugger Crocodile conflict in ...
Dec 26, 2017 · A total of 64 HCC incidents were recorded within a 54-year span, an average of 1.18 crocodile attacks per year in the state. This seems ...Missing: 50-100 | Show results with:50-100
[74]
Crocodile Chronicles: Climate Change Threatens the Mighty ...
Jul 14, 2023 · Climate change and environmental degradation pose significant challenges to the Mugger crocodile population and its habitat.
[75]
[PDF] CROCODILE SPECIALIST GROUP NEWSLETTER
Jul 1, 2025 · A generalised linear model under binary logistic regression was used to analyse the factors influencing the habitat characteristics of Muggers.
[76]
The Madras Crocodile Bank Trust & Centre for Herpetology
The Croc Bank now successfully breeds several species of threatened ... Mugger or Marsh Crocodile. img. Komodo Dragon · img. Aldabra Giant Tortoise · img.Birds At Croc Bank · At Croc Bank: Ex-Situ · Gallery · Visit Us
[77]
Current State of Mugger Populations - MDPI
Crocodylus palustris previously inhabited the Jaffna peninsula, where it no longer occurs. ... The elevation on the Deccan Peninsula is between 300 to 750 masl.
[78]
Eyes in the sky: Drone monitoring of the largest gharial and mugger ...
An experienced image analyst identified and counted 323 crocodiles (205 gharials and 118 muggers) from the images. The encounter rates were 14.33 gharials and ...
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https://www.dw.com/en/pakistan-the-holy-crocodiles-of-the-manghopir-shrine/video-63497460
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Indian Crocodile – ecoheritage.cpreec.org
Scientific Name: Crocodylus palustris. ; Common Name: Indian Crocodile, Muggermach (Hindi), Mudhalai (Tamil), Makara (Sanskrit) ; Distribution: Throughout India
[81]
Pakistan: The 'holy' crocodiles of the Manghopir shrine - DW
Oct 19, 2022 · Some locals believe the animals are the disciples of Saint Mangho, or Manghopir, and the hot sulfur springs at the shrine have healing powers.Missing: folklore | Show results with:folklore
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Crocodiles: The Magar Much and The Gharial - Harappa
Sep 14, 2016 · The mugger crocodile is mainly a freshwater species, found in lakes, rivers and marshes. Muggers prefer slow-moving, shallower bodies of water ...
[83]
The Indians sharing their villages with crocodiles - BBC
Jan 30, 2019 · But in Charotar, the Voluntary Nature Conservancy has documented only 26 attacks in 30 years. In eight of these incidents, humans escaped with ...
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Planet Earth III, Series 1, Freshwater, Mugger crocodile ambush - BBC
Nov 12, 2023 · Mugger crocodile ambush. A ferocious predator lies in wait at a watering hole in south-east Sri Lanka. Release date: 12 November 2023 ...
[85]
[PDF] 4th Charotar Crocodile Count
This event represents the commitment by nature lovers to contribute towards the conservation of mugger crocodiles in a human dominated landscape. How Did You ...
[86]
Indigenous traditions honour muggers amidst modern challenges
May 7, 2024 · Maange Thapnee ritual plays a pivotal role in shaping villagers' perceptions of muggers, fostering a culture of tolerance towards these ...
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Mugger | Size, Attacks, Tool Use, & Facts - Britannica
Oct 27, 2025 · Muggers inhabit freshwater streams, ponds, and marshes, as well as saltwater lagoons, in South Asia. The mugger's geographic range extends from ...
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Crocodile - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating from Greek krokodilos via Latin and Old French, "crocodile" means a large amphibious reptile of the order Crocodilia, named after an Ionic ...Missing: genus | Show results with:genus<|control11|><|separator|>