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Naturalistic fallacy

The naturalistic fallacy denotes the philosophical error, identified by G.E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica, of attempting to define the non-natural property of intrinsic goodness in terms of any natural properties, such as pleasure, desire satisfaction, or evolutionary adaptation.^[1] Moore argued that goodness is a simple, indefinable quality that cannot be reduced to descriptive facts about the world, as any such reduction commits this fallacy by conflating "is" with "ought."^[2] Central to his case was the open question argument, which holds that even if a natural predicate (e.g., "productive of pleasure") is applied to an action, the further question of whether it is good remains meaningfully open rather than tautological, revealing the non-identity of moral and natural concepts.^[3] This distinction has profoundly influenced metaethics, bolstering non-naturalist and intuitionist positions against utilitarian and evolutionary reductions of morality, though it remains contested by those who maintain that ethical properties can coherently supervene upon or identify with empirical facts without logical impropriety.^[4] Critics, including proponents of naturalistic ethics, have challenged Moore's assumption of goodness's simplicity, arguing that advances in causal understanding of human behavior undermine the purported unanalyzability of moral terms.^[5]

Historical Origins

Hume's Is-Ought Distinction

David Hume first articulated the is-ought distinction in Book III, Part I, Section I of A Treatise of Human Nature, originally published in three volumes between 1739 and 1740.^[6] In this section, Hume critiques moral philosophy for transitioning seamlessly from descriptive claims about what is—statements grounded in observation or reason—to prescriptive claims about what ought to be, without justifying the inferential leap.^[7] He notes that this shift introduces a novel relation or affirmation absent from prior factual premises, rendering the derivation "altogether inconceivable" unless bridged by additional explanation. The key passage reads: "In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always remark'd, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when of a sudden I am surpriz'd to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not. This change is imperceptible; but is, however, of the last consequence. For as this ought, or ought not, expresses some new relation or affirmation, 'tis necessary that it shou'd be observ'd and explain'd; and at the same time that a reason should be given, for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it." Hume's observation underscores that "is" statements pertain to matters of fact, discoverable by reason through relations of ideas or empirical impressions, whereas "ought" statements involve normative force that reason alone cannot produce or motivate.^[8] In Hume's broader moral framework, reason serves the passions by informing means to ends but lacks intrinsic motivational power; moral judgments thus arise from sentiment or feeling, not pure rationality.^[7] This gap implies that ethical systems cannot be fully reduced to descriptive sciences without smuggling in unacknowledged evaluative premises, a point later echoed in discussions of deriving moral obligations from natural or empirical facts.^[9]

Moore's Formulation in Principia Ethica

In Principia Ethica, published in 1903, G. E. Moore articulated the naturalistic fallacy as the mistaken attempt to define the ethical predicate "good" in terms of natural properties, such as pleasure, existence, or evolutionary fitness.^[1] Moore contended that "good" refers to a simple, unique, non-natural property that is indefinable and cannot be analyzed into simpler components without committing this fallacy.^[1] He emphasized that ethical concepts like intrinsic goodness are sui generis, distinct from empirical or descriptive terms in science or metaphysics.^[10] Moore's primary method for exposing the fallacy was the open-question argument, which targets proposed naturalistic reductions.^[1] If "good" were identical to a natural property P—for instance, pleasure—then the question "Is P good?" should be analytically true or trivial, akin to "Is pleasure pleasant?" However, Moore observed that such questions remain substantively open and meaningful, requiring ethical judgment rather than mere tautology, thereby demonstrating the non-equivalence of "good" and P.^[1] This argument applies broadly: for hedonism's equation of good with pleasure, the query "Is pleasure good?" invites debate; for Herbert Spencer's evolutionary view linking good to preservation of life, "Does preservation of life constitute good?" persists as non-trivial.^[1] Moore explicitly named the error the "naturalistic fallacy" in Chapter I, §10, criticizing ethicists from Bentham to Sidgwick for conflating ethical value with psychological states or utilitarian outcomes.^[1] He rejected both hedonistic and idealistic reductions, arguing that the former commits the fallacy by equating good with a sensation, while the latter errs in metaphysical terms but similarly fails to capture goodness's simplicity.^[1] Principia Ethica thus positioned non-naturalistic intuitionism as the antidote, where knowledge of good derives from direct intuition rather than empirical derivation.^[1]

Conceptual Definition

Core Definition and Logical Structure

The naturalistic fallacy denotes the invalid reduction of ethical concepts, particularly "good," to natural or descriptive properties, as articulated by G.E. Moore in Principia Ethica published in 1903. Moore defined it as the error committed when one attempts to identify "good"—a simple, indefinable, non-natural quality—with predicates drawn from empirical sciences, such as pleasure, desire satisfaction, or evolutionary fitness.^[11] This reduction assumes that because certain natural features correlate with what is deemed good, those features exhaustively define goodness, thereby conflating distinct categories of meaning.^[12] Logically, the fallacy manifests in arguments structured as follows: (1) some action or state possesses a natural property P (e.g., it maximizes pleasure); (2) P is what we mean by "good"; therefore, (3) "good" equates to P. Moore's open-question argument exposes the flaw: substituting P for "good" in the query "Is P good?" yields an intelligible, non-trivial question rather than a tautology, proving that "good" retains a sui generis ethical sense irreducible to P.^[3] This structure highlights a definitional sleight-of-hand, where empirical descriptions masquerade as ethical analyses without bridging the gap between fact and value.^[1] The fallacy's core logic parallels but differs from David Hume's 1739 is-ought distinction, which bars deriving normative "ought" statements solely from descriptive "is" premises absent justifying principles; Moore's formulation specifically critiques metaethical naturalism's semantic claims about moral terms, emphasizing indefinability over mere inferential invalidity.^[13] In practice, it invalidates reductive ethical theories by demanding that proponents demonstrate, not assume, the identity of ethical and natural predicates through transparent reasoning rather than stipulative equivalence.

Distinction from Appeal to Nature

The appeal to nature constitutes an informal fallacy wherein a proposition is deemed inherently superior or morally preferable solely on the basis of its alignment with what is perceived as "natural," without further justification. This reasoning posits that phenomena occurring in nature—such as biological processes or pre-technological human behaviors—are ipso facto good or right, while artificial or human-altered interventions are suspect. For instance, proponents might argue that herbal remedies surpass synthetic pharmaceuticals because the former derive from plants, ignoring empirical comparisons of efficacy and safety.^[14]^[15] In contrast, the naturalistic fallacy, as articulated by G.E. Moore in 1903, targets a metaethical error: the invalid reduction of irreducible ethical properties, such as "goodness," to descriptive or natural properties observable through empirical science. Moore contended that defining "good" in terms of pleasure, evolutionary adaptation, or any empirical predicate fails because ethical concepts possess a non-natural, simple quality that cannot be analyzed without committing a logical blunder, as demonstrated by his open-question argument—wherein substituting a natural property for "good" leaves open the query of whether it truly is good.^[16] The distinction lies in scope and structure: the appeal to nature represents a specific rhetorical maneuver often applied beyond strict ethics, such as in consumer preferences or policy debates favoring "organic" over "processed" without ethical entailments, and it equivocates on "natural" without necessitating a full ethical theory.^[14] The naturalistic fallacy, however, critiques systematic ethical naturalism, where theorists like utilitarians or evolutionary ethicists purport to ground moral obligations in empirical facts, presuming an illicit bridge from "is" to "ought." While an appeal to nature may incidentally embody the naturalistic fallacy by elevating "naturalness" as a moral primitive, the latter encompasses broader attempts to naturalize ethics entirely, such as equating virtue with biological fitness, and resists conflation with mere appeals lacking philosophical pretension.^[16] This separation underscores that not all invocations of nature in argumentation collapse into Moore's error, though both highlight perils in deriving normativity from descriptivism.

Philosophical Applications

In Metaethics and Moral Reductionism

In metaethics, the naturalistic fallacy serves as a primary objection to moral reductionism, which posits that moral properties can be fully explained or identical to natural properties describable by empirical sciences. G.E. Moore argued that attempts to define ethical terms like "good" in terms of natural predicates—such as pleasure in hedonism or utility in consequentialism—commit this fallacy by illicitly equating a non-natural, simple property with complex natural ones.^[17] This critique underscores the autonomy of moral inquiry from descriptive facts, maintaining that ethical evaluations cannot be derived solely from "is" statements about the world.^[18] Moral reductionists, often aligned with ethical naturalism, counter that moral facts are co-extensive with natural facts without requiring definitional analysis, proposing identities akin to those in philosophy of mind, such as water being H2O, which are a posteriori and non-trivial.^[18] Moore's open question argument challenges this by asserting that, for any proposed natural equivalent P of goodness, the query "Is P good?" remains substantively open rather than tautological, indicating distinct properties.^[17] Proponents of reductionism, like Peter Railton, respond that familiarity with the natural property may eventually close such questions through empirical understanding, though critics contend this risks conflating conceptual analysis with metaphysical identity.^[18] The debate extends to supervenience, where moral reductionists accept that moral properties supervene on natural ones but deny full reducibility if non-naturalists invoke irreducible ethical supervision.^[17] Empirical approaches in moral psychology and neuroscience, aiming to ground ethics in brain states or evolutionary adaptations, face similar charges of fallacy when inferring normative conclusions from descriptive data, as seen in critiques of evolutionary ethics reducing altruism to genetic fitness without addressing "ought" derivations.^[18] Thus, the naturalistic fallacy reinforces non-cognitivist or non-naturalist alternatives, preserving moral realism's independence from scientific reduction while highlighting tensions in unifying normative and empirical domains.^[17]

Examples in Utilitarianism and Hedonism

In classical utilitarianism, Jeremy Bentham's 1789 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation grounds moral evaluation in the natural properties of pleasure and pain, asserting that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure," from which obligations derive as actions tending to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number. John Stuart Mill, in his 1861 Utilitarianism, refines this by distinguishing higher and lower pleasures while maintaining that happiness—predominantly pleasure and absence of pain—constitutes the sole end of human action, with his "proof" equating desirability to capacity for being desired, analogous to visibility implying capability of sight. G.E. Moore, in Principia Ethica (1903), critiques these positions as committing the naturalistic fallacy by reducing the non-natural property of goodness to empirical natural properties like pleasure or desire, arguing that utilitarians fail to justify why maximizing such states ought to be pursued beyond mere description of what is pursued.^[19] Moore specifically targets Mill's inference from psychological facts (e.g., humans desire pleasure) to normative claims (pleasure is good), noting that identifying "desirable" with "desired" exemplifies the fallacy, as the open question "Is what is desired truly desirable?" remains meaningful and non-contradictory, unlike tautologies such as "What is visible is capable of being seen?"^[20] This error persists in utilitarian derivations of "ought" from hedonic calculations, where empirical utility metrics (e.g., Bentham's felicific calculus quantifying pleasure intensity, duration, and extent) are treated as exhausting moral goodness without independent justification.^[20] Hedonism encounters analogous issues, as ethical hedonism—positing pleasure as the sole intrinsic good—relies on naturalistic reductions critiqued by Moore in Principia Ethica's Chapter III, where he contends that equating goodness with the natural property of pleasantness commits the fallacy, since "Is pleasure good?" poses an open question not resolvable by empirical analysis alone.^[21] Psychological hedonism, which descriptively claims all motivations reduce to pursuit of pleasure (as in some Epicurean or Benthamite views), further exemplifies the problem when extrapolated to normative hedonism, inferring an "ought" from observed "is" without bridging the gap; Moore argues this overlooks goodness's indefinability in natural terms, rendering hedonistic proofs circular or question-begging.^[20] Such examples highlight how hedonistic frameworks, by embedding moral properties within sensory or psychological facts, evade the distinctiveness of normative evaluation.^[21]

Criticisms and Challenges

Arguments for Ethical Naturalism

Ethical naturalists argue that moral properties can be identified with complex natural properties, such as those involving human well-being, rational agency, or social cooperation, without committing a definitional error. This identification is defended on grounds of ontological parsimony, as it eliminates the need for non-natural, causally inert properties while preserving the explanatory role of ethics in guiding behavior. Peter Railton, in his 1986 paper "Moral Realism," proposes that an act is morally right if it maximizes nonmoral goodness from the perspective of fully informed, idealized versions of the affected parties' desires, grounding normativity in empirical facts about human psychology and hypothetical deliberation rather than supernatural or intuitionistic faculties.^[22] This approach counters the naturalistic fallacy by showing how descriptive facts about desires and outcomes can yield prescriptive force through rational reconstruction, akin to how scientific theories derive practical recommendations from empirical data. Critics of the is-ought gap, including ethical naturalists, maintain that G.E. Moore's open-question argument does not preclude naturalistic reductions, as open questions persist for any non-synonymous identity statements until conceptual mastery is achieved. For instance, pre-20th-century inquirers might have meaningfully asked whether H₂O is water, yet the identity holds analytically today; similarly, moral terms like "good" may pick out functional clusters of natural properties (e.g., health-promoting traits) whose equivalence becomes evident through empirical and theoretical advance. Richard Boyd's "Cornell realism" extends this by treating moral terms as rigidly designating natural kinds that causally regulate moral inquiry, much like theoretical terms in science refer to unobservable entities with predictive power. Such views emphasize that moral realism benefits from naturalism's integration with causal explanation, as non-natural properties would fail to interact systematically with the physical world to influence beliefs and actions. Empirical grounding further bolsters ethical naturalism, as advances in biology and cognitive science reveal moral intuitions as products of evolved mechanisms rather than apprehensions of transcendent truths. Neo-Aristotelian naturalists, drawing on human functional biology, argue that ethical ends derive from species-typical flourishing, where virtues align with empirically identifiable capacities for eudaimonia, such as those supported by longitudinal studies on well-being correlates like social bonds and autonomy.^[23] This framework rebuts the fallacy accusation by framing ought-statements as teleological predictions: just as "an acorn ought to become an oak under normal conditions" follows from botanical facts, human oughts follow from facts about rational, social animals, rendering the derivation logically sound rather than fallacious.

Evolutionary Ethics and Empirical Grounding

Evolutionary ethics posits that moral behaviors, intuitions, and norms originate from adaptive processes shaped by natural selection, providing a naturalistic foundation for ethical claims. Proponents contend this approach challenges the naturalistic fallacy by demonstrating that moral properties emerge empirically from biological mechanisms promoting survival and cooperation, rather than requiring a non-natural derivation of "ought" from "is." For instance, Charles Darwin argued in The Descent of Man (1871) that human morality evolved from social instincts in ancestral groups, where sympathy toward kin and community members enhanced group cohesion and reproductive success.^[24]^[25] Empirical evidence supports this grounding through mechanisms like kin selection, formalized by W.D. Hamilton in 1964, which explains altruistic acts toward relatives as extensions of inclusive fitness: an individual's genetic success increases when aiding kin whose relatedness coefficient times benefit exceeds the cost (rB > C).^[24] Robert Trivers extended this in 1971 with reciprocal altruism, where non-kin cooperation evolves via tit-for-tat strategies in repeated interactions, as modeled in game theory and observed in primates and humans.^[24] These processes underpin universal moral sentiments such as fairness and cheater detection, evidenced in cross-cultural studies and developmental psychology showing infants' innate preferences for prosocial helpers over harmers by six months of age.^[26] Philosophers like Robert J. Richards defend evolutionary ethics as compatible with moral realism, arguing that natural selection favors cognitive capacities tracking objective moral truths, thus bridging descriptive evolution with normative force without reducing "good" to mere fitness maximization. Similarly, John Teehan and Christopher diGiuseppe (2004) reframe the fallacy as prohibiting derivations from pre-existent realities, allowing morality to arise from evolved human-environment interactions, where values reflect adaptive needs rather than metaphysical essences.^[27] Critics, however, maintain this commits the fallacy by equating evolved dispositions with binding obligations, as evolutionary explanations describe causal origins but not justificatory reasons—e.g., rape or infanticide may have had adaptive roots in some contexts yet lack moral warrant today.^[24] In sociobiology, Edward O. Wilson (1975) integrated these findings to "biologicize" ethics, positing that moral systems stabilize gene pools via limbic system-driven emotions like guilt and empathy, empirically linked to hypothalamic responses in neuroimaging studies.^[25] This empirical framework challenges strict non-naturalism by showing morality's causal realism: ethical norms are not arbitrary but causally efficacious adaptations, testable via comparative primatology—e.g., Frans de Waal's observations of reconciliation and fairness in chimpanzees (1982)—suggesting continuity from animal precursors to human deontology.^[28] While not resolving all is-ought concerns, such grounding substantiates ethical naturalism, prioritizing evolved cooperation over abstract ideals unsupported by biological data.^[29]

Claims of Overreach and Inconsistency

Critics contend that Moore's prohibition against equating moral properties with natural ones constitutes an overreach, as it rigidly enforces a fact-value divide that impedes integrating empirical evidence from fields like evolutionary biology into ethical reasoning, effectively shielding normative claims from scientific scrutiny rather than engaging them substantively. This strict separation is viewed as limiting rational discourse, transforming the naturalistic fallacy charge into an anti-intellectual barrier that prioritizes intuition over evidence-based moral foundations.^[30] The open-question argument faces accusations of internal inconsistency, particularly in its dependence on the persistent meaningfulness of questions like "Is pleasure good?" to infer non-identity, which assumes linguistic transparency and analytic equivalence that do not align with all semantic frameworks. Ethical naturalists counter that under Millian theories of reference, where terms directly pick out properties without descriptive content, moral-natural identities can hold a posteriori—much like "water is H2O"—rendering the question seemingly open due to incomplete empirical knowledge rather than conceptual distinction, thus evading Moore's inference without fallacy. Such responses highlight how the argument overextends by conflating epistemic openness with metaphysical difference, failing to preclude synthetic reductions of goodness to complex natural properties.^[31] Claims of overreach also target the vagueness in Moore's characterizations of the fallacy, which shift between invalid inferences, definitional errors, and property identifications, leading to inconsistent application against diverse naturalist positions. This ambiguity allows the doctrine to dismiss ethical theories not on evidential grounds but via presumptive rejection, begging the question by embedding non-naturalist assumptions into the criteria for "fallacious" reasoning, as the argument presupposes that competent speakers' intuitions definitively prove indefinability without independent validation.^[32]

Defenses and Rebuttals

Moore's Open Question Argument

G.E. Moore introduced the open question argument in §13 of Principia Ethica (1903) to challenge ethical naturalism, which posits that moral properties like goodness are identical to or analyzable in terms of natural properties such as pleasure or evolutionary fitness.^[1] The argument's core premise is that if "good" were equivalent to some natural property N, the question "Is N good?" would be analytically trivial, similar to asking "Is N N?"—yet such questions remain substantively debatable and thus "open," revealing a conceptual distinction.^[33] This openness persists across proposed naturalistic reductions, indicating that goodness eludes definition in empirical or descriptive terms.^[34] Moore illustrates with hedonism, where goodness is claimed to be pleasure: the query "Is pleasure good?" invites rational dispute rather than tautological affirmation, unlike "Is pleasure pleasure?"^[1] He extends this to desire-based accounts, questioning whether "what we desire to desire" (e.g., certain actions) is inherently good, which again yields an open question distinct from mere conceptual identity.^[34] For any natural predicate, the pattern holds: substantive evaluation of its moral status is possible, undermining reductive claims.^[33] The argument concludes that goodness is a simple, non-natural property, indefinable and known through intuition, not empirical analysis.^[1] Naturalistic definitions thus commit the definist fallacy by substituting the search for meaning with causal or descriptive properties, preserving moral properties' sui generis status against reductionism.^[34] This framework bolsters Moore's non-naturalist intuitionism, emphasizing ethical inquiry's irreducibility to science.^[33]

Non-Natural Properties and Supervenience

In G.E. Moore's ethical non-naturalism, moral properties such as goodness are characterized as simple and unanalyzable, distinct from natural properties that constitute the subject matter of the natural sciences and psychology.^[11] Moore contends that while goodness may inhere in certain natural objects, it itself is not a natural property, as attempts to define it in terms of natural predicates commit the naturalistic fallacy by conflating ethical predicates with descriptive ones.^[11] This non-natural status underscores the irreducibility of ethical concepts, positioning them as sui generis features not capturable by empirical analysis alone.^[11] Supervenience enters non-naturalist frameworks as the thesis that moral properties necessarily depend on non-moral, natural properties, such that any variation in moral status requires a corresponding variation in the natural base, across metaphysically possible worlds.^[35] Non-naturalists, including successors to Moore, affirm this supervenience to accommodate intuitive ethical dependence—e.g., identical natural circumstances yield identical moral verdicts—without entailing identity or reduction of moral to natural properties.^[36] This relation preserves the distinctness of ethical properties while explaining their systematic covariance with empirical facts.^[35] Challenges to this view, such as the "supervenience argument," highlight the apparent brute necessity of the connection between discontinuous property kinds, demanding explanation without reverting to naturalism.^[36] Defenses invoke metaphysical grounding, where moral properties are realized through natural bases plus irreducibly normative principles, or "companions in guilt" strategies arguing that non-reductive naturalists face analogous explanatory burdens.^[35] Hybrid essence accounts propose that moral properties incorporate both natural and non-natural elements to forge the necessary link, mitigating bruteness while upholding non-naturalism.^[35] These approaches rebut reductions by demonstrating that supervenience coheres with ethical realism independent of naturalistic commitments.^[36]

Responses to Evolutionary Challenges

Evolutionary ethicists have challenged the naturalistic fallacy by proposing that moral norms can be derived from adaptive behaviors selected by natural selection, suggesting that "good" equates to what enhances fitness or survival. For example, proponents argue that traits like altruism, evolved through kin selection as modeled by W.D. Hamilton in 1964, provide a factual basis for prescriptive ethics, implying humans ought to act in ways that mirror these adaptations. However, defenders of the is-ought distinction counter that such derivations conflate descriptive origins with normative force, committing the very fallacy Moore identified. Evolutionary accounts explain why certain intuitions persist—e.g., reciprocal altruism as outlined by Robert Trivers in 1971—but do not logically entail that these behaviors are morally required, as adaptation prioritizes reproductive success over ethical truth.^[24] A key response emphasizes the open-question argument's persistence: even if a behavior is evolutionarily adaptive, questioning whether it is truly good remains meaningful and unanswered by biological facts alone. G.E. Moore's framework in Principia Ethica (1903) holds that moral properties like goodness are non-natural and indefinable in empirical terms, rendering evolutionary reductions inadequate. Empirical counterexamples reinforce this: evolved tendencies toward deception or aggression, documented in studies of primate behavior and human tribalism, illustrate that natural selection favors pragmatic utility, not moral excellence, yet ethicists do not endorse them as obligatory. Thus, biology describes causal histories, but normative justification requires additional, non-empirical premises, such as rational deliberation or intuitionism.^[20] Critiques of prescriptive evolutionary ethics further highlight inconsistencies in bridging the gap. While descriptive evolutionary ethics maps moral psychology—e.g., Jonathan Haidt's 2012 findings on innate moral foundations shaped by group selection—prescriptive variants falter by assuming adaptive prevalence implies universal oughts, ignoring cultural overrides or maladaptive contexts in modern environments. Philosophers like Philip Kitcher argue that evolution informs ethical deliberation but cannot ground it without importing independent values, preserving the fallacy's validity against naturalistic overreach. This metaethical restraint avoids reducing ethics to biology, acknowledging evolution's explanatory power without conceding normativity.^[24]

Contemporary Implications

In Evolutionary Psychology and Biology

In evolutionary psychology, the naturalistic fallacy serves as a methodological safeguard, reminding researchers that explanations of human behavior as adaptations—such as kin-directed altruism via Hamilton's rule of inclusive fitness (rB > C, where r is genetic relatedness, B benefit to recipient, and C cost to actor)—do not prescribe moral obligations to maximize reproductive success. Proponents like David Buss emphasize that evolutionary accounts describe proximate and ultimate causes of traits like mate preferences or aggression without endorsing them as ethically ideal, countering critics who infer justification from natural occurrence.^[37] However, debates persist, as in the controversy over Thornhill and Palmer's 2000 analysis of rape as a possible byproduct or adaptation; while evolutionary psychologists invoke the fallacy to reject prescriptive readings, scholars like Wilson, Dietrich, and Clark argue this application inappropriately sidesteps ethical scrutiny, since biological facts can inform norms when paired with independent value judgments rather than being ethically inert.^[5] In evolutionary biology, the fallacy critiques attempts to derive ethics directly from fitness maximization, as seen in historical social Darwinism where survival of the fittest was misconstrued as moral imperative, a view Thomas Huxley rejected in his 1894 Evolution and Ethics by distinguishing cosmic processes from human ethical progress.^[38] Contemporary applications appear in applied evolutionary anthropology, where explanations of cooperation or conflict avoid the fallacy by focusing on descriptive mechanisms like reciprocal altruism (Trivers 1971) without claiming they define universal goods.^[39] Yet, evolutionary debunking arguments challenge moral realism by highlighting how selection shapes intuitions for adaptive utility rather than truth, as in Sharon Street's 2006 Darwinian dilemma: realist theories must explain why evolved evaluative attitudes track objective values despite pressures favoring error-prone beliefs aligned with survival, lest they concede skepticism about moral knowledge.^[40] This underscores the is-ought gap, suggesting biological origins provide causal explanations but no epistemic warrant for normative authority without additional justification.^[41] Defenses of evolutionary ethics navigate the fallacy by positing indirect bridges, such as Teehan and diCarlo's 2004 framework where Darwinian insights into moral psychology—e.g., emergent cooperation from gene-culture coevolution—inform deliberative ethics without equating natural facts to values outright, treating oughts as products of human-environment interactions amenable to empirical refinement.^[27] Empirical studies reinforce this caution; for instance, experiments show people commit the fallacy by deeming natural acts morally acceptable, yet evolutionary models clarify such biases as cognitive heuristics rather than veridical norms.^[42] Overall, in these fields, the fallacy promotes rigorous separation of etiology from evaluation, fostering descriptive science while inviting hybrid approaches that integrate biology with philosophical reasoning for policy-relevant insights, such as in behavioral interventions.^[43]

Debates in Policy and Ideology

The naturalistic fallacy has influenced policy debates by underpinning arguments that empirical observations of human behavior or biology directly prescribe normative outcomes, as seen in early 20th-century eugenics programs in the United States. These initiatives, inspired by social Darwinist interpretations of natural selection, led to compulsory sterilization laws enacted in over 30 states starting in 1907, resulting in approximately 60,000 to 70,000 procedures by the 1970s, targeting individuals classified as mentally deficient, criminal, or otherwise "unfit" to prevent the inheritance of undesirable traits.^[44]^[45] Proponents, including figures like Charles Davenport, contended that aligning policy with biological "laws" of fitness would enhance societal health, yet this conflated descriptive evolutionary processes with prescriptive imperatives, ignoring ethical considerations beyond survival dynamics.^[46] In contemporary public health policy, appeals to nature—often invoking the fallacy—have impeded evidence-based interventions, such as resistance to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) despite data showing they increased global crop yields by 21.6% for maize and reduced insecticide use by 37% in adopting countries from 1996 to 2018.^[15] Advocates for "natural" alternatives, like organic farming or unvaccinated immunity, argue that artificial modifications violate inherent biological goodness, yet empirical outcomes demonstrate higher efficacy and safety for engineered solutions in addressing malnutrition and disease; for instance, Golden Rice, designed to combat vitamin A deficiency, has faced delays due to such naturalistic objections despite preventing an estimated 500,000 cases of childhood blindness annually in deficient regions. This pattern extends to vaccine hesitancy, where claims of natural immunity's superiority overlook clinical trials showing mRNA vaccines' 95% efficacy against severe COVID-19 outcomes in 2020-2021 trials.^[15] Ideologically, the fallacy manifests in divergent interpretations of biological data, with conservatives more inclined to endorse genetic attributions for group differences in traits like intelligence or behavior, informing policies that tolerate natural variations rather than mandate equalization. A 2012 study of over 5,000 Americans found conservatives 1.5 times more likely than liberals to attribute racial or class disparities to genetics, potentially justifying reduced redistributive welfare or affirmative action on grounds that such differences reflect inherent realities warranting acceptance over correction.^[47] Critics from liberal perspectives label this the naturalistic fallacy, insisting moral equality demands transcending biology, yet proponents counter that ignoring causal empirical facts—such as heritability estimates of 50-80% for intelligence from twin studies—leads to inefficacious policies, like uniform education standards that fail to account for innate variances.^[47] In gender policy debates, similar tensions arise: biological sex differences in strength (males averaging 50% greater upper-body power) have fueled arguments for sex-segregated sports, with fallacy accusations levied against deriving "oughts" for participation rules solely from physiology, though causal realism suggests overlooking such data risks unfair outcomes and injury rates exceeding 2:1 in mixed competitions.^[48] These divides highlight how source biases, including academia's underrepresentation of conservative viewpoints (less than 10% in social sciences per surveys), can frame naturalistic appeals as inherently flawed while downplaying anti-empirical constructivism.^[47]

Impact on Moral Realism vs. Anti-Realism

The naturalistic fallacy, as articulated by G.E. Moore in Principia Ethica (1903), undermines ethical naturalism—a form of moral realism that identifies moral properties such as goodness with natural properties observable through empirical science, like pleasure or evolutionary fitness—by demonstrating that such reductions fail to capture the unique, irreducible nature of moral concepts. Moore's open question argument reveals that substituting a natural property for "good" leaves open whether that property truly exemplifies goodness, indicating non-identity and blocking reductive definitions essential to naturalistic realism.^[49] This critique compels moral realists to either abandon naturalism for non-natural properties—objective yet sui generis, supervening on but not reducible to natural facts—or develop non-reductive naturalistic accounts that evade the fallacy through synthetic necessities or dispositional analyses, as defended in David O. Brink's Moral Realism and the Foundations of Ethics (1989).^[50] In the realism-anti-realism debate, the fallacy does not entail anti-realism, as Moore himself endorsed non-naturalist realism, maintaining that moral facts exist independently of human attitudes and possess directive force irreducible to descriptive claims.^[51] However, it bolsters anti-realist positions like J.L. Mackie's error theory in Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977), which leverages the irreducibility of moral properties to argue their "queerness"—non-natural yet categorically prescriptive—renders them ontologically untenable, implying moral statements systematically fail to refer to real entities.^[52] Anti-realists such as expressivists or subjectivists may invoke the is-ought gap (echoing Hume) amplified by the fallacy to deny objective moral facts, positing morality as projection of emotions or conventions rather than discovery of independent truths, though this sidesteps realism's companion in intuitionism where basic moral perceptions justify non-natural realism without reduction.^[53] Contemporary defenses of naturalistic moral realism counter the fallacy by questioning the open question's persistence under reflective equilibrium or empirical integration, as in Richard Boyd's "moral function" analogy to natural kinds in science (1988), where moral terms rigidly designate causally efficacious properties without definitional collapse.^[54] Yet persistent challenges, including evolutionary debunking arguments that natural selection explains moral beliefs without tracking objective truths, exploit the fallacy to favor anti-realism by portraying moral realism as committing to unverifiable, non-causal properties.^[49] Thus, the fallacy delineates a fault line: realists must substantiate moral properties' existence beyond natural reduction, while anti-realists gain leverage against any ontology demanding irreducible normativity, though empirical successes in behavioral ethics (e.g., cross-cultural convergence on harm avoidance) lend indirect support to realist supervenience without resolving the metaethical impasse.^[55]

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David Hume (1711—1776) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
He is famous for the position that we cannot derive ought from is, the view that statements of moral obligation cannot simply be deduced from statements of fact ...Missing: exact | Show results with:exact
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David Hume - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 26, 2001 · Hume's aim is to bring the scientific method to bear on the study of human nature. Hume's early studies of philosophical “systems” convinced him ...Moral Philosophy · Kant and Hume on Causality · Hume’s Newtonianism and...
[10]
[PDF] PRINCIPIA ETHICA
GEORGE EDWARD MOORE. "Everything is what it is, and not another ... not indeed call that a naturalistic fallacy, although it would be the same ...
[11]
Chapter II: Naturalistic Ethics: PRINCIPIA ETHICA (1903) by G. E. ...
It results from the conclusions of Chapter I, that all ethical questions fall under one or other of three classes. The first class contains but one ...
[12]
The Naturalistic Fallacy: The Logic Of Its Refutation - utilitarian .org
What the man who commits the naturalistic fallacy fails to realize is that 'good' and some other adjective may denote or be applicable to the same things, and ...
[13]
The Is/Ought Gap, the Fact/Value Distinction and the Naturalistic ...
Apr 13, 2010 · For the last 40 years or so the is/ought gap, the fact/value distinction and the naturalistic fallacy have figured prominently in ethical ...
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The Appeal to Nature Fallacy: Why “Natural” Isn't Necessarily Better
The appeal to nature fallacy is when something is claimed to be good because it's perceived as natural, or bad because it's perceived as unnatural.
[15]
“Natural Is Better”: How the Appeal To Nature Fallacy Derails Public ...
Mar 8, 2021 · Our preference for things deemed to be natural is so illogical and systematic that researchers have given it a name—the appeal to nature fallacy ...<|separator|>
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What Is the Naturalistic Fallacy? | Definition & Examples - QuillBot
Jun 24, 2024 · The naturalistic fallacy is the mistake of assuming that whatever is deemed natural is also morally good.
[17]
Moral Non-Naturalism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 1, 2003 · In particular, there is widespread agreement that G.E. Moore's account of goodness in Principia Ethica is a paradigmatically non-naturalist ...The Naturalistic Fallacy · The Open Question Argument · Explaining Supervenience
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Moral Naturalism - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 1, 2006 · Naturalism is in one clear sense a 'reductionist' doctrine of course, for it holds that moral facts are nothing but natural facts. What I deny, ...
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http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/
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Moore's Moral Philosophy
Jan 26, 2005 · Moore expressed the realist side of his non-naturalism by saying that fundamental moral judgements ascribe the property of goodness or badness ...
[21]
Chapter III: Hedonism: PRINCIPIA ETHICA (1903) by G. E. Moore
... naturalistic fallacy above mentioned, it will justify Hedonism. Now I am not prepared to deny that there is some universal relation between pleasure and ...
[22]
Moral Realism - jstor
Any attempt to argue for a naturalistic moral realism runs head- long ... PETER RAILTON. Thus far the argument has concerned only those objective in ...
[23]
(PDF) The Argument of Ethical Naturalism - ResearchGate
The arguments in favour of ethical naturalism rely on a concept of human nature that includes basic desires related to ends we ought to pursue, as Aristotle ...
[24]
Morality and Evolutionary Biology
Dec 19, 2008 · Evolutionary explanations for morality in the empirical sense are offered at various levels, and this makes for very different explanatory ...Descriptive Evolutionary Ethics... · Evolutionary Biology and...
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Evolutionary Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Hume's “is-ought” problem still remains a challenge for evolutionary ethics. How can one move from “is” (findings from the natural sciences, including biology ...
[26]
The Evolution of Morality
A concise biological account of the evolution of morality. It addresses morality on three levels: moral outcomes (behavioral genetics), moral motivation or ...
[27]
On the Naturalistic Fallacy: A Conceptual Basis for Evolutionary Ethics
The Naturalistic Fallacy rules out any attempt to treat morality as defined according to some pre-existent reality.
[28]
The Origins of Human Morality | Scientific American
Sep 1, 2018 · The second critical step in the evolution of human morality came when the small-scale collaborative foraging of early humans was eventually ...
[29]
The evolution of morality and its rollback - PMC - PubMed Central
Mar 21, 2018 · According to most Evolutionary Psychologists, human moral attitudes are rooted in cognitive modules that evolved in the Stone Age to solve problems of social ...
[30]
A Critique of the Naturalistic Fallacy Thesis - jstor
naturalistic fallacy is a popular but unfounded thesis that can be used to support nonrational ideas. Origin. Are there any good reasons to question the ...
[31]
[PDF] THREE MILLIAN WAYS TO RESOLVE OPEN QUESTIONS
If the Millian metaphysics of belief is correct, then the ethical naturalist can easily respond to the Open Question Argument. Before we see the response, let's ...
[32]
[PDF] G.E. Moore's Naturalistic Fallacy and Open Question Argument ...
The main theses Moore defends in Principia Ethica are that goodness is a simple and indefinable property, and that most naturalistic ethical theories commit ...
[33]
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/linguistics-and-philosophy/24-231-ethics-fall-2009/lecture-notes/MIT24_231F09_lec03.pdf
[34]
[PDF] Moore's Principia
Moore's central question is whether goodness has a real definition. 3. MOORE'S ARGUMENT THAT GOODNESS IS SIMPLE AND INDEFINABLE. Moore's view is that. “'Good, ...
[35]
[PDF] Supervenience and Non-Naturalism - ScholarWorks@UARK
Most moral non-naturalists also accept the supervenience of the moral on the natural. For it strikes many as impossible for there to be a difference in the ...
[36]
[PDF] Ethical non-naturalism and the metaphysics of supervenience
Jun 28, 2011 · However, Moore thinks that the naturalistic fallacy applies as much to such proposals as it does to naturalistic accounts of morality (1903: 39) ...
[37]
Misrepresentations of Evolutionary Psychology in Sex and Gender ...
Many introductory textbooks on evolutionary psychology contain explicit warnings about committing the naturalistic fallacy (e.g., Bridgeman, 2003; Buss ...
[38]
HUXLEY'S EVOLUTION AND ETHICS IN SOCIOBIOLOGICAL ...
T. H. Huxley's essay and prolegomena of 1894 argued that the process and products of evolution are morally unacceptable and act in opposition to the ethical ...<|separator|>
[39]
Applying Evolutionary Anthropology - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Evolutionary explanations do not make the naturalistic fallacy. The false ... Applied evolutionary psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2011 ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[40]
A Darwinian dilemma for realist theories of value - PhilPapers
In this paper, I call this claim into question by arguing that Darwinian considerations pose a dilemma for these theories.Missing: fallacy | Show results with:fallacy
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Evolutionary Debunking Arguments - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Evolutionary debunking arguments (EDAs) are arguments that appeal to the evolutionary origins of evaluative beliefs to undermine their justification.
[42]
[PDF] Exploring the Effects of the Naturalistic Fallacy: Evidence That ...
Researchers have warned against committing the naturalistic fallacy in the context of evolutionary theorizing about human behavior, pointing out that genetic ...
[43]
[PDF] Fear and Loathing of Evolutionary Psychology in the Social Sciences
We believe there are five main reasons why evolutionary psychology has encountered resistance. The naturalistic fallacy. ... evolutionary psychology, as well they ...Missing: peer | Show results with:peer
[44]
Eugenics: Compulsory Sterilization in 50 American States
American eugenics refers inter alia to compulsory sterilization laws adopted by over 30 states that led to more than 60,000 sterilizations of disabled ...
[45]
The Supreme Court Ruling That Led To 70000 Forced Sterilizations
Mar 7, 2016 · In the first half of the 20th century, American eugenicists used forced sterilization to "breed out" traits they considered undesirable.
[46]
THE JEREMIAH METZGER LECTURE: A BRIEF HISTORY OF ...
In Chapter V (titled “Migrations and their Eugenic Significance”) of his 1911 book, “Heredity in Relation to Eugenics,” Davenport observes: “The proper way to ...
[47]
Does Biology Justify Ideology? The Politics of Genetic Attribution - NIH
We find that conservatives were indeed more likely than liberals to endorse genetic explanations for perceived race and class differences.
[48]
The Biological Basis of Gender Roles - Aporia Magazine
Sep 5, 2025 · Proponents argue that categories like “male” and “female” are fluid, that behaviors associated with masculinity and femininity are learned, and ...
[49]
[PDF] Five Challanges to Naturalistic Moral Realsim - PhilArchive
Feb 27, 2023 · However this would fall into the naturalistic fallacy: it does not develop a prescriptive claim nor ... moral realism. Finally, I wish to point ...
[50]
Charles Pigden, Naturalism - PhilArchive
... Prior's objections), Moore's Naturalistic Fallacy and the Barren Tautology Argument. Naturalism, as I understand it, is a form of moral realism which ...
[51]
Naturalistic Fallacy. - Benjamin McCraw - PhilPapers
The Naturalistic Fallacy in Meta-Ethics. Keywords. Moore's metaphysics moral realism naturalistic fallacy normative property Western philosophy. Reprint years ...
[52]
[PDF] William K - PhilArchive
moral realism becomes unable to account for the content of moral belief. At ... naturalistic fallacy,‟ but he dismissed them summarily as a matter ...
[53]
Really taking Darwin and the naturalistic fallacy seriously - PhilPapers
... naturalistic fallacy in both its definitional and derivational forms ... Moral Realism: Facts and Norms.David O. BRINK - 1991 - Ethics 101 (3):610 ...
[54]
[PDF] Moral Realism without Values Noell Birondo Abstract - PhilArchive
naturalistic fallacy; for it will always remain an open question whether actions possessing such a property are in fact good. This led Moore to conclude ...
[55]
Evolutionary Moral Psychology and the Insistence of Brute Facts
The naturalistic fallacy and Hume's 'law' are frequently appealed to for the purpose of drawing limits around the scope of scientific inquiry into ethics ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources