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New Math

New Math, or New Mathematics, was a curriculum reform movement in the United States during the 1960s that aimed to modernize K-12 mathematics education by introducing abstract concepts such as set theory, modular arithmetic, and axiomatic structures to elementary and secondary students, prioritizing conceptual understanding and deductive reasoning over traditional drill in arithmetic operations.^[1] The reform emerged in response to perceived deficiencies in American mathematical preparation amid Cold War anxieties, particularly following the Soviet Union's Sputnik launch in 1957, which spurred federal funding through the National Science Foundation for initiatives like the University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics (UICSM), established in 1951 under Max Beberman, and the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), formed in 1958 and directed by Edward Begle.^[1]^[2] By the mid-1960s, over half of U.S. high schools had adopted elements of New Math curricula, with adoption reaching an estimated 85 percent of K-12 schools by the mid-1970s, supported by NSF grants exceeding $5 million and the production of new textbooks emphasizing discovery-based learning and topics like number bases and open sentences.^[1] Proponents argued it would cultivate mathematical creativity akin to artistic pursuits and better equip students for advanced sciences, with college-bound pupils showing improved performance on standardized tests in some evaluations.^[1] However, the approach faced significant backlash for its abstraction, which often overwhelmed average students and untrained teachers, resulting in deficient basic computational skills and parental incomprehension of homework; critics like mathematician Morris Kline highlighted these failures in his 1973 book Why Johnny Can't Add, decrying the elitist focus on esoteric topics unsuitable for broad K-12 application.^[1]^[3] The movement's decline accelerated after Beberman's death in 1971 and the cessation of SMSG textbook development by 1972, amid empirical evidence of uneven outcomes—success for high-achievers but struggles for most—and a societal shift toward "back to basics" emphasizing rote skills, rendering New Math largely obsolete by the late 1970s.^[1] Despite its brief tenure, the reform underscored tensions between rigorous, university-driven curricula and practical classroom realities, influencing subsequent debates on math education balance.^[1]

Historical Origins

Post-Sputnik Catalyst

The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 on October 4, 1957, the first artificial satellite, ignited widespread alarm in the United States regarding its technological and scientific inferiority to the USSR amid escalating Cold War tensions.^[4]^[5] This event crystallized fears that American education, particularly in science and mathematics, failed to cultivate the advanced analytical skills necessary to compete in fields like rocketry, physics, and engineering, where rote memorization dominated over deeper conceptual rigor.^[6]^[7] In response, the U.S. Congress passed the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) on September 2, 1958, signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, allocating approximately $1 billion over several years to bolster education in mathematics, science, and foreign languages through student loans, fellowships, teacher training, and curriculum development.^[8]^[9] The legislation explicitly aimed to address perceived deficiencies in producing sufficiently trained personnel for national defense needs, prioritizing reforms that would elevate mathematical reasoning to counter Soviet advances.^[10] Pure mathematicians, drawing from university-level abstractions, influenced early reform advocacy by arguing that school curricula should introduce set theory and axiomatic structures to foster foundational rigor, viewing traditional arithmetic-focused teaching as inadequate for modern scientific demands.^[11] This push aligned with broader post-Sputnik imperatives to realign K-12 education toward producing thinkers capable of tackling complex, defense-related problems rather than mere computational proficiency.^[12]

Key Organizations and Proponents

The School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), the most influential organization in New Math's development, was established in 1958 with funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), initially based at Yale University under director Edward G. Begle, a Yale mathematics professor without prior K-12 teaching experience.^[13]^[14] SMSG assembled panels of university mathematicians to design curricula emphasizing axiomatic structures and set theory, producing textbooks adopted by over half of U.S. school districts by the mid-1960s.^[15] Begle, who led SMSG until 1973, advocated for rigorous, proof-based instruction modeled on university-level mathematics, arguing it would better prepare students for scientific advancement amid Cold War pressures.^[16]^[17] Another key proponent, Harvard mathematician Marshall Stone, promoted an axiomatic approach inspired by the French Bourbaki group's structuralist methods, influencing early reform discussions through his leadership in related NSF committees and public statements favoring abstract foundations over traditional computation.^[18] Preceding SMSG, the University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics (UICSM), formed in 1951 by the university's colleges of education, engineering, and liberal arts, pioneered experimental high school curricula integrating modern algebra and geometry for advanced students, testing materials in Illinois schools by 1953.^[19]^[20] Like SMSG, UICSM relied on academic experts rather than classroom practitioners, producing texts that emphasized logical deduction and vector spaces.^[21] These groups exemplified involvement by elite mathematicians, often detached from elementary pedagogy, prioritizing theoretical purity over practical teaching challenges.

Initial Curriculum Development (1958–1962)

The School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), formed in 1958 in response to post-Sputnik concerns over U.S. mathematical competitiveness, received an initial National Science Foundation grant of $100,000 and appointed Edward G. Begle as director following preparatory conferences in February and March of that year. Headquartered at Yale University, the organization convened its first writing session that summer with 45 participants, including mathematicians and educators, to draft secondary school curricula emphasizing modern axiomatic structures over rote computation. The approach reflected a top-down design, drawing from university-level mathematics to instill foundational abstraction early, with limited initial grounding in K-12 classroom realities.^[2]^[15] By 1959, SMSG conducted intensive writing sessions at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor) and University of Colorado (Boulder), yielding preliminary typewritten textbooks and teacher commentaries for grades 7-12 within two months. These materials introduced set theory, modular arithmetic, lattices, and introductory group concepts, even extending basic elements like sets to elementary drafts as development progressed into 1961 with additional NSF funding. The curricula shifted focus from procedural drills to proof-based exposition—for instance, requiring proofs of rational number properties in advanced texts—to foster "mathematical maturity" via rigorous logical deduction from primitives.^[2]^[22] Pilot implementations began in 1959-1962 at experimental centers and select urban schools, where drafts were trialed with teacher input and mathematician oversight to refine content. Academic proponents, including Begle, expressed optimism for enhanced conceptual depth, but early evaluations yielded scant quantitative data on student grasp of abstractions, as trials prioritized material iteration over controlled outcome metrics like comprehension retention. This phase thus proceeded with enthusiasm from higher mathematics circles but detached from broad empirical scrutiny of pedagogical efficacy in diverse classrooms.^[2]^[22]

Core Features and Pedagogical Shift

Emphasis on Abstract Structures

The New Math curricula emphasized abstract mathematical structures as foundational to understanding, introducing concepts such as set theory and its visual representations via Venn diagrams at elementary school levels to cultivate structural thinking over mere procedural skills.^[23] ^[24] This approach treated sets as primitive objects, with operations like union, intersection, and complement serving as building blocks for more advanced ideas, aiming to reveal the relational frameworks beneath numerical manipulations.^[25] Influenced by mid-20th-century developments in pure mathematics, the pedagogy drew from the structuralist program of the Bourbaki collective, which prioritized axiomatic organization of mathematical entities into hierarchies of structures, and from David Hilbert's axiomatic method, which sought rigorous, independence-proof-based foundations independent of intuitive geometry or arithmetic.^[26] Proponents viewed these influences as essential for aligning K-12 instruction with the logical architecture of contemporary mathematics, where theorems derive deductively from axioms rather than empirical patterns. Numbers were reconceptualized as elements within abstract systems, detached from their everyday concrete utility, with instruction incorporating non-decimal bases—such as base-8 or base-2—to demonstrate the arbitrariness of positional notation and the generality of arithmetic operations across numeral systems.^[25] Boolean algebra was similarly integrated to formalize logical propositions through binary operations, paralleling set-theoretic inclusions and exclusions, thereby extending structural abstraction to rudimentary decision-making frameworks.^[25] This shift underscored a causal prioritization: abstract invariance across contexts was deemed prerequisite to reliable computation, inverting traditional emphases on practical tallying.

Changes in Arithmetic and Geometry Teaching

In the New Math curricula developed by the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) during the late 1950s and 1960s, arithmetic teaching pivoted toward axiomatic foundations and abstract properties, supplanting traditional emphasis on algorithmic fluency. Elementary and middle school students encountered set theory and symbolic notation for operations, where properties such as commutativity (a + b = b + a) and associativity ((a + b) + c = a + (b + c)) were derived via logical proofs using variables and diagrams, often before extensive drill in computation.^[27]^[28] This reorientation delayed mastery of procedural skills, including multi-digit multiplication and long division, as resources like Cuisenaire rods illustrated conceptual groupings over repetitive practice.^[29] Geometry instruction similarly prioritized modern abstractions over classical Euclidean methods. SMSG high school texts introduced vectors for representing directed segments and transformations—such as reflections, rotations, and dilations—as foundational tools, often bypassing initial synthetic proofs in favor of coordinate geometry and matrix representations for congruence and similarity.^[29]^[30] These elements aimed to unify geometry with algebra but required early familiarity with analytic techniques, limiting time for hands-on constructions or theorem memorization. Advanced topics like matrices for linear transformations and introductory probability (including sample spaces and expected value) were integrated into high school sequences, drawing from SMSG's goal of college preparatory rigor.^[29] Matrices enabled modeling of geometric mappings, while probability exercises used set-theoretic foundations to compute outcomes, extending beyond basic counting to conditional events. Such inclusions, typically deferred to university levels previously, demanded abstract reasoning from students without intermediate bridging from concrete manipulations.^[31]

Intended Benefits for Conceptual Understanding

Proponents of New Math contended that emphasizing abstract mathematical structures from an early age would cultivate a profound grasp of underlying principles, enabling students to derive procedures logically rather than relying on rote memorization of algorithms.^[2] This shift aimed to equip learners with the flexibility to adapt to evolving mathematical applications in science and technology, as memorized techniques risked obsolescence amid rapid post-World War II advancements in fields like computing and physics.^[26] Edward G. Begle, director of the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) from 1958, articulated that portraying mathematics as a cohesive system of abstract axioms and relations—rather than isolated computational drills—would counteract tendencies toward superficial instruction, fostering recognition of math's inherent logical coherence.^[32] SMSG materials deliberately prioritized conceptual depth over speed in arithmetic, intending to build students' ability to reason deductively from foundational elements like set theory and vector spaces, which were introduced in elementary and secondary curricula starting in the early 1960s.^[2] Advocates viewed this as essential for developing problem-solving prowess grounded in the discipline's structural integrity, preparing a generation capable of original inquiry in an era demanding mathematical innovation.^[33] Initial implementations in select programs for advanced students reportedly yielded observations of heightened engagement with complex ideas, where participants demonstrated intuitive links between basic operations and broader algebraic frameworks, though these were preliminary and not systematically quantified at the outset.^[24] By framing arithmetic and geometry through modern axiomatic lenses, the curriculum sought to instill an appreciation for mathematics as a deductive science, promoting enduring analytical skills over transient procedural fluency.^[26]

Implementation and Challenges

Nationwide Rollout (1960s)

The nationwide rollout of New Math gained momentum in the early 1960s, as curriculum materials developed by groups like the School Mathematics Study Group proliferated across U.S. schools. By the mid-1960s, more than half of the nation's high schools had incorporated some form of the new curriculum, reflecting a swift shift driven by enthusiasm for mathematical modernization post-Sputnik.^[1] Federal funding from the National Science Foundation played a pivotal role, supporting the production and distribution of textbooks emphasizing set theory and abstract algebra.^[34] State adoptions accelerated the diffusion; for instance, California and New York mandated new math textbooks statewide by 1964, prompting publishers to rapidly produce compliant materials and leading to widespread implementation without centralized oversight.^[35] This uncoordinated expansion extended to elementary education through programs like the Madison Project, which introduced intuitive approaches to modern concepts in grades K-6 starting around 1960 and reached diverse classrooms via teacher training and supplementary texts.^[36] By 1965, these efforts had permeated millions of students' experiences, though initial pilots lacked rigorous, large-scale evaluation of outcomes.^[34] The peak of influence occurred between 1965 and 1968, when an estimated 600 distinct textbooks from various development initiatives standardized abstract pedagogical methods across grade levels.^[1] Despite the haste—fueled by grants and mandates—the rollout proceeded with minimal empirical assessment, as competing projects prioritized dissemination over coordinated testing of conceptual versus computational mastery.^[1] This phase highlighted the tension between innovative intent and practical scalability in American education reform.

Teacher Preparation and Resource Issues

The implementation of New Math curricula encountered significant obstacles due to inadequate teacher preparation, as many educators lacked the necessary mathematical background to deliver abstract concepts effectively. In 1960, 29 states imposed no mathematics requirements for elementary teacher certification, and prospective elementary teachers often demonstrated weak foundational skills, with one 1950s study of 158 candidates averaging only 50% on a basic mathematics test.^[37] NSF-funded summer institutes, initiated for elementary teachers in 1959, provided training through 531 programs by 1967, enrolling 22,045 participants, yet this reached fewer than 2% of the approximately 1.1 million elementary teachers nationwide.^[37] These short-term sessions, typically lasting six to eight weeks, proved insufficient for shifting instructors from procedural traditional methods to rigorous proofs and set theory, with evaluations like Creswell's 1965 study revealing trained teachers scoring 56.31% on New Math assessments compared to 65.25% for sixth graders.^[37] In-service training programs, expanding to 33 mathematics-focused NSF institutes by 1966–1967 with 4,172 participants, offered inconsistent and often secondhand instruction, particularly for elementary levels, leading many teachers to revert to familiar rote techniques despite exposure to new pedagogy.^[37] The top-down emphasis on secondary education neglected elementary instructors, whose training relied on diluted adaptations rather than direct engagement with core developers like the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG).^[37] Resource limitations compounded these preparation gaps, with early SMSG textbooks designed as temporary, low-production paperbacks that prioritized experimental content over durable, user-friendly formats, resulting in inconsistent quality across adoptions.^[35] Lack of comprehensive supplementary materials left teachers without adequate guides for diverse classroom needs, fostering confusion in explaining abstract structures like Boolean algebra or non-decimal bases.^[37] Rural and underfunded districts faced acute disparities, as limited access to institutes and materials prompted instructors to omit advanced sections they could not comprehend or teach, undermining uniform curriculum delivery.^[24]

Student and Classroom Experiences

Students in New Math classrooms during the early to mid-1960s frequently grappled with the application of set theory terminology, such as "union" and "intersection," to routine arithmetic tasks, often resulting in mechanical repetition of phrases without comprehension of the underlying operations.^[1] For example, ninth-grade pupils in 1964 reported anxiety over abstract tools like number lines and graphing, perceiving a lack of familiar rules that prompted reliance on tutors for basic survival in the subject.^[1] This pattern of rote mimicry stemmed from the abrupt shift to conceptual frameworks ill-suited to learners unaccustomed to such abstraction in elementary contexts.^[38] The incomprehensibility of these innovations fueled parental discontent, as captured in Tom Lehrer's 1965 satirical song "New Math," which mocked the substitution of esoteric set-based explanations for straightforward calculations like subtraction, underscoring how everyday concepts appeared obfuscated to non-specialists.^[39]^[40] Parents commonly expressed frustration over homework involving unfamiliar manipulations, such as redefining 1 + 1 in set terms where equivalence did not always hold intuitively, leaving them unable to provide guidance based on their own education.^[1] Classroom dynamics revealed uneven adaptation, with accounts noting that while some advanced learners engaged productively with the emphasis on structural understanding—using aids like Cuisenaire rods for visualization—typical students displayed gaps in executing procedural arithmetic amid the focus on theory.^[1] These disparities highlighted how the pedagogy, though enriching for those with prior aptitude, exacerbated confusion for the majority navigating the material without sufficient foundational bridging.^[41]

Criticisms and Empirical Outcomes

Public and Parental Backlash

Public opposition to the New Math curriculum intensified in the mid-1960s, as parents at Parent-Teacher Association meetings and in letters to local newspapers protested the shift away from rote mastery of basic arithmetic operations toward abstract set theory and algebraic structures, which left children unable to perform everyday calculations like making change or balancing checkbooks.^[42]^[35] These grassroots complaints highlighted immediate, observable difficulties in homework assistance, as parents trained in traditional methods found themselves unable to decipher textbooks featuring symbols and notations alien to their own education.^[43] Media coverage amplified these voices, portraying New Math as a faddish experiment that prioritized theoretical elegance over practical competence, coinciding with public anxieties about eroding foundational skills in an era of perceived social upheaval.^[44]^[45] Outlets like The New York Times echoed parental frustrations by questioning whether students emerging from the program could handle simple addition and subtraction, framing the reforms as a disconnect between ivory-tower abstractions and real-world necessities.^[45] Prominent critic Morris Kline, a New York University mathematician, articulated these issues in his 1973 book Why Johnny Can't Add: The Failure of the New Math, contending that introducing rigorous axiomatic proofs and modern logical frameworks to elementary pupils ignored innate cognitive limitations, resulting in widespread incomprehension rather than deeper insight.^[46] Kline's analysis, drawn from classroom anecdotes and pedagogical observation, underscored how the curriculum's insistence on structural purity before procedural fluency caused tangible breakdowns in student performance on routine tasks.^[46] The backlash reflected deeper suspicions that federally backed initiatives, driven by academic elites from institutions like Yale and funded through the National Science Foundation, bypassed empirical piloting in favor of ideological commitment to mathematical purity, eroding confidence in top-down educational mandates from Washington.^[1] This view positioned parental resistance not as reactionary Luddism but as a pragmatic response to curricula that demonstrably hindered children's acquisition of essential computational tools, prompting demands for reversion to methods proven by generations of practical use.^[1]^[35]

Evidence of Instructional Failures

Standardized test scores in mathematics computation stagnated or declined during the peak implementation of New Math in the 1960s and early 1970s, diverging from pre-reform trends of steady improvement in basic arithmetic skills. For instance, analyses of national assessments revealed a consistent drop in computational proficiency metrics starting around 1965, with elementary and secondary students exhibiting reduced accuracy in fundamental operations like multiplication and division compared to cohorts educated under traditional methods.^[47] This pattern persisted into the 1970s, as evidenced by downward trajectories in scores on arithmetic-focused evaluations, which prioritized rote procedures over the abstract set theory and algebraic structures emphasized in New Math curricula.^[29] Empirical evaluations from the era, including reports on classroom outcomes, documented no significant gains in higher-order mathematical thinking as anticipated by reformers, with persistent deficiencies in both basic computation and problem-solving application. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) assessments highlighted ongoing arithmetic weaknesses among students exposed to New Math, such as errors in algorithmic execution that undermined the promised transfer to advanced reasoning, without corresponding evidence of enhanced conceptual mastery.^[37] Longitudinal data reinforced this inefficacy, showing that U.S. students' performance on international benchmarks like the First International Mathematics Study (FIMS) in 1964 placed the country in a middling to low position—11th out of 12 nations—with no discernible post-reform uplift in computational or structural understanding by the late 1960s.^[48] These outcomes suggest a causal disconnect between New Math's pedagogical innovations and measurable instructional success, as declines in verifiable skills like computation occurred amid reduced emphasis on drill-based practice, without compensatory advances in abstraction application. Critics, drawing on SAT mathematics score data from the period—which fell from an average of approximately 500 in the early 1960s to below 480 by 1970—attributed this to the reform's deprioritization of procedural fluency, though broader societal factors were also debated; however, the temporal alignment with curriculum shifts supports instructional shortcomings as a contributing mechanism.^[35]^[49]

Comparative Effectiveness Against Traditional Methods

Traditional mathematics curricula prior to the New Math reforms emphasized repetitive drill and practice to build procedural fluency in arithmetic fundamentals, resulting in higher levels of basic proficiency among students. For instance, average SAT mathematics scores for college-bound seniors reached 502 in 1963, reflecting strong computational skills developed through mastery of algorithms like long division and fraction operations.^[50] In contrast, cohorts exposed to New Math in the late 1960s and 1970s exhibited diminished performance on these basics, with SAT math scores falling to 488 by 1970 and further to 468 by 1978, indicating a trade-off where abstract emphasis compromised skill retention.^[50]^[35] Empirical evaluations of New Math programs, such as those conducted under the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), revealed limited evidence of superior outcomes compared to traditional approaches. Directed by Edward Begle, these assessments found that while some experimental groups showed marginal gains in certain abstract topics, overall achievement did not surpass traditional methods, particularly in computational accuracy and speed, with no robust data supporting enhanced long-term problem-solving capabilities.^[17] Subsequent 1970s analyses, including standardized test trends, confirmed no net conceptual advantages sufficient to offset the observed deficits in foundational skills, as students struggled with routine applications despite exposure to set theory and axiomatic structures.^[51]^[29] The shift to abstraction in New Math often exceeded the cognitive capacities of typical K-12 learners, who lacked the procedural prerequisites for effective generalization, leading to superficial engagement rather than deep understanding. Cognitive load principles highlight that introducing high-intrinsic-load elements like vector spaces or Boolean algebra without prior fluency overloads working memory, prioritizing germane load inefficiently and hindering schema formation.^[52] Traditional methods' sequenced concrete-to-abstract progression better aligned with developmental stages, fostering automaticity that enables later abstraction, whereas New Math's premature emphasis yielded fragmented knowledge without equivalent skill transmission.^[53] This mismatch underscores why traditional approaches transmitted core competencies more reliably across diverse student populations.

Decline and Reforms

Back-to-Basics Reorientation (1970s)

The "back to basics" movement in U.S. mathematics education emerged prominently in the 1970s as a corrective response to perceived deficiencies in foundational skills following the New Math era, driven by empirical indicators such as declining standardized test performance. Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) verbal scores dropped from an average of 478 in 1963 to 429 by 1978, while math scores fell from 502 to 468 over the same timeframe, prompting widespread concern over students' computational proficiency.^[50] This decline, observed amid broader societal shifts including expanded test-taker pools, fueled demands for reinstating rote drills and algorithmic mastery over abstract conceptualism.^[54] State-level policy interventions accelerated the reorientation, with the majority of U.S. states implementing minimum competency testing in basic skills by the mid-1970s, and nearly half requiring passage for high school graduation.^[29] These measures, often enacted through legislation mandating explicit instruction in arithmetic operations and problem-solving routines, aimed to address documented gaps in elementary and secondary computational abilities revealed by national assessments.^[55] The push reflected a pragmatic acknowledgment of New Math's implementation shortfalls, prioritizing measurable outcomes in core operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. By the mid-1970s, School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG) textbooks, emblematic of the prior reform's axiomatic approach, were largely phased out as federal funding for such initiatives waned and districts shifted away from pure abstraction-heavy materials.^[43] Hybrid curricula began to proliferate, integrating traditional drill-based exercises with select conceptual elements to balance skill acquisition and understanding, thereby mitigating the extremes of earlier experimentation while responding to educator and parental reports of student disengagement.^[35] This transition marked an evidence-driven pivot, substantiated by classroom performance data indicating improved basic competency under the revised emphases.^[56]

Policy Responses and Abandonment

In response to widespread reports of declining student performance and inadequate mastery of fundamental arithmetic skills under New Math curricula, federal funding agencies curtailed support for abstraction-heavy programs by the early 1970s. The National Science Foundation (NSF), which had provided substantial grants for New Math development in the 1960s, discontinued financing for such initiatives, redirecting resources toward more practical instructional approaches amid evidence of implementation shortcomings.^[29] This defunding reflected an institutional recognition that the emphasis on set theory and abstract structures had outpaced teacher readiness and empirical validation of outcomes.^[35] The National Advisory Committee on Mathematical Education (NACOME), convened by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), issued a 1975 report critiquing the rushed nationwide adoption of New Math without sufficient evaluation mechanisms or longitudinal assessment of its causal impact on skill acquisition. The report highlighted accountability gaps, noting that reforms prioritized theoretical innovation over measurable proficiency in computation and problem-solving, contributing to inconsistent results across districts.^[57] It advocated for curricula balancing conceptual understanding with drill in basics, influencing subsequent policy shifts away from unchecked experimentation.^[29] By the late 1970s, New Math was officially abandoned in most U.S. public schools, supplanted by the "back-to-basics" movement that emphasized verifiable competencies in arithmetic and standard algorithms as prerequisites for advanced topics. This reorientation prioritized policies enforcing minimum skill thresholds, paving the way for 1980s standards-based reforms that incorporated standardized testing to track progress and hold systems accountable.^[58] While core elements like structured axiomatic thinking persisted in select advanced or university-preparatory programs, widespread relics of pure New Math abstraction faded, underscoring the policy lesson against scaling unproven reforms without rigorous, data-driven oversight.^[24]

International Dimensions

Adaptations in Europe and Beyond

In the United Kingdom, the "modern mathematics" reforms of the early 1960s introduced abstract topics like set theory, topology, and Boolean algebra into secondary curricula, mirroring U.S. emphases on structuralism but implemented through school mathematics projects supported by bodies such as the School Mathematics Project.^[35] These changes initially gained traction among educators seeking to align with international mathematical rigor, yet by the mid-1960s, parental complaints about diminished computational proficiency and incomprehensibility led to widespread criticism, culminating in a swift retreat to traditional methods by the 1970s.^[35] This shorter lifecycle compared to the U.S. stemmed from earlier public scrutiny and less entrenched institutional commitment, with evaluations highlighting failures in basic arithmetic retention among students exposed to the reforms.^[43] France's "mathématiques modernes," heavily shaped by the Bourbaki collective's axiomatic and set-theoretic framework from the 1930s onward, integrated these elements into secondary schooling during the 1960s and 1970s, emphasizing deductive structures over rote procedures.^[59] Unlike broader implementations elsewhere, this approach persisted more enduringly in elite tracks, such as the classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles established post-1960 reforms, where it cultivated advanced proof-based reasoning for university-bound students, contributing to France's sustained strength in pure mathematics competitions and higher education.^[59] Empirical data from international assessments in later decades showed French students outperforming averages in abstract reasoning tasks, though critiques noted uneven adaptation for non-elite lycées, with some dilution of foundational skills.^[60] In the Soviet Union, Andrey Kolmogorov's curriculum overhaul from 1968 onward advanced abstraction by introducing coordinate geometry, vectors, and functional analysis in grades 6–10, targeting a centralized system to produce mathematically adept engineers amid Cold War priorities.^[61] This reform, rolled out nationally by 1970, prioritized elite potential through olympiad-style depth for top performers while applying rigor broadly, but standardized testing data revealed declining performance in entrance exams by the late 1970s, as the abstract focus overwhelmed average students' prerequisites in arithmetic and geometry.^[61] A counter-reform in the 1980s reinstated more concrete methods, averting total abandonment but underscoring contextual advantages in a streamed, state-directed system that buffered against mass rejection.^[61] Eastern European adaptations under Soviet influence similarly confined high abstraction to specialized schools or upper secondary levels, as in Kolmogorov-inspired programs in Poland and Hungary during the 1970s, where selective tracking preserved outcomes for gifted cohorts without universal K-12 disruption. In Asia, countries like Japan and South Korea eschewed wholesale New Math emulation, instead bolstering traditional drill-based systems with targeted abstraction for elite university entrance exams, yielding superior PISA mathematics scores by the 2000s through incremental integration rather than overhaul.^[62] The Netherlands exemplified selective incorporation via the Institute for the Development of Mathematics Education (IOWO, founded 1968), which evolved New Math principles into Realistic Mathematics Education by the 1970s, blending abstract structures with real-world contexts to foster informal modeling before formalization.^[63] Longitudinal studies documented mixed results, including persistent deficits in procedural fluency—such as fraction subtraction and algebraic manipulation—attributed to deviations from intended balances, yet national TIMSS rankings remained competitive without the populist backlash of Anglo-American cases, due to phased implementation and teacher retraining emphases.^[64] These European variants highlight how limiting abstraction to advanced strata or contextualizing it mitigated U.S.-style failures, with outcomes varying by systemic selectivity and empirical monitoring.^[64]

Contrasting Outcomes Abroad

In nations with entrenched cultural and pedagogical commitments to foundational computational mastery, such as Japan, selective incorporation of New Math-inspired abstractions—emphasizing sets and structures—served to augment rather than supplant rote skill-building. Japan's national curriculum, revised in the 1950s and 1960s, prioritized exhaustive practice in arithmetic basics before introducing axiomatic reasoning, enabling students to achieve top rankings in the 1964 First International Mathematics Study (FIMS), where Japanese 13-year-olds outperformed peers from 11 other countries in computation and mechanics subtests by margins exceeding 20% on average.^[65] This edge persisted into the Second International Mathematics Study (SIMS) of 1980–82, with Japan maintaining superior arithmetic proficiency amid global shifts toward abstraction-heavy curricula.^[66] Causal factors included rigorous teacher preparation via lesson study (kyōzai kenkyū), which adapted modern elements to reinforce procedural fluency, and societal norms valuing diligence in basics over premature theorizing.^[67] Conversely, wholesale adoptions in countries lacking such bulwarks, like France's "mathématiques modernes" reform from 1969–1970, yielded outcomes paralleling U.S. instructional shortfalls, with emphasis on set theory and lattices eroding basic numeracy. By the mid-1970s, French educators reported widespread pupil disorientation in everyday calculations, prompting partial abandonment by 1977 in favor of reinstated traditional methods; analyses attributed this to inadequate sequencing, where abstractions displaced drill without building causal prerequisites for understanding.^[68] In Brazil, the "Nova Matemática" initiative of the 1970s, disseminated through state programs influenced by U.S. and European models, similarly triggered parental resistance and stagnant scores in national assessments, as radical curriculum overhauls prioritized structuralism over arithmetic automation, mirroring U.S. patterns of score plateaus in basic operations during the era.^[69]^[70] These divergences underscore how pre-existing cultural reverence for computational rigor—evident in Japan's Confucian-influenced exam preparation traditions—permitted enhancements without foundational erosion, whereas in France and Brazil, weaker baseline emphases on mastery invited parallel failures, as evidenced by IEA data showing non-adaptive systems retaining computational advantages into the 1980s.^[71]^[72]

Legacy and Modern Reflections

Influence on Subsequent Reforms

The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics' Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics (1989) perpetuated key elements of New Math's philosophy by emphasizing process-oriented instruction, conceptual understanding, and problem-solving over procedural drill and mastery, reflecting an enduring preference for abstraction that overlooked empirical evidence of the prior reform's implementation failures.^[73] This approach paralleled New Math in overestimating teacher readiness, introducing ambitious curricular shifts without adequate training or evaluation, and inviting "back to basics" counter-movements, thus failing to internalize lessons from widespread instructional disruptions.^[73]^[74] Such abstraction biases reemerged prominently in the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics, developed in the late 2000s and adopted by many states starting in 2010, which prioritized foundational principles, multiple pathways to solutions, and conceptual depth—reviving New Math-style critiques amid parental backlash over diminished emphasis on computational fluency and standard algorithms.^[49]^[35] Viral complaints and guides for parents highlighted implementation haste and confusion, much like the 1960s uproar, underscoring persistent tensions between innovative intent and practical skill deficits in under-resourced classrooms.^[49] Positively, New Math normalized the integration of advanced topics like functions, matrices, and abstract structures into high school curricula, with adoption expanding from about 50% of schools in the mid-1960s to 85% by the mid-1970s, thereby elevating mathematical rigor for prepared students despite the reform's broader costs to basic proficiency in systems lacking foundational support.^[35]^[75]

Lessons for Educational Policy

The New Math reform's rapid nationwide rollout, spearheaded by the National Science Foundation in the early 1960s without prior large-scale empirical validation through randomized controlled trials or longitudinal pilots, exemplifies the risks of prioritizing theoretical innovation over tested outcomes.^[76] Academic proponents, drawing from post-Sputnik anxieties, advocated abstract structures like set theory for elementary students to foster deeper understanding, yet implementation exposed deficiencies in teacher preparation and student comprehension, culminating in declining proficiency in basic arithmetic by the late 1960s.^[35] This haste ignored causal mechanisms in learning, where unproven curricula disrupt skill acquisition chains, as evidenced by subsequent policy shifts toward basics-only instruction that restored foundational competencies.^[1] Policy thus demands reforms validated by rigorous experimentation, such as controlled studies measuring not just conceptual grasp but applied problem-solving, to avoid replicating New Math's overreliance on elite consensus detached from classroom realities. Causal realism in cognitive development further dictates that educational sequences align with psychological prerequisites, mandating mastery of concrete operations before abstract reasoning to prevent widening achievement gaps. Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive growth, empirically derived from observational studies of children, indicate that formal operational thinking—essential for algebraic abstraction—emerges reliably only after age 11 in most individuals, following sensorimotor and concrete phases focused on tangible manipulation and basic quantification.^[77] New Math's inversion of this order, introducing Boolean logic and modular arithmetic to pre-adolescents, confounded learners lacking procedural fluency, disproportionately harming those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who entered with weaker prerequisites, thereby entrenching inequality rather than mitigating it.^[35] Modern policy should enforce tiered curricula, piloting abstractions only after verified basics attainment, as deviations amplify failure rates without compensatory mechanisms like extended remediation. Top-down federal interventions, as in the NSF's multimillion-dollar funding of New Math materials without sufficient local input or iterative feedback, reveal the pitfalls of centralized progressivism that elevates academic theory above verifiable efficacy.^[78] Such approaches, often insulated from practitioner critique by institutional prestige, foster superficial adoption—teachers ill-equipped for paradigm shifts delivered rote abstractions without bridging to computation—leading to parental and legislative revolt by 1975.^[79] While academia's bias toward novelty, evidenced in persistent advocacy for "understanding-first" despite contradictory outcomes, merits scrutiny for undervaluing traditional methods' empirical track record, policy responses favor decentralized models: state or district-level trials with transparent metrics, empowering evidence over mandates to ensure reforms enhance, rather than erode, core competencies.^[76]

References

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Whatever Happened to New Math? - AMERICAN HERITAGE
By the mid-1960s, more than half the nation's high schools had adopted some form of the new-math curriculum. The figure jumped to an estimated 85 percent of all ...
[2]
[PDF] The School Mathematics Study Group - UR Scholarship Repository
Jul 10, 2020 · The School Mathematics Study Group (1958–1972) declared its mission in 1961 to. “foster research and development in the teaching of school ...
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Why Johnny Can't Add: The Failure of the New Math. By Morris Kline ...
Morris Kline has for many years been the acknowledged champ of the critics of the new math. In Why Johnny Can't Add he collects his criticisms under one cover.
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How Sputnik changed U.S. education - Harvard Gazette
Oct 11, 2007 · Education experts said Oct. 4 that the United States may be overdue for a science education overhaul like the one undertaken after the Soviet Union launched ...
[5]
A Federal Investment in STEM Education - New Classrooms
May 21, 2024 · On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union shocked the world by launching Sputnik I – the first artificial satellite – into space.
[6]
How the Space Race Led to Tons of Homework for US Students
Aug 13, 2019 · In the first half of the 20th century, US educators shunned homework. The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1 changed that.
[7]
[PDF] The Effect of the Cold War on the American Education System
Apr 28, 2016 · The Cold War led to US lagging behind Europe in education, with concerns in reading, writing, math, sciences, and fitness. The US government ...
[8]
Sputnik Spurs Passage of the National Defense Education Act
Although aimed primarily at education in science, mathematics, and foreign languages, the act also helped expand college libraries and other services for all ...
[9]
Science Leaders Prepare Pitch for National Defense Education Act 2.0
Oct 18, 2024 · The NDEA provided $1 billion in funding for student loans, academic scholarships, and fellowship grants, and is credited with helping to boost ...<|separator|>
[10]
[PDF] The National Defense Education Act of 1958: Selected Outcomes
The NDEA's funding of science, engineering, and foreign language education would, it was hoped, enable the United States to regain scientific and technological ...
[11]
America's maths wars - The Economist
Nov 6, 2021 · The cold war sparked a second strategic maths panic in the 1950s. A new maths curriculum, focused on conceptual understanding rather than ...
[12]
How Sputnik Forced American Kids to Learn 'New Math'
Jan 19, 2022 · New Math stressed conceptual understanding of the principles of mathematics and de-emphasized technical computing skills.
[13]
The Race to Space Rocketed NSF Into Classrooms - Education Week
May 19, 1999 · In the case of the New Math, the money went to Yale University to support the School Mathematics Study Group, or SMSG. Educational Services ...
[14]
Edward Begle (1914 - 1978) - Biography - MacTutor
Begle was offered the position of director of the SMSG which he accepted with enthusiasm. ... Begle, chief proponent of 'new math,' The New York Times (3 March ...
[15]
Chronology - Nonpartisan Education Review
1958 Establishment of School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), the largest and best financed of all the NSF projects of the era, by the combined efforts of the ...
[16]
Prof. Edward G. Begle, Chief Proponent of 'New Math'
Mar 3, 1978 · Prof. Edward G. Begle, the foremost proponent of “new math,” died yesterday at the/Stanford University Medical Center in Palo Alto, Calif.
[17]
[PDF] Three Thrusts of the New Math - ASCD
Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), Edward. G. Begle, Director. These programs were the products of teams consisting of mathematics educators, mathematicians ...
[18]
[PDF] Axiomatics Between Hilbert and the New Math: Diverging Views on ...
As a matter of fact, Bourbaki's influence was also felt in the American context, especially through the figure of Marshall Stone (1903–. 1989). A detailed ...
[19]
The University of Illinois School Mathematics Program
University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics was started at the University of Illinois in 1951. It was a joint venture of the. College of Education ...
[20]
UICSM in its second decade - Golden - 1963 - Wiley Online Library
The University of Illinois Committee on School Mathematics was established in 1951 by the Colleges of Education, Engineering, and Liberal Arts and Sciences.
[21]
High School Mathematics Texts, 1955-1968
Description: Printed and duplicated "High School Mathematics," a set of texts for courses in mathematics organized by the University of Illinois Committee on ...
[22]
[PDF] ED 08r 707 SE 017 487 TITLE School Mathematics Study Group ...
The objective of the School Mathematics Study. Group is the improvement of the teaching of mathe- matics in the schools. School programs must attract and.Missing: NSF | Show results with:NSF<|separator|>
[23]
Mathematics: Set theory for six-year-olds - Nature
Dec 3, 2014 · The New Math charts the method's rise and fall through the story of the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), an association of mathematicians ...
[24]
Whatever became of the New Math? - Nonpartisan Education Review
The year 1958 therefore kicked off the largest and best financed single reform effort ever seen in mathematics education, the School Mathematics Study Group ...
[25]
Mathematics curriculum, K–12 | Research Starters - EBSCO
The New Math curriculum included advanced content that had never before been covered in public schools, such as set theory, Boolean algebra, base arithmetic, ...<|separator|>
[26]
[PDF] The New Math and the Nature of Mathematics at Midcentury
20 For SMSG and Bourbaki, the structures of modern math should determine the emphasis of both research and pedagogy. Bourbaki's emphasis on the elimination of ...
[27]
[PDF] *School Mathematics Study, Group` - ERIC
the ideas that Underlie themathematical presentation. The general plan of the course is to build 'Upon thegtulent's experience with arithmetic.
[28]
[PDF] This is part one of a two-part SMSG text for grade seven students ...
When we studied the commutative and associative properties, we found it helpful to write the properties by using letters. In this way we included all the ...
[29]
A Brief History of American K-12 Mathematics Education in the 20th ...
That same year, the American Mathematical Society set up the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), headed by Edward G. ... Earlier research funded by the NSF ...
[30]
TRANSFORMATIONS IN HIGH SCHOOL GEOMETRY BEFORE 1970
Gans, Transformations and Geometries. (New York : Appleton-Century-Crofts,. 1969). 7. Klein, Elementary Mathematics, p. 133. 8. Felix Klein ...
[31]
SMSGTEXTS
Mathematics for the Elementary School Special Editions: 53. Book K, Teacher's Commentary. 54. Book 1, Student's Text, Parts I and II. 55. Book 1, Teacher's ...
[32]
SMSG: THE FIRST DECADE - NCTM
The primary purpose of the SMSG is to fos- ter research and development in the teaching of school mathematics. This research will consist, in part, of a ...
[33]
[PDF] Untitled - the CSMP Preservation Project
It seems to have been an article of faith for SMSG, from its very beginning, that stressing understanding of mathematical ideas over rote learning of mathe-.<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Madison Project - Archival Collections - Library at Webster University
Apr 4, 2025 · The Madison Project was an innovative math curriculum, funded by the NSF, that began in 1957, aiming to improve math education and provide ...
[35]
What Happened to 'New Math'? - Medium
an ongoing series of ...
[36]
The Madison Project and new math -- what happened?
Mar 2, 1981 · About 1960, I went to a small town in central Georgia and offered to teach a demonstration class in the all-white elementary school, and next ...
[37]
None
Summary of each segment:
[38]
SMSG: Did any school districts actual teach the curriculum as ...
Nov 9, 2015 · Pollak was heavily involved with the School Mathematics Study Group (SMSG), an attempt to improve primary and secondary American mathematics ...
[39]
Tom Lehrer: a comical, musical, mathematical genius - The Irish Times
Sep 17, 2018 · In “New Math”, Lehrer mercilessly pilloried the controversial educational programme that was introduced in the 1960s. On the ill-conceived ...
[40]
Tom Lehrer Releases His All of Catchy and Savage Musical Satire ...
Oct 21, 2020 · “New Math” gives a similar treatment to the Sputnik-spooked U.S.'s ill-advised scramble to reform mathematics education, and I got a laugh ...
[41]
Meet the New Math, Unlike the Old Math | Quanta Magazine
Oct 5, 2016 · The latest effort to overhaul math and science education offers a fundamental rethinking of the basic structure of knowledge.
[42]
The Second Great Math Rebellion (Opinion) - Education Week
Oct 15, 1997 · In the 1960s, the curriculum known as the New Math was routed from classrooms by angry parents and teachers. Parents didn't recognize the ...
[43]
[PDF] How did we get here? Timelines showing changes to maths ...
Aug 16, 2022 · Many important National Science Foundation (NSF) funded projects, including School Mathematics. Study Group (SMSG), University of Maryland ...
[44]
[PDF] Public Perception: New Math and Reform Mathematics - PDXScholar
Once again, Table 3 presents a brief comparative overview for New Math and Reform Mathematics, supported by further details within this section. New Mathematics.
[45]
Does new math add up? - The New York Times
Jan 6, 1974 · “S.M.S.G. started out to change the mathematics curriculum,” said Begle after the project was ended in 1972. “It was completely successful. We ...
[46]
Why Johnny can't add: the failure of the new math - Internet Archive
Oct 31, 2014 · Why Johnny can't add: the failure of the new math. by: Kline, Morris, 1908-1992. Publication date: 1973. Topics: Mathematics.Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
[PDF] The Decline of Standardized Test Scores in the United - ERIC
Student scores on standardized tests have steadily declined since 1965. Researchers conducted a literature review and completed data analysis to determine ...
[48]
Report Aims to Debunk 'Myth' About Glory Days of U.S. Achievement
Feb 7, 2011 · To illustrate, the report examines the First International Math Study (FIMS ), conducted in 1964. The United States ranked 11 out of the 12 ...
[49]
The New Math Strikes Back
not the elementary school — math curriculum. This they did ...
[50]
The Achievement Decline of the 1970s - jstor
3 The SAT verbal average declined from a high of 478 in 1963 to 460 in 1970 and 429 in 1978, while math SAT scores averaged 502, 488, and 468 in those years. A ...
[51]
[PDF] Inquiry Based Mathematics Instruction Versus Traditional ...
“New Math” was brought about in the 1960s and 1970s which put more of an emphasis on set language and properties, proof and abstraction (Education.com, 2009).
[52]
Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design
Aug 27, 2009 · This article discusses cognitive load theory, a theory relating working memory characteristics and the design of instructional systems.
[53]
[PDF] Cognitive Load in Solving Mathematics Problems - ERIC
Nov 24, 2020 · ABSTRACT. Cognitive load can play a key role in learners' abilities to solve complex problems like mathematics. Many.
[54]
Student Change, Program Change: Why SAT Scores Kept Falling SAT
This report suggests that the academic demand level of the schools probably stopped falling in the late 1970s, that 1980 marked a significant turning point, and ...
[55]
[PDF] Mathematics Education - 1955-1975: A Summary of the Findings*
basics movement has come from the public's belief that pupils have failed to learn minimal computational skills. The issue of back-to-basics seems to be ...
[56]
Schools' Back-to-Basics Drive Found to Be Working in Math
Jun 8, 1988 · The back-to-basics movement in education that began in the 1970's has succeeded in assuring that almost every American high school graduate can handle simple ...
[57]
NACOME: Implications for Curriculum Design - NCTM
This is the chief innovation of the new math, and because it is not one of the excesses that have been abandoned, it must still be faced. The authors of there-.
[58]
Why Did They Change The Way They Teach Math?! - Mathnasium
Sep 21, 2018 · The backlash from New Math led to “Back to Basics.” Back to Basics focused on computation, algorithms, and facts. Many teachers and parents of ...
[59]
Bourbaki at Seventy-Five: Its Influence in France and Beyond ...
Throughout three quarters of a century, Bourbaki changed mathematics and mathematics education significantly. It was instrumental in the Moderne Mathématique ...
[60]
On the idea of 'democratisation', 'modern mathematics' and ...
Aug 27, 2014 · The community of mathematicians reflected on this at the same time it discussed the new architecture of mathematics initiated by Bourbaki.
[61]
The Kolmogorov Reform of Mathematics Education in the USSR
Oct 7, 2022 · In the Soviet Union a reform movement in mathematics education was triggered by Andrey Kolmogorov in the 1970s, and followed by a counter-reform.Missing: abstraction elite
[62]
The “New Math” Movement in the U.S. vs Kolmogorov's Math ...
Aug 3, 2013 · This is my first attempt to give an overview of math curriculum reforms in the US and the USSR during the Cold War period.
[63]
Idealistic Mathematics Education: The Institute for the Development ...
In an insightful chapter in a recent volume on post-war mathematics reforms, Danny Beckers argues that the work of IOWO can be seen as the Dutch version of New ...
[64]
Shortcomings of Mathematics Education Reform in The Netherlands
Jan 22, 2016 · This article offers a reflection on the findings of three PhD studies, in the domains of, respectively, subtraction under 100, fractions, and algebra.
[65]
Early IEA Studies
The IEA First International Mathematics Study (FIMS) was conducted to investigate the outcomes of various school systems in a field of schooling that was, at ...
[66]
International Mathen1atics Study Results in the - USA and Japan
Japanese results from the Second Inter- national Mathematics Study (SIMS) for first-year middle school and third-year high.
[67]
two cases from kyouzai kenkyuu in Japan | ZDM – Mathematics ...
May 26, 2021 · In this paper, we explore theoretical approaches to Japanese teachers' lesson designs involving the adaptation of mathematics textbooks for instructional ...
[68]
[PDF] History and Pedagogy of Mathematics in France
[An analyzis of the intentions of the promotors of the Reform of Modern Mathematics in. France in the 1960‟s and on the bad effects of this Reform]. Barbin E ...
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[PDF] marcas históricas da matemática moderna no brasil - Redalyc
em diferentes estados para a difusão da nova matemática, programas de Mate- mática eram radicalmente reformulados influenciados por diferentes correntes.
[70]
[PDF] movimento da matemática moderna no
currículo da "nova matemática" pelo Brasil e de que forma esses mecanismos foram utilizados para reforçar os laços de dependência do Brasil com os países ...<|separator|>
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(PDF) The effects of culture on mathematics lessons - ResearchGate
Aug 29, 2020 · This paper reports the results of an international comparative study conducted in Switzerland and Japan of an elementary school mathematics lesson.
[72]
Achievement comparisons between the first and second IEA studies ...
Performance levels have declined, for example, in the area of computational skills of arithmetic, and improved overall in algebra. Download to read the full ...
[73]
Reforming the NCTM standards in light of historical perspective
This paper defines some of the historically consistent events and situations surrounding both the New Math Movement and the NCTM Standards. These commonalities ...Missing: influence | Show results with:influence
[74]
[PDF] A Compendium of Views on the NCTM Standards - ERIC
The NCTM Standards (1989) was born in this interesting arena, where researchers were beginning to identify vital components of learning and teaching mathematics ...
[75]
Matrices. New Topics for Secondary School Mathematics: Materials ...
This material on matrices is part of "Introduction to College Mathematics" (ICM), designed to prepare high school students who have students who have ...Missing: legacy functions
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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/26375451.2025.2474349
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https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
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NSF Plots New Education Strategy
Nov 7, 2001 · Specifically, the new projects still ignore the argument that students need to learn basic mathematical procedures before their teachers ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques<|control11|><|separator|>
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Why Many Top-Down School Reforms Fail: Elementary Math in One ...
Oct 18, 2021 · In this post, I want to point out how easy it is for a district school reform to be declared a “failure” by media, parents, and practitioners ...Missing: critiques NSF