Nine Provinces
The Nine Provinces (Chinese: 九州; pinyin: Jiǔzhōu), also known as Jiuzhou, is an ancient Chinese geographical and cosmological term referring to the division of the known world—primarily the central regions of ancient China—into nine major administrative or cultural regions, symbolizing the extent of civilized habitation under legendary rule.[1] This concept, first documented in the Tribute of Yu (Yugong) chapter of the Book of Documents (Shujing), attributes the divisions to the flood-taming hero Yu the Great (c. 2200 BCE), though the chapter was likely composed during the Warring States period (c. 5th–3rd century BCE).[2] The nine provinces are traditionally listed as Jizhou, Yanzhou, Qingzhou, Xuzhou, Yangzhou, Jingzhou, Yuzhou, Liangzhou, and Yongzhou.[1] These regions were not formal administrative units but rather symbolic zones classified by their distance from the Yellow River's midstream—the cultural and political center—within a broader tianxia (all-under-heaven) framework that extended to five concentric zones of decreasing civilization, from the central royal domain to peripheral "barbarian" territories.[2] Historically, the Jiuzhou concept emerged in the pre-Qin period (before 221 BCE) and appears in classical texts such as The Rituals of Zhou (Zhouli), Er Ya, and Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals (Lüshi Chunqiu), where it represented the unified scope of Chinese territory and moral order rather than practical governance.[1] By the late Spring and Autumn Period (c. 770–476 BCE), it had become a poetic and ethnocentric designation for China as a whole, influencing later imperial ideologies, urban planning, and cosmology.[2] The term Jiuzhou persists in modern Chinese literature and nomenclature as a synonym for the nation, evoking unity and ancient heritage.[1]Etymology and Terminology
Origins of the Term
The term "Jiuzhou" (九州), denoting the "Nine Provinces," derives from the combination of "jiu" (九), meaning "nine," and "zhou" (州), originally picturing land enclosed by water and signifying a region, continent, or administrative division.[3] This compound first appears in textual records in the Yugong (Tribute of Yu) chapter of the Shangshu (Book of Documents), a foundational classic with texts from various periods, though the Yugong was likely composed during the Warring States period (475–221 BCE) and describes legendary divisions from the earlier Xia era. Traditionally attributed to the Xia dynasty, modern scholars date it to the late Warring States period based on linguistic and geographical evidence.[4] In this context, the nine provinces represent a cosmological and geographical framework for the known world under heaven, emphasizing unity amid diverse terrains.[5] Conceptually, "Jiuzhou" originated as mythical regions shaped through heroic intervention, particularly associated with Yu the Great's efforts to control floods and delineate boundaries. Over time, the term evolved from these symbolic, outer or peripheral territories—where "zhou" evoked isolated or encircling lands beyond central polities—to more structured administrative units reflecting expanding imperial control. This shift underscores a transition from mythological geography to practical governance, with "zhou" initially connoting expansive, sometimes "barbarian" frontiers in pre-imperial discourse.[6] Linguistically, archaic forms of the characters reflect early phonetic patterns. In Old Chinese, as reconstructed by Baxter and Sagart (2014), "jiu" is *kʷˤa and "zhou" is *lˤa, highlighting patterns typical of the period's sound system.[7] These reconstructions, drawn from rhyme evidence in poetic texts like the Shijing and graphic-phonetic compounds, illustrate how the term's pronunciation stabilized amid evolving scribal traditions by the late second millennium BCE.[8]Linguistic Evolution
The characters comprising the term "Jiǔ Zhōu" (九州), denoting "nine provinces," trace their origins to the formative stages of Chinese writing during the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE). The character 九 (jiǔ, "nine") appears in oracle bone inscriptions as a pictograph depicting a bent arm or hand with extended fingers, symbolizing the numeral nine in a gestural form typical of early numerary representations.[9] In bronzeware script of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), it evolved into a more angular and stylized form with intersecting lines, reflecting the medium's casting techniques and increased abstraction.[10] The character 州 (zhōu, originally meaning "island" or "region") is attested in oracle bone script as a pictograph showing a river with a central islet, evoking hydrological features used to denote administrative divisions.[11] By Zhou bronzeware, it simplified to emphasize the enclosing water elements around a core landmass, facilitating inscription on metal surfaces.[10] The compound term "Jiǔ Zhōu" itself first appears in the "Yu Gong" (Tribute of Yu) chapter of the Shujing (Book of Documents), where it describes the legendary division of the realm into nine regions by Yu the Great following the Great Flood.[12] This period saw the standardization of scripts across rival states, transitioning from diverse regional variants in bronzeware to more uniform forms that presaged the Qin dynasty's small seal script, enabling the term's widespread adoption in administrative and mythological narratives.[13] Phonologically, the term's pronunciation shifted with the evolution of Sinitic languages. In Middle Chinese (c. 6th–10th centuries CE), as reconstructed by Bernhard Karlgren, it approximated /kɨu djɛu/, with 九 featuring a high central vowel and entering tone, and 州 a palatal affricate initial and diphthongal ending reflective of Tang-era rime tables. Modern Standard Mandarin renders it as Jiǔ Zhōu (pinyin: jǐu ʈʂóu), contrasting with the Wade-Giles romanization Chiu¹ Chou¹, which preserves aspirated initials but aligns more closely with 19th-century missionary transcriptions. In cross-linguistic adaptations, "Jiǔ Zhōu" influenced neighboring Sinospheres. English translations vary between "Nine Provinces," emphasizing administrative units, and "Nine Regions," highlighting broader territorial connotations in ancient contexts.[13] Japanese borrowed the characters as Kyūshū (きゅうしゅう), applying it both to the classical Chinese concept and the southernmost main island, with the on'yomi pronunciation reflecting Sino-Japanese phonology.[13] In Korean, it became guju (구주), using Sino-Korean readings to denote the historical divisions in texts influenced by Chinese cosmology.Mythological Foundations
Role in the Great Flood Myth
In ancient Chinese mythology, the Great Flood is depicted as a catastrophic deluge that submerged vast regions of the world, with raging waters dashing against the skies, swelling rivers and seas, and eroding hills and mounds, rendering the land uncultivable and chaotic.[14] This primordial inundation disrupted the pre-existing order, transforming habitable territories into a watery expanse where survival was precarious. The flood myth symbolizes the breakdown of cosmic harmony, setting the stage for heroic efforts to restore terrestrial order.[14] The Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), an ancient cosmographic text, contributes to this mythological framework by describing the landscape in relation to Yu the Great's efforts to organize the land after the flood, where mountains, seas, and rivers form a structured mythical terrain reflecting themes of renewal.[14] Central to the narrative are divine interventions preceding more famous efforts, particularly by Gun, who sought to stem the flood using stolen self-renewing soil to build barriers against the waters. His attempt, detailed in the Shanhaijing, failed catastrophically, leading to his execution and emphasizing the flood's insurmountable nature without proper alignment with heavenly mandate. This sets the stage for the myth's progression toward renewal.[14]Association with Yu the Great
Yu the Great, also known as Da Yu, was the son of Gun, who had been tasked by the sage-king Shun with controlling a devastating flood but failed after nine years by attempting to block the waters with dikes. Succeeding his executed father, Yu adopted a different approach, dredging channels and rivers to guide the floodwaters away from inhabited areas, a method that succeeded where blocking had not. This monumental task consumed 13 years of unrelenting labor, during which Yu passed his home three times but refrained from entering to visit his wife and newborn son, prioritizing the welfare of the realm over personal ties.[15][16] Upon completing the flood control, as detailed in the Tribute of Yu (Yugong) chapter of the Book of Documents (Shujing), Yu undertook the organization of the newly stabilized territory, marking its boundaries with prominent mountains and flowing rivers to delineate administrative regions.[3][17] This division established the foundational Nine Provinces, serving as the structural basis for tribute payments that sustained the emerging Xia dynasty, which Yu founded as its first ruler. The process symbolized the transition from chaos to ordered governance, integrating the landscape's natural features into a unified system of regional oversight. In later traditions, Yu's legacy as organizer of the Nine Provinces is further embodied in the legendary nine bronze tripods (jiuding), cast from metals contributed by each province as tribute. These vessels, symbolizing imperial authority and the realm's unity, were inscribed with representations or lists of the provinces, reinforcing Yu's role in territorial definition. The tripods became enduring emblems of dynastic legitimacy, passed down through subsequent rulers until their mythical loss.[18][19]Historical Development
Pre-Qin References
The earliest textual references to the Nine Provinces appear in the Shangshu (Book of Documents), a foundational Confucian classic compiled during the Warring States period around the 5th century BCE. In its "Yugong" (Tribute of Yu) chapter, the text recounts how Yu the Great, after quelling the Great Flood, systematically divided the known world into nine administrative regions to facilitate governance, tribute collection, and resource management.[3] The chapter details each province's geographical features, soil quality, and specific tributes—such as silk from Yang Province or metals from Yong Province—portraying the divisions as a model of ordered harmony between ruler and realm.[20] This narrative underscores the provinces not merely as territorial units but as integral to a ritualized system of reciprocity and imperial legitimacy.[3] Variations on this framework emerge in the Yi Zhou Shu (Lost Book of Zhou), a pre-Qin compendium of Western Zhou-era documents assembled by the late Warring States period. The text includes references to nine regions in the context of Zhou royal rituals, such as in chapter 21 ("Feng bao"), where princes from the nine regions arrive at the Zhou capital.[21] These depictions highlight the provinces' role in sustaining a tribute-based economy intertwined with religious and political rites under Zhou kingship. The Nine Provinces concept also appears in other pre-Qin texts, such as The Rituals of Zhou (Zhouli), Er Ya, and Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals (Lüshi Chunqiu), where it represented the unified scope of Chinese territory and moral order rather than practical governance.[1]Integration into Dynastic Systems
Following the unification of China in 221 BCE, the Qin dynasty restructured the empire into 36 commanderies (jun) overseen by centrally appointed officials, marking a shift from feudal states to a bureaucratic system, while invoking the ancient Nine Provinces (Jiuzhou) concept from pre-Qin texts like the Tribute of Yu to bolster imperial legitimacy through historical continuity.[22] Under the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the administrative framework evolved further, with the empire divided into 13 provinces (zhou) by the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE), each comprising multiple commanderies and counties to facilitate centralized control.[23] Many of these zhou were named after the ancient Nine Provinces, such as Yongzhou and Qingzhou, aligning the new order with the mythical divisions attributed to Yu the Great.[24] The Nine Provinces served as an enduring cultural archetype, influencing the organization of these zhou and underpinning practices like the census and taxation, as detailed in Ban Gu's Hanshu: Geographical Treatise (Hanshu Dili zhi), which cataloged over 4,500 place-names to integrate geography with fiscal administration and reinforce the Han's claim to universal rule.[24] This approach preserved the Jiuzhou's symbolic structure, treating it as a foundational model for territorial unity rather than a strict administrative template. In subsequent dynasties, the Nine Provinces' influence persisted in evolving systems. The Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) organized its territory into 15 circuits (dao) by 733 CE under Emperor Xuanzong, grouping prefectures in ways that echoed the nine-fold regional identities of the Jiuzhou, such as alignments in Henan and Hebei, to support oversight and resource allocation. Similarly, the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) initially organized into about 15 circuits (lu) in the late 10th century, which were expanded to 23 by the late 11th century under Emperor Shenzong, retaining Jiuzhou-derived nomenclature (e.g., Jingdong and Jingxi) to maintain historical continuity in governance and adapting the ancient archetype for a more fragmented post-Tang landscape.[25]Geographical Divisions
The Traditional Nine Provinces
The Traditional Nine Provinces, as delineated in the ancient text Yu Gong (Tribute of Yu) from the Shangshu (Book of Documents), represent the foundational administrative and geographical divisions attributed to Yu the Great following his flood control efforts.[26] These provinces, known collectively as Jiuzhou (九州), encompassed the core territories of early Chinese civilization, each defined by natural boundaries such as rivers, mountains, and seas, and characterized by their unique tribute offerings to the central authority. The system emphasized regional specialization, with tributes reflecting local resources and products essential for the state's economy and rituals.[3] The provinces are described in a sequential order starting from the north and proceeding clockwise, highlighting their hydrological features and contributions. Below is a summary of the nine provinces, including their classical names, approximate locations, key tribute products, and rough correspondences to modern Chinese provinces (noting that ancient boundaries do not align precisely with contemporary political divisions).[26][3]| Province (Pinyin/Chinese) | Approximate Classical Location | Key Tribute Products | Modern Equivalents (Approximate) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ji (冀州) | North, around the Yellow River's northern regions | Skin dresses from island tribes | Hebei, parts of Shanxi and Inner Mongolia |
| Yan (兖州) | Northeast, between the Ji and Yellow Rivers | Varnish, silk, and woven ornamental fabrics | Shandong, northern Henan |
| Qing (青州) | East, bounded by the sea and Mount Tai | Salt, silk, hemp, lead, pine, stones, and sea products | Eastern Shandong |
| Xu (徐州) | Southeast, from the sea to Mount Tai and the Huai River | Five-color earth, pheasants, pearls, fish, and silks | Jiangsu, northern Anhui |
| Yang (扬州) | South, between the Huai River and the sea | Gold, silver, copper, bamboos, ivory, feathers, and oranges | Southern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, parts of Jiangxi |
| Jing (荆州) | Central-south, between Mount Jing and the Yangzi River (Hengyang region) | Feathers, ivory, gold, timber, rush, silks, and tortoise shells | Hubei, Hunan |
| Yu (豫州) | Central, from Mount Jing to the Yellow River | Varnish, hemp, fine dolichos cloth, and polishing stones | Henan, southern Shanxi |
| Liang (梁州) | Southwest, south of Mount Hua and along the Black Water River | Gold, iron, silver, skins, and nets | Southern Shaanxi, Gansu |
| Yong (雍州) | Northwest, from the Black Water to the western Yellow River | Jade, stones, and skins from western tribes | Central Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, Ningxia |