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Oracle bone script

Oracle bone script, known in Chinese as jiaguwen (甲骨文), is the earliest known form of systematic writing in China, dating to the late Shang Dynasty (c. 1200–1050 BCE).^[1]^[2] These inscriptions, consisting of over 5,000 distinct characters—many pictographic and logographic in nature—were incised with sharp tools onto animal bones (primarily ox scapulae) and turtle plastrons after divination rituals conducted by Shang kings to consult ancestral spirits and deities on matters such as royal health, military campaigns, weather, agriculture, and sacrifices.^[1]^[2] The script's rectilinear style, characterized by bold, angular strokes suited to engraving on hard surfaces, was arranged in vertical columns read from right to left, marking it as a fully developed writing system ancestral to all later forms of Chinese characters.^[1]^[2] The divination process central to oracle bone script involved preparing the bones or shells by cleaning and drilling shallow pits into their surfaces, posing a question (often in paired "charge" and "verification" formats), applying heat with a metal poker to generate cracks, and interpreting the patterns of those cracks as auspicious or inauspicious responses from the supernatural realm.^[3] Inscriptions typically recorded the ritual date (using a sexagenary cycle), the diviner's name (frequently the king himself), the question, the predicted outcome, and sometimes a later verification of the result, providing direct evidence of Shang religious practices, calendar systems, and early Chinese language structure.^[3]^[2] Oracle bones were primarily used by the royal court at the capital of Yin (modern Anyang, Henan Province), reflecting the theocratic nature of Shang society where kings served as intermediaries between the human and divine worlds.^[2]^[3] Fragments of these inscribed bones first came to scholarly attention in 1899, when Wang Yirong, a Qing dynasty official and scholar, recognized their antiquity among medicinal bone scraps sold in Beijing apothecaries.^[4] Systematic excavations beginning in 1928 at the Yin Ruins site have uncovered over 150,000 inscribed oracle bones, enabling rapid decipherment by early 20th-century scholars such as Liu E and Luo Zhenyu, who identified the script's links to classical Chinese texts.^[2]^[5] Today, oracle bone script remains partially undeciphered (with only about half of characters fully understood), but it offers invaluable insights into Bronze Age China's phonology, etymology, and socio-political history, confirming the independent invention of writing in East Asia and influencing modern calligraphy and archaeological research, and recognized by UNESCO in 2017 as part of the Memory of the World.^[6]^[1]^[7]

Terminology

Names and Etymology

The primary Chinese term for the script is jiaguwen (甲骨文), literally meaning "inscriptions on shell or bone," reflecting the materials—turtle plastrons and animal scapulae—upon which the characters were incised. This designation was coined by modern Chinese scholars in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, shortly after the inscriptions' rediscovery, with early uses appearing in publications such as Liu E's 1903 collection Tieyun Canggui (鐵雲藏龜), where the script was referred to in terms emphasizing its medium.^[8]^[9] In English, the term "oracle bone script" derives from the inscriptions' primary function in Shang dynasty divination rituals, where heated stakes produced cracks interpreted as oracular responses, and was first systematically employed by American missionary and collector Frank H. Chalfant in his 1906 study published in the Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum.^[10] This English phrasing directly translates the Chinese jiaguwen, emphasizing the divinatory context over the material substrate. Equivalent terms exist in other languages, such as the Japanese kōkotsumon (甲骨文), which uses the same characters but applies Sino-Japanese readings, highlighting the script's role in cross-cultural Sinological studies.^[8] Alternative designations include "Shang dynasty script," underscoring its historical association with the late Shang period (c. 1250–1046 BCE), and "archaic Chinese writing," which situates it within the broader evolution of Chinese characters. Scholarly debate persists on whether jiaguwen constitutes a fully mature writing system or a form of proto-writing; while some early views classified it as proto-writing due to its pictographic dominance and limited corpus, most contemporary linguists affirm its status as true writing, citing evidence of phonetic rebus usage, grammatical particles, and syntactic complexity capable of conveying full propositions independent of oral context.^[11]^[12]^[13] The academic field dedicated to studying these inscriptions is known as oraculology.

Oraculology

Oraculology, known as jiaguxue (甲骨學) in Chinese, is the specialized academic discipline focused on the study of oracle bone inscriptions, integrating paleography for script decipherment, archaeology for contextual excavation and artifact analysis, and linguistics for interpreting the language and syntax of the ancient texts. This field emerged in the late 19th century following the initial discovery of oracle bones in 1899 and has since developed into a rigorous interdisciplinary pursuit aimed at reconstructing Shang Dynasty history, culture, and writing systems through systematic examination of the inscriptions.^[4]^[14] Central methodologies in oraculology include periodization, which organizes inscriptions chronologically by associating them with specific Shang royal reigns, such as the extensive corpus from the Wu Ding period (c. 1250–1192 BCE), enabling scholars to trace stylistic and linguistic developments over time. Statistical analysis of character frequencies further supports this by quantifying usage patterns, revealing insights into lexical preferences, divinatory vocabulary, and script evolution, often applied to large corpora like the Heji collection to identify common versus rare glyphs. These approaches emphasize empirical classification and quantitative rigor to avoid subjective interpretations.^[15]^[16] Institutionally, oraculology advanced significantly with the establishment of the Institute of History and Philology at Academia Sinica in 1928, founded by Fu Sinian, which spearheaded major excavations at Anyang and amassed one of the world's largest collections of oracle bones, fostering collaborative research in transcription, cataloging, and historical reconstruction. Key publications, including journals and compilations like Jiagu Wenzi, have disseminated findings, compiling decipherments, rubbings, and analytical essays to support ongoing scholarly dialogue and methodological refinement.^[17]^[18]^[19] In recent years as of 2025, oraculology has incorporated computational methods, including AI-driven tools for character recognition and decipherment, such as OracleFusion for generating vectorized fonts and PictOBI-20k datasets for multimodal analysis, enhancing the identification of undeciphered glyphs and accelerating research on the script's phonology and semantics.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Historical Context

Origins in Shang Dynasty

Oracle bone script emerged during the late Shang dynasty, approximately 1300–1046 BCE, as the earliest attested form of mature Chinese writing, primarily at the royal capital site of Yinxu in modern-day Anyang, Henan Province.^[23] This script developed in the context of the Shang's theocratic kingship, where writing served to document and legitimize royal authority through ritual practices. Radiocarbon dating of associated oracle bones places the inception of these inscriptions in the mid-13th century BCE (c. 1250 BCE), aligning with the reign of late Shang king Wu Ding.^[24] The script's primary cultural role was in royal divination rituals, conducted exclusively by the king or designated diviners to seek guidance from ancestors and deities on critical matters. These rituals involved inscribing questions—often concerning weather patterns, military campaigns, agricultural yields, and the king's health—onto the scapulae of cattle or the plastrons of turtles before heating them to produce cracks, which were then interpreted as omens.^[25] This practice underscored the Shang's ancestor worship, where the king acted as a mediator between the living and the divine, reinforcing social hierarchy and political stability through recorded divine approvals.^[26] Archaeological evidence from Yinxu, excavated since the early 20th century, has yielded over 150,000 fragments of inscribed oracle bones and shells, providing direct insight into the script's development and the dynasty's ritual economy.^[27] These artifacts, concentrated in royal workshop areas and sacrificial pits, illustrate the script's ties to elite theocratic functions, with inscriptions evolving from simple pictographs to more complex logographic forms over the dynasty's final centuries.^[26]

Discovery and Excavation

The modern discovery of oracle bone script began in 1899 when Wang Yirong, a prominent scholar and official in Beijing, purchased fragments of inscribed animal bones from a local apothecary where they were sold as "dragon bones" for medicinal purposes.^[26] Recognizing the carvings as ancient Chinese writing rather than mere fossils, Wang's identification sparked intense interest among collectors and scholars, prompting Liu E, another antiquarian, to acquire and document over 1,000 pieces soon after.^[28] This revelation quickly led to widespread looting at the suspected source sites near Anyang in Henan Province, where local farmers and dealers unearthed and sold tens of thousands of fragments on the black market, resulting in the dispersal of artifacts to private collections in China and abroad before systematic archaeological intervention.^[26] Systematic excavations commenced in 1928 under the auspices of the Institute of History and Philology at Academia Sinica, led by archaeologists such as Li Ji, targeting the Yinxu (Yin Ruins) site in Anyang, confirmed as the late Shang Dynasty capital through early surveys.^[29] Over 15 seasons from 1928 to 1937, these digs uncovered more than 25,000 inscribed oracle bones, primarily from palace and ritual areas, alongside bronze artifacts and structural remains that provided crucial stratigraphic context.^[17] Key sub-sites included Xiaotun, the central palace complex where the majority of divination pits were located, and Houjiazhuang, a royal cemetery area yielding oracle bones from tomb accompaniments and sacrificial contexts. Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, excavations resumed under the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, with ongoing fieldwork at Yinxu revealing additional thousands of oracle bones through controlled digs and surveys.^[27] These post-1949 efforts, including major campaigns in the 1950s and later, expanded the known corpus to over 150,000 inscribed fragments across more than 100 sites, though preservation remains challenging due to the bones' organic composition, which is highly susceptible to humidity fluctuations causing cracking and disintegration if not stored in climate-controlled environments.^[30] In total, the estimated corpus encompasses approximately 5,000 unique characters, many preserved only in fragmentary form due to these environmental vulnerabilities.^[31]

Script Characteristics

Calligraphic Style

The oracle bone script exhibits distinctive calligraphic traits shaped by its medium and production method, featuring angular, linear strokes incised with sharp knives into the hard surfaces of turtle plastrons and animal scapulae. These strokes are predominantly straight, often appearing lean, robust, upright, and sharp, with a three-dimensional quality due to the carving technique; lines typically thicken slightly in the middle and taper at the ends, creating a sense of depth and vitality.^[32] The characters maintain a compact, pictographic form, retaining vivid representational elements that evoke the objects or concepts they depict, while the overall script encompasses approximately 4,000 to 5,000 attested unique characters across surviving inscriptions.^[6]^[31] Stylistic variations within the Shang dynasty reflect an evolution from more pictorial and irregular early forms to increasingly standardized compositions in later periods. Initial inscriptions, dating to the earlier phases of the late Shang (circa 1250–1100 BCE), display greater irregularity and direct pictorial resemblance to natural forms, influenced by the nascent development of the writing system for divinatory purposes. By the reign of later kings such as Wu Ding (circa 1250–1192 BCE) and beyond, characters became more uniform in structure and execution, with refined proportions and consistent stroke arrangements that facilitated readability on the limited space of bone fragments.^[6] This progression underscores a maturation in scribal practices.^[32] Artistically, the script emphasizes symmetry in character composition, often arranging elements within rectangular bounds to achieve balanced, harmonious forms that convey aesthetic order amid functional divination. Traces of red cinnabar pigment are frequently found within the incisions, indicating its application to highlight or fill the carved lines post-engraving, enhancing visibility and ritual significance.^[33] Compared to contemporary bronze vessel decorations, oracle bone calligraphy appears more angular and incised, contrasting with the rounded, flowing contours of bronze inscriptions cast in metal, yet both share a foundational pictographic heritage that links them stylistically.^[34]^[35]

Structural Components

Oracle bone script functions as a logographic writing system, where individual characters primarily represent morphemes or words rather than sounds, with its forms exhibiting logographic characteristics through various construction methods.^[36] These include pictograms, which visually depict concrete objects such as animals or natural elements—for instance, the character for "horse" resembling its outline—and ideograms, which convey abstract ideas by combining simpler signs, like the representation of "bright" formed by "sun" and "moon." Early phonetic compounds also appear, merging a semantic component indicating meaning with a phonetic one suggesting pronunciation, marking an initial step toward the phono-semantic structures dominant in later Chinese scripts.^[37]^[12] A key structural feature of the script involves core components akin to radicals, serving as classifiers or semantic indicators that organize characters by category, such as elements related to humans, nature, or actions; these early forms prefigure the 214 radicals systematized in the Kangxi dictionary centuries later.^[38] Compounding rules in oracle bone script mirror those in subsequent scripts, allowing characters to build upon basic strokes or signs into more complex forms, though the archaic shapes retain greater pictorial fidelity and variability compared to standardized later variants. From the excavated corpus of over 150,000 oracle bones, scholars have identified around 4,500 unique characters, of which approximately 1,500 have been deciphered, providing insight into these compositional patterns.^[39]^[40] Grammatically, oracle bone inscriptions lack punctuation or spacing between words, relying instead on context and fixed patterns to convey meaning, with sentence structures predominantly declarative—stating facts or predictions—or interrogative, often framed as yes/no questions for divinatory purposes. Particles play a crucial role in modifying tense, aspect, and negation; for example, the particle bù (不) serves as a stative or eventive negator, appearing in past-tense contexts to deny outcomes, while qí (其) functions as a future-oriented or modal particle to express expectation or possibility. These elements highlight the script's concise, ritual-oriented syntax, where verbs often lack explicit tense markers beyond contextual inference from particles.^[41]^[42]

Divinatory Usage

Oracle bone script was employed in the late Shang dynasty (c. 1300–1046 BCE) primarily for recording divinatory inquiries during pyro-osteomancy rituals, where questions were inscribed on prepared animal bones or turtle shells before heating to produce interpretive cracks. The ritual process began with the selection and preparation of media, typically ox scapulae or turtle plastrons, which were cleaned, smoothed, and drilled with shallow pits on the reverse side to facilitate crack formation.^[25] Diviners, often the king himself or appointed specialists, then incised the questions on the front surface using the oracle bone script, posing them in a binary yes/no format or as paired statements (e.g., a positive assertion followed by its negative counterpart) to elicit clear responses from supernatural entities. These bones were heated from below with firebrands or metal rods inserted into the pits, causing thermal stress that generated cracks; the patterns of these cracks were meticulously observed and interpreted by the diviner as auspicious, inauspicious, or indicative of outcomes like "it will rain" or "the harvest will be good." Following the divination, additional inscriptions often recorded the prognostication (the diviner's reading of the cracks) and, if the matter was readdressed later, a verification statement noting the actual outcome to confirm or adjust future interpretations. Typical inscriptions followed a four-part structure: the date, the charge (question), the prognostication, and verification.^[25] The content of these inscriptions centered on pressing concerns of the Shang court, categorized broadly into queries about sacrifices, military affairs, health, and dreams, all framed to seek guidance from ancestral spirits or the high god di. Sacrificial divinations, the most frequent type, asked whether offerings of specific numbers or types of animals (such as cattle, sheep, or pigs) to particular ancestors would bring favor, often specifying the ritual's scale to ensure cosmic harmony. Military questions addressed campaign prospects, enemy movements, or battle outcomes, such as whether a tribe would submit or if victory was assured.^[25] Health-related inquiries focused on the king's or royal family's illnesses, childbirths, or dreams, probing if a malady would persist or if an omen signaled prosperity. All entries included precise date notations using the sexagenary cycle, combining one of ten heavenly stems and twelve earthly branches (e.g., "guisi day" as the thirtieth combination), which anchored the ritual in the Shang calendrical system and allowed for patterned repetitions of divinations on auspicious days. This divinatory practice was an exclusively royal prerogative, underscoring the Shang king's role as intermediary between the human realm and the supernatural, and reflecting a cosmology where di oversaw natural forces and royal ancestors influenced earthly events. Inscriptions were typically voiced in the first person from the king's perspective (e.g., "I, the king, divine"), emphasizing personal accountability and the theocratic nature of governance, with divinations informing decisions on state rituals, warfare, and agriculture to maintain ma (order) against chaos. Conducted frequently—sometimes multiple times daily—these rituals reinforced the dynasty's legitimacy by demonstrating the ruler's direct access to divine will, though limited to the elite court at Anyang.^[25]

Zhou Dynasty Adaptations

Following the conquest of the Shang Dynasty around 1046 BCE, the early Zhou rulers maintained the practice of divination using oracle bones and turtle shells, demonstrating continuity in the script and ritual traditions from the late Shang period. Inscriptions from the 11th to 10th centuries BCE, primarily on bovine scapulae and turtle plastrons, record divinations concerning royal hunts, sacrifices, weather, and military campaigns, much like their Shang predecessors. However, the volume of such inscriptions declined overall during the Zhou dynasty as divination using milfoil became more common; the early Zhou capital was established in the Zhouyuan region in present-day Shaanxi Province, distinct from the former Shang center at Anyang, reflecting a broader transition in administrative and ritual centers.^[43] Key adaptations in the Zhou oracle bone script included stylistic refinements and lexical shifts that aligned with emerging Zhou ideology. While the core calligraphic forms remained similar to late Shang examples—characterized by incised lines and pictographic elements—the inscriptions often featured more compact arrangements and occasional simplifications in character strokes, serving as a bridge to later bronze script. The deified usage of tian (天, "heaven") emerged in early Zhou writings, invoking a supreme cosmic authority and contrasting with the Shang emphasis on ancestral and di (帝) deities, underscoring the Zhou concept of heavenly mandate.^[44]^[45] Archaeological evidence from Zhouyuan, the early Western Zhou capital area, highlights this persistence and evolution. Excavations since the 1970s have yielded over 17,000 oracle bone fragments, with approximately 300 bearing inscriptions that attest to ongoing pyromantic divination but with a vocabulary incorporating Zhou political terms like royal titles and territorial references absent in Shang records. These finds, dated to the reigns of early Zhou kings such as Cheng and Kang, illustrate how the script adapted to support Zhou legitimacy while retaining divinatory functions.^[43]

Transition to Bronze Script

The transition from oracle bone script (jiaguwen) to bronze inscriptions (jinwen) occurred gradually during the late Shang dynasty (ca. 1300–1046 BCE) and into the early Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), with bronze inscriptions emerging contemporaneously but gaining prominence as the primary medium for writing by the mid-Western Zhou period, around the 9th century BCE. While oracle bone inscriptions persisted in limited divinatory use during the early Zhou, particularly for royal rituals, their production declined as bronze vessels became the preferred surface for durable, monumental records. This shift marked a pivotal evolution in Chinese writing, reflecting broader societal changes in ritual practices and material culture.^[46] Key factors driving this transition included advancements in bronze casting technology, such as the piece-mold method, which facilitated the creation of intricate, cast-in-place inscriptions on ritual vessels like ding cauldrons and gui bowls. Unlike the sharp, incised lines of oracle bone script, adapted to carving on hard surfaces, bronze script developed more rounded and fluid stroke forms to suit the molding process, resulting in less angular characters that enhanced legibility and aesthetic appeal in metal. Additionally, the functional emphasis shifted from concise divinatory queries on perishable bones and shells to longer, narrative commemorative texts recording royal appointments, alliances, and ancestral dedications, expanding the script's role beyond prophecy to historical documentation.^[47]^[48] In comparative terms, bronze inscriptions retained substantial overlap with oracle bone script, with many characters evolving directly from earlier forms while adapting to the new medium. However, bronze script introduced greater abstraction in pictographic elements and a more pronounced reliance on phonetic components, allowing for increased efficiency in expressing complex ideas. These developments bridged the gap to subsequent styles like seal script (zhuanshu), standardizing the writing system for broader administrative and cultural use across the Zhou states.^[6]^[49]

Scholarship and Decipherment

Early Studies

The pioneering efforts in studying oracle bone script began in the early 20th century, shortly after its initial recognition as ancient writing. In 1903, Liu E, a Qing dynasty official and scholar, published Tieyun Canggui (Iron Cloud's Hidden Tortoiseshells), the first systematic collection of oracle bone inscriptions, featuring 1,058 rubbings from fragments he had acquired. This work marked a foundational step by making the script accessible to scholars, though Liu E himself provided limited interpretations, focusing primarily on reproduction rather than decipherment.^[50]^[19] Building on Liu's initiative, Luo Zhenyu emerged as a central figure in the 1910s, producing extensive rubbings and early character identifications. From 1909 to 1911, Luo compiled Yinxu shuqi qianbian (Previous Edition of Inscriptions from the Ruins of Yin), which included over 1,300 rubbings, followed by additional volumes like Houbian (Later Edition) in 1916, expanding the corpus significantly. Luo's efforts involved traveling to Japan, where he acquired and studied dispersed fragments, and he began identifying characters by comparing them to later bronze inscriptions, laying groundwork for phonetic and semantic analysis. These publications not only preserved inscriptions but also spurred initial decipherments, with Luo proposing readings for several dozen characters.^[17]^[8] Early studies were severely hampered by the widespread looting and dispersal of oracle bones following their discovery. Antiquities dealers excavated sites at Anyang indiscriminately, selling fragments to collectors in Japan, Europe, and the United States; for instance, significant portions ended up in Japanese collections like those of the Hayashi family, limiting access for Chinese scholars. Moreover, reliance on ink rubbings—rather than photographs or originals—introduced inaccuracies, as the process could obscure fine details or alter stroke shapes, while incomplete corpora prevented comprehensive analysis. These factors fragmented the field, with scholars working from scattered, often private holdings.^[19]^[51] By the 1920s, involvement from institutions like Peking University advanced the field toward greater systematicity. Scholars affiliated with the university, including Dong Zuobin, who studied there from 1918 to 1922, contributed to establishing a basic chronology of the inscriptions by periodizing them based on stylistic and content variations, linking them to Shang kings' reigns. Through comparative methods—juxtaposing oracle bones with bronze scripts and historical texts—researchers identified over 1,000 characters, roughly doubling the deciphered corpus from the prior decade and enabling broader historical reconstructions. This era solidified oracle bone studies as a rigorous academic pursuit, though full excavations awaited later institutional efforts.^[17]^[8]

Key Methodologies

One of the foundational methodologies in studying oracle bone script involves paleographic comparison, which entails matching archaic characters from oracle bones to their evolved forms in later scripts such as bronze inscriptions and seal script to infer meanings and structures. This approach, systematically advanced by Dong Zuobin in the 1930s, relies on analyzing graphical similarities, structural components, and contextual usages across script phases to reconstruct undeciphered glyphs. For instance, characters depicting natural objects or ritual elements in oracle bone form are traced to their more stylized bronze counterparts, revealing phonetic or semantic shifts over time.^[24]^[8] Statistical approaches complement paleography by enabling periodization and pattern analysis within the corpus of inscriptions. Dong Zuobin's 1933 framework divided oracle bone texts into five periods corresponding to Shang kings—ranging from Wu Ding to Di Xin—using ten criteria, including royal genealogies, diviner names, crack-making notations (which recorded the heating process for divination), and stylistic variations in character forms. These notations, often abbreviated symbols indicating the date or outcome of cracks, allow scholars to sequence inscriptions chronologically and quantify divinatory frequencies. Corpus-wide analysis, as in the comprehensive Jiaguwen Heji (Oracle Bone Inscriptions Compilation) edition published between 1978 and 1982, which compiles 41,956 selected inscriptions from the over 150,000 fragments unearthed to date, along with approximately 4,600 unique characters identified across the broader corpus, facilitating statistical insights into usage patterns such as recurring ritual queries on weather, harvests, and warfare.^[24]^[8] Multidisciplinary tools integrate archaeology, linguistics, and epigraphy to enhance decipherment and preservation. Archaeological context from Shang sites like Yinxu provides stratigraphic data to corroborate inscription dates, while linguistic analysis examines grammatical structures and vocabulary for proto-Chinese features. Epigraphic techniques, starting with traditional ink rubbings to capture incised texts on fragile bones and shells, have evolved to include high-resolution photography for detailed variant documentation and digital scanning to model three-dimensional surface irregularities, aiding in the identification of eroded or overlapping forms without physical damage. Recent multidisciplinary efforts (as of 2025) incorporate artificial intelligence, including diffusion models and deep learning for character recognition and rejoining fragments, enhancing decipherment of the remaining undeciphered characters.^[8]^[52]^[53] This convergence allows for rigorous cross-verification, such as linking epigraphic variants to linguistic etymologies derived from later texts.^[8]^[54]

Major Collections and Publications

The most significant corpus of oracle bone inscriptions is the Jiaguwen Heji (甲骨文合集, "Collection of Oracle Bone Inscriptions"), edited by Guo Moruo and others, published in 13 volumes between 1978 and 1982 by the Zhonghua Book Company. This work compiles 41,956 selected inscriptions from discoveries prior to 1973, primarily sourced from excavations at Yinxu (the ruins of Yin) near Anyang, providing a foundational catalog for scholarly analysis.^[8]^[55] Preceding the Heji were the Xiaotun publications, stemming from the Academia Sinica's excavations at Xiaotun village (part of the Yinxu site) between 1928 and 1937, which documented thousands of inscribed bones and shells through rubbings and photographs in multiple volumes issued from the 1940s onward. These early reports, including Xiaotun: Yinxu Wenzi Yi (小屯·殷墟文字乙編, 1956), formed the basis for later compilations by detailing over 24,000 fragments unearthed during those digs.^[19]^[56] Major institutional holdings are concentrated in China, with the Institute of Archaeology under the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences maintaining the largest repository, encompassing tens of thousands of pieces from official excavations. The National Museum of China houses more than 13,000 oracle bones, many displayed in thematic exhibitions on Shang dynasty artifacts.^[57] The Shanghai Museum possesses notable examples, such as inscribed ox scapulae from the Shang period used in harvest divinations. Internationally, the British Museum holds around 200 oracle bones, acquired in the early 20th century, offering insights into early Western scholarly interest.^[58]^[59] Influential publications include Dong Zuobin's Jiagu Wenzi Shizheng (甲骨文字徵證, "Evidence for Oracle Bone Characters"), issued in four volumes from 1935 to 1949 by the Academia Sinica, which pioneered the periodization of inscriptions into five periods based on paleographic and historical analysis. More recent advancements feature digital resources like the Yinxu Oracle Bone Script Database, launched post-2000 by the Anyang Yinxu Museum and collaborators, containing 59,591 bones and 143,856 inscriptions for enhanced accessibility and research.^[8]^[54]

Modern Representation

Computer Encoding

While many deciphered oracle bone script characters unify with modern forms in the CJK Unified Ideographs blocks of the Unicode standard, distinct archaic variants are not yet fully encoded. A dedicated encoding for oracle bone script is proposed for Unicode Plane 3 (Tertiary Ideographic Plane), with tentative code points U+35400–U+36BFF allocated as of Unicode 16.0 (2024).^[60] The Ideographic Research Group (IRG), comprising experts from China, Japan, Korea, and others under ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, continues unification efforts to merge compatible historical forms while preserving fidelity; proposals for disunification of variants remain ongoing. For instance, a 2015 IRG proposal sought to add 2,000 oracle bone source Han variants to address representational gaps.^[61] Undeciphered elements, estimated at around 35-40% of the known corpus of over 4,500 characters, pose challenges, requiring paleographic analysis for glyph evaluation.^[40] Encoding efforts face hurdles due to the script's graphical diversity and undeciphered graphs lacking modern equivalents. Specialized tools support digital use: the BabelStone Han font, a free Unicode-compliant typeface with over 60,000 Han glyphs, renders many oracle bone forms from historical rubbings.^[62] Databases like Academia Sinica's Scripta Sinica offer searchable digitized corpora of ancient Chinese materials, including oracle bone inscriptions with metadata on variants and contexts. Recent advancements include the 2024 Jingyuan platform's high-resolution oracle bone font and AI models for decipherment, such as diffusion-based approaches for predicting modern counterparts.^[63]^[40] These enable applications like optical character recognition and evolutionary studies.

Inscription Samples

One prominent example from the Wu Ding period (c. 1250–1192 BCE) is an inscription on a turtle plastron, recording a divination on weather: a charge like "Will it rain?" (雨乎 yǔ hū) incised after crack interpretation, reflecting agricultural concerns in Shang society. Such queries often used the sexagenary cycle for dating and paired formats for prognostication.^[64] Another common inscription type records sacrifices, etched on ox scapulae, with numerical offerings to ancestors and crack outcomes like "auspicious" (吉 jí). Examples include statements such as "The king sacrifices oxen and sheep" (e.g., three oxen, five sheep), highlighting grammar where verbs precede quantified nouns and binary pairs test results.^[65] These samples illustrate the pictographic, linear style suited to engraving, providing evidence of Shang language and rituals.

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Oracle Bone, Shang Dynasty - Smarthistory
Oracle bones were said to offer a conduit to the spirits of royal ancestors, legendary figures from the past, nature deities, and other powerful spirits. Shang ...
[21]
The Chinese History That Is Written in Bone | American Scientist
Archaeologists soon realized that these texts were records of divinations from the late Shang dynasty (circa 1250–1046 BCE), about 3,000 years ago: Prayers ...
[22]
[PDF] Yin Xu - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
century when oracle bone inscriptions were first discovered, a total number of about 150,000 shoulder blades and turtle plastrons have been found at Yin Xu.
[23]
Oracle Bones, That Dangerous Supplement … - China Heritage
Jul 24, 2018 · Curious, Wang inspected this mysterious ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine, only to discover, to his amazement, that the ancient bone to ...
[24]
Anyang｜Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica
Between 1928 and 1937, members of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, carried out 15 excavation ... oracle bones unearthed at Hsiao-t'un.
[25]
[PDF] The 2012-2015 Conservation of Listed Oracle Bones of the Institute ...
Bone structure is always susceptible to humidity variation. However, the conservation conditions for oracle bones have been stable for the past several years.
[26]
Oracle Bone Script (甲骨文) - Omniglot
Details of the Oracle Bone Script (甲骨文), which was used to write Chinese during the Shang Dynasty and dates from about 1200 BC.Missing: coined | Show results with:coined
[27]
[PDF] The Art of Chinese Calligraphy: Educational Protection and Literacy ...
Jul 31, 2024 · It evolved from the oracle bone script and appeared on bronze objects during the Shang and Zhou periods. According to current archaeological ...
[28]
[PDF] Nomination form International Memory of the World Register
The red pigment was proved to be the mineral pigment cinnabar (mercuric ... most important factors of oracle bone script calligraphy, showed a precocious ...
[29]
Oracle-Bone Color Pigments - jstor
Red Pigment. Microscopic investigation of the pigment showed a mixture of red particles of the color of cinnabar mixed with yellowish and colorless ...
[30]
Bronze Inscriptions: Early Chinese Writing - Harvard Art Museums
Aside from bronze inscriptions, oracle bones—cow shoulder blades and turtle shells used in divination rituals—are the only other extant evidence of writing ...
[31]
Chinese Character - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Moreover, about 80 percent of Chinese characters consist of compound characters made up of two components, one of which (the signific) provides a categorical ...
[32]
[PDF] The Construction and Formation of Chinese Character
May 23, 2021 · Some pictographic characters in oracle bone inscriptions are used for reasons of distinction or easier identification, and a phonetic component ...Missing: compounds | Show results with:compounds
[33]
[PDF] Interpretable Oracle Bone Script Decipherment through Radical and ...
Aug 17, 2025 · The method uses LVLMs, combining radical and pictographic analysis, to bridge the gap between glyphs and meanings of Oracle Bone Script.
[34]
Race on to decipher oracle bone characters with AI - China Daily
May 17, 2025 · Among the more than 4,500 oracle bone characters discovered, the meanings of over 3,000 remain a mystery. Scholars now hope the rapid ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
[35]
[PDF] Deciphering Oracle Bone Language with Diffusion Models
To date, more than 4,500 Oracle Bone Script (OBS) characters have been discovered, but only about. 1,600 of these have been deciphered and linked to their ...
[36]
Towards a More Rigorous Methodology of Deciphering Oracle-Bone ...
The exclusive use of the non-modal, stative, eventive negative bu (Takashima 1988; Ito and Takashima 1996: 364-382), in this case, in the past tense, as ...
[37]
The Oracle Bone Inscriptions from Huayuanzhuang East. Translated ...
... cinnabar suggests that the turtles were for divination and the cinnabar was ... red pigment to color in cracks and words, there is every reason to ...
[38]
Zhouyuan Oracle-Bone Inscriptions: Entering the Research Stage?
Mar 26, 2015 · In 1977, some 17,000 pieces of pyromantic turtle-shell, of which nearly 300 pieces were inscribed, were discovered at the site of the Zhou ...
[39]
Zhouyuan Oracle-Bone Inscriptions: Entering the Research Stage?
Wang Yuxin has proposed for scholarship on Zhou oracle-bone inscriptions, not only would it seem that we have not yet reached a mature stage of "research ...
[40]
[PDF] Understanding Di and Tian: Deity and Heaven from Shang to Tang ...
... tian is found in Shang inscriptions. In contrast to Zhou literature, which contains both di and tian,. Shang texts do not include a single occurrence of tian.
[41]
Simplification Is Not Dominant in the Evolution of Chinese Characters
Dec 2, 2022 · Hanziyuan includes forms from three key historical scripts: oracle bone script (甲骨文), bronze script (金文), and small seal script (小篆書).
[42]
[PDF] In and Outside the Square, vol. 2 - Sino-Platonic Papers
relatively rounded and fluid forms of bronze-script graphs in general, a temporal ... oracle-bone inscriptions (my “Z”) were consorts, which is ...
[43]
Chinese Writing from its origins to the 3rd Century CE - GIS Asie
Most of the inscriptions from the Western Zhou period were dedications on a bronze ritual vase, which were longer than Shang inscriptions, and can be resumed as ...
[44]
An open dataset for the evolution of oracle bone characters: EVOBC
Jan 23, 2024 · However, deciphering oracle bone script remains a formidable challenge, with only approximately 1,600 of the over 4,500 extant characters ...Missing: total | Show results with:total
[45]
Tieyun canggui 鐵雲藏龜(www.chinaknowledge.de)
Jan 3, 2020 · Tieyun canggui 鐵雲藏龜is a book on oracle bone inscriptions compiled by Liu E 劉鶚(1857-1909).<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Museum Offers $15,000 Per Character to Decipher Oracle Bone Script
Jul 26, 2017 · ... Wang Yirong first recognized that the symbols in oracle bones were a form of writing. As the story goes, Yirong had contracted malaria in 1899.
[47]
A comprehensive survey of oracle character recognition - arXiv
Nov 18, 2024 · The oracle bone script, dating back about 3,500 years, represents the earliest known mature writing system in China. These characters were ...
[48]
Oracle Bone Inscriptions -- Chinese names and characters
The total 13 volumes of the book were published during 1978 and 1982. From the studies of many scholars, about 2,000 characters among the more than 4,500 ...
[49]
The Chinese History That Is Written in Bone – SAPIENS
Jan 23, 2018 · These “oracle bone” fragments, some of which show an ancient Chinese script, are housed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.
[50]
A Cultural Exhibition on Oracle Bone Inscriptions
The exhibition consists of three units and features nearly 190 pieces of valuable relics, including oracle bones and shells, bronze ware, jade, and books, ...Missing: script Shanghai British
[51]
oracle-bone | British Museum
oracle-bone ; Museum number: 1911,1111.2 ; Description: Oracle bone. Made of bone. ; Cultures/periods: Shang dynasty ; Production date: 1200BC-1050BC (circa).Missing: Shanghai | Show results with:Shanghai
[52]
上海博物馆
The Oracle Bone with Daohe Inscription, from the Shang period, is made of ox scapulae. It records prayers for harvest and is part of a set. Oracle is the most ...Missing: script National British
[53]
[PDF] Request for comment on encoding Oracle Bone Script Source
Oct 21, 2015 · The radical structure of a Oracle Bone. Page 3. Script character can be varied according to the changes of positions and number. Like Bronze.
[54]
Roadmap to the TIP - Unicode
Oracle Bone script (甲骨文, Jiǎgǔwén); inscriptions on animal bones and tortoise shells. Bronze script (金文, Jīnwén); inscriptions on ironware and bronze. The ...
[55]
BabelStone Fonts : BabelStone Han
BabelStone Han v. 16.0.3 is a free Unicode CJK font with over 60,000 Han characters (hanzi, kanji, hanja), and 64,789 Unicode characters in total ...Missing: oracle | Show results with:oracle
[56]
[PDF] Deities and Ancestors in Early Oracle Inscriptions
Many aspects of Shang society are revealed to us only through the bone records, but none so completely as religious practice. Every divination record, ...
[57]
[PDF] ORACLE-BONE INSCRIPTIONS OF THE LATE SHANG DYNASTY ...
Discovered and translated beginning only in 1899, these oracle bones are the earliest written records of. Chinese civilization. The inscriptions give us a ...