Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Oncomir

An oncomir, also spelled oncomiR, is a microRNA (miRNA)—a short, non-coding RNA molecule approximately 22 nucleotides in length—that acts as an oncogene to promote cancer development by post-transcriptionally repressing the expression of tumor suppressor genes.^[1] These miRNAs are typically overexpressed in cancer cells, where they regulate critical cellular processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune evasion, thereby contributing to tumor initiation and progression.^[2] The concept of oncomiRs emerged from early studies on miRNAs, with the first miRNA (lin-4) discovered in Caenorhabditis elegans in 1993, but their link to human cancer was established in 2002 when deletions of miR-15 and miR-16 were found at chromosome 13q14 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients.^[1] Subsequent research revealed that oncomiRs can be deregulated through genetic alterations (e.g., amplification or translocation), epigenetic changes, or transcriptional dysregulation, leading to their aberrant expression across diverse malignancies including breast, lung, and colorectal cancers.^[3] Mechanistically, oncomiRs bind to the 3' untranslated regions of target mRNAs via the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), inhibiting translation or inducing mRNA degradation to silence genes like PTEN and PDCD4.^[1]^[2] Notable examples include the miR-17-92 cluster, which promotes lymphomagenesis and lung cancer by modulating E2F1 and apoptosis pathways; miR-21, an anti-apoptotic oncomir overexpressed in breast and colorectal cancers that targets tropomyosin 1 and PTEN; and miR-155, which enhances proliferation and immune suppression in various hematological and solid tumors.^[1]^[2] OncomiRs can also be transferred between cells via exosomes, influencing the tumor microenvironment to foster immunosuppression, such as by promoting regulatory T-cell activity or inhibiting natural killer cells.^[2] Clinically, circulating exosomal oncomiRs like miR-21-5p serve as promising non-invasive biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, while therapeutic strategies involving antagomiRs (miRNA inhibitors) have shown potential in preclinical models to suppress tumor growth and reverse chemoresistance.^[2]^[3]

Overview

Definition and Classification

Oncomirs, also known as oncogenic microRNAs (miRNAs), are a subset of small non-coding RNAs, approximately 22 nucleotides in length, that promote oncogenesis by dysregulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Typically, oncomirs exert their effects through overexpression in cancer cells, leading to the suppression of tumor suppressor genes or the enhancement of oncogenic signaling pathways, thereby facilitating tumor initiation and progression.^[4]^[5] As a class of miRNAs, oncomirs are distinguished from tumor-suppressor miRNAs, which are generally underexpressed in cancers and inhibit oncogenes; in contrast, oncomirs function analogously to oncogenes by driving malignant phenotypes when upregulated. Understanding their dysregulation requires knowledge of miRNA biogenesis: miRNAs are transcribed as primary transcripts (pri-miRNAs) by RNA polymerase II, then processed in the nucleus by the Drosha-DGCR8 complex into precursor miRNAs (pre-miRNAs), which are exported to the cytoplasm and further cleaved by Dicer into mature miRNAs that incorporate into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to target mRNAs.^[4]^[6] This canonical pathway underscores how alterations in processing or expression can amplify oncomir activity in cancer. Oncomirs contribute to core hallmarks of cancer by modulating key biological processes, such as sustaining proliferative signaling through inhibition of cell cycle regulators and evading apoptosis via targeting pro-apoptotic factors. For instance, their regulatory actions can enhance cell survival and unchecked growth without triggering programmed cell death mechanisms. miRNAs in general function in post-transcriptional regulation by binding to target mRNAs, leading to translational repression or degradation. Numerous miRNAs have been implicated as potential oncomirs across various cancer types, highlighting their widespread role in oncogenesis.^[4]^[7]^[8]

Historical Development

The discovery of microRNAs (miRNAs) as key regulators of gene expression began in the early 1990s with studies in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. In 1993, Victor Ambros and colleagues identified lin-4 as the first miRNA, a small non-coding RNA that negatively regulates the protein LIN-14 through antisense complementarity, thereby controlling developmental timing.^[9] This finding established miRNAs as post-transcriptional regulators, though it was initially viewed as an anomaly. Building on this, in 2000, Gary Ruvkun's group discovered let-7, another small RNA that similarly modulates heterochronic genes like lin-41 and is highly conserved across species, including humans, highlighting the broad evolutionary role of miRNAs in gene regulation. David Bartel's subsequent work in the early 2000s further elucidated miRNA biogenesis and target prediction mechanisms, providing a foundational framework for understanding their regulatory potential. The link between miRNAs and cancer emerged in the mid-2000s, marking the birth of oncomir research. In 2005, Lin He and colleagues identified the miR-17-92 cluster as the first oncogenic miRNA, demonstrating its amplification in B-cell lymphomas and its ability to promote lymphomagenesis by inhibiting apoptosis in cooperation with Myc; this study coined the term "oncomir" to describe miRNAs with tumor-promoting functions. Shortly thereafter, profiling studies revealed miR-21 as overexpressed in breast cancer tissues compared to normal adjacent samples, where it targets tumor suppressor genes like PDCD4 to enhance invasion and proliferation. Similarly, between 2006 and 2008, miR-155 was established as an oncomir in leukemias, with sustained expression in hematopoietic stem cells driving myeloproliferative disorders and pre-B-cell lymphomas through suppression of genes like SHIP1. From 2010 onward, high-throughput sequencing transformed oncomir research by enabling genome-wide miRNA profiling in large cohorts. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) initiative, starting with breast cancer in 2012 and expanding to pan-cancer analyses, integrated miRNA data with genomic alterations, uncovering context-specific oncomir roles such as tissue-dependent deregulation patterns across 33 tumor types. By the mid-2020s, these datasets had facilitated the identification of over 10,000 somatic mutations in miRNA genes and refined understandings of oncomir contributions to tumor heterogeneity, solidifying their status as critical cancer drivers.^[10]

Biological Mechanisms

General Regulatory Mechanisms

OncomiRs, or oncogenic microRNAs, are upregulated in cancer through multiple mechanisms that enhance their expression and oncogenic potential. Genomic amplification of chromosomal regions containing oncomiR genes leads to increased copy numbers and thus elevated expression levels.^[3] Transcriptional activation occurs when oncogenes such as MYC bind to promoter regions of oncomiR clusters, driving their overexpression in proliferating cancer cells.^[3] Epigenetic modifications, including hypomethylation of oncomiR promoters mediated by enzymes like TET demethylases, further contribute to this upregulation by making transcriptional machinery more accessible.^[3] Additionally, alterations in the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as hypoxia, induce factors like HIF-1α to transcriptionally activate specific oncomiRs, adapting their expression to stressful conditions that favor tumor survival.^[3] Once upregulated, oncomiRs exert their effects primarily by binding to the 3' untranslated regions (3' UTRs) of target messenger RNAs (mRNAs), leading to translational repression or mRNA destabilization and degradation via the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC).^[11] This post-transcriptional regulation disrupts broad cellular pathways, such as the suppression of tumor suppressors like PTEN, which normally inhibits the PI3K/AKT signaling cascade; reduced PTEN activity results in unchecked PI3K/AKT activation, promoting cell proliferation, survival, and evasion of apoptosis.^[12] Such interactions allow oncomiRs to coordinately deregulate multiple downstream effectors, amplifying oncogenic signaling networks. The function of oncomiRs is highly context-dependent, varying across different cancer types due to differences in cellular milieu, genetic background, and TME cues. In epithelial cancers, oncomiRs can drive epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by repressing E-cadherin and activating mesenchymal markers, enhancing cellular motility and invasiveness essential for metastasis.^[13] This context-specific regulation means the same oncomiR may promote tumor progression in one cancer type while having minimal effects in another, influenced by reciprocal feedback loops with transcription factors like ZEB or Snail that fine-tune EMT dynamics.^[13] Recent insights from 2023 to 2025 highlight the role of other non-coding RNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), in modulating oncomiR expression and activity through sponging or stabilizing interactions within the TME.^[3] Furthermore, extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, facilitate oncomiR dissemination by packaging and transferring them between cancer cells and stromal components, thereby propagating oncogenic signals to distant sites and contributing to pre-metastatic niche formation.^[14]

Oncomir Addiction

Oncomir addiction refers to the phenomenon in which cancer cells develop a critical dependence on the sustained activity of specific oncogenic microRNAs (oncomiRs) to maintain their malignant phenotype, even in the presence of numerous genetic alterations. This concept parallels oncogene addiction, where tumors rely on a single driver despite genomic complexity, making oncomiRs pivotal nodes in oncogenic networks. Inhibition of these oncomiRs can lead to rapid tumor regression or cell death, highlighting their role beyond initiation in sustaining cancer progression.^[7] Mechanistically, oncomiRs perpetuate addiction by stabilizing oncogenic signaling pathways through regulatory feedback loops and by suppressing tumor suppressor genes, thereby bypassing normal cellular safeguards. For instance, oncomiRs such as miR-21 can downregulate programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4), preventing apoptosis and allowing unchecked proliferation, while clusters like miR-17-92 form positive feedback with transcription factors such as MYC and E2F to amplify proliferative signals. This creates a vulnerability where cancer cells, having rewired their regulatory landscape around the oncomiR, cannot survive its disruption, as alternative pathways fail to compensate for the loss of these finely tuned networks.^[7] Evidence for oncomir addiction stems from preclinical models demonstrating tumor collapse upon oncomir suppression. In a 2010 mouse model of miR-21-driven pre-B-cell lymphoma, conditional overexpression of miR-21 induced tumors, but its doxycycline-inducible shutdown via antisense oligonucleotides triggered rapid regression in established tumors, confirming dependency.^[15] Similar results were observed with miR-155 inhibition in lymphoma models, where antagomiRs delayed tumor growth by restoring suppressor functions.^[16] More recent preclinical data from 2025 using CRISPR/Cas9 to knock out miR-21 in lung adenocarcinoma cell lines (A549) showed reduced proliferation (by ~31% at 72 hours), increased apoptosis via upregulated PTEN and PDCD4, and enhanced chemosensitivity to drugs like carboplatin, underscoring sustained reliance in solid tumors.^[17] Therapeutically, exploiting oncomir addiction enables selective cancer cell killing while sparing normal cells, as non-addicted tissues do not depend on these miRNAs. Antisense oligonucleotides and locked nucleic acids (LNAs) targeting addicted oncomiRs have shown promise in models, with miR-21 inhibition in lung cancer preclinical studies enhancing drug efficacy and suggesting potential for combination therapies. This approach leverages the "Achilles' heel" created by addiction, positioning oncomir inhibitors as precision tools in oncology.^[7]^[17]

Key Examples

miR-21 and miR-155

miR-21, a well-characterized oncomir, is frequently overexpressed in numerous solid tumors, where it acts as a key regulator of oncogenic processes.^[18] By targeting tumor suppressor genes such as PTEN, PDCD4, and TPM1, miR-21 promotes cell proliferation, invasion, and resistance to chemotherapy in cancer cells.^[19] In lung cancer, miR-21 enhances tumor progression through multiple signaling pathways, including those involving EGFR and PTEN suppression, contributing to poor prognosis as highlighted in a 2024 review.^[20] Similarly, in breast and colorectal cancers, elevated miR-21 levels correlate with increased metastasis and reduced patient survival by inhibiting apoptosis and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) regulators.^[21] miR-155, another prominent oncomir, is upregulated in both hematologic malignancies and solid tumors, often transcribed from the BIC gene as its host transcript.^[22] It targets genes like BCL2 and SHIP1, thereby enhancing cell survival, proliferation, and inflammatory responses that facilitate immune evasion in the tumor microenvironment.^[23] In lymphomas, miR-155 overexpression drives lymphomagenesis by promoting B-cell transformation and resistance to apoptosis, while in breast cancer, it supports tumor progression through pathways involving EMT and cytokine signaling.^[24] This upregulation contributes to chronic inflammation, a hallmark of cancer, by modulating immune cell function and suppressing antitumor immunity.^[25] Both miR-21 and miR-155 contribute to EMT, a critical step in cancer metastasis, but miR-21 predominantly drives this process in solid tumors like breast and colorectal cancers through direct suppression of adhesion molecules, whereas miR-155 exerts stronger effects in immune-related contexts, such as lymphomas, by altering inflammatory signaling.^[26] Experimental studies have demonstrated that disrupting miR-21 expression reduces tumor cell proliferation and invasion, leading to decreased tumorigenesis. Likewise, miR-155 knockout in breast cancer tumor cells impairs glucose metabolism, resulting in slower tumor growth.^[27]

miR-17-92 Cluster and Others

The miR-17-92 cluster, recognized as the first identified oncomir, was discovered in 2005 through studies showing its amplification and overexpression in human B-cell lymphomas, where it functions as a polycistronic unit encoding multiple mature microRNAs. This cluster comprises six principal members: miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a, miR-19b, miR-20a, and miR-92a, transcribed from a single primary transcript located at chromosome 13q31.33.^[28] Its expression is primarily regulated by the transcription factor MYC, which binds to the promoter region to drive polycistronic transcription, thereby amplifying oncogenic signaling in responsive cells. Key targets include E2F1 (repressed by miR-17 and miR-20a to modulate cell cycle progression and apoptosis) and PTEN (targeted by miR-19 to inhibit tumor suppression and promote survival).^[28] The cluster plays a pivotal role in B-cell lymphomas, where its enforced expression cooperates with MYC to accelerate lymphomagenesis, and extends to solid tumors such as lung, colon, and breast cancers, enhancing proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis.^[29] Paralogous clusters, miR-106b-25 and miR-106a-363, share sequence homology and functional overlap with miR-17-92, often exhibiting coordinated dysregulation in cancers to reinforce oncogenic networks.^[28] The miR-17-92 cluster demonstrates cooperative dynamics among its members, with miR-19 driving proliferation by suppressing PTEN and apoptosis regulators, while miR-92a promotes angiogenesis by targeting anti-angiogenic factors like thrombospondin-1, collectively amplifying tumor growth and vascularization. Genomic amplification of the cluster occurs frequently across malignancies, including lung cancers, and variably in other solid tumors, contributing to its oncogenic potency.^[30] In certain contexts, such as MYC-driven lymphomas, cancer cells exhibit addiction to the cluster, where its inhibition disrupts feedback loops with E2F and MYC, leading to tumor regression.^[31] Beyond the miR-17-92 cluster, other notable oncomirs illustrate the diversity of microRNA-driven oncogenesis. For instance, miR-569, amplified at 3q26.2 in epithelial cancers including prostate cancer, acts as an oncomir by directly targeting TP53INP1, a tumor suppressor that induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis, thereby enhancing tumor aggressiveness, proliferation, and chemoresistance.^[32] miR-181a-5p exhibits a dual role across malignancies, functioning as a tumor suppressor in many but oncogenic in specific contexts such as glioma, where its upregulation promotes invasion and survival by targeting regulators like FBXO11.^[33] Similarly, miR-184 displays context-dependent oncogenic activity in head and neck squamous cell carcinomas, where it is upregulated to drive proliferation and inhibit apoptosis through upregulation of c-Myc, contrasting its tumor-suppressive effects in other head and neck subtypes like nasopharyngeal carcinoma.^[34] Recent investigations, including 2024 studies, have highlighted the miR-17-92 cluster's role in modulating the tumor microenvironment (TME), where its components influence immune cell infiltration and metabolic reprogramming to foster an immunosuppressive niche supportive of tumor progression.^[35]

Clinical and Research Applications

Diagnostic and Biomarker Roles

Oncomirs circulating in biofluids such as blood plasma, urine, and exosomes enable non-invasive liquid biopsies for cancer detection, prognosis, and treatment monitoring, offering a dynamic view of tumor activity. Encapsulated within exosomes, these miRNAs exhibit superior stability compared to protein markers, as their lipid bilayer protection shields them from degradation in circulation, while their high abundance—up to $10^9 particles per mL—facilitates sensitive detection even at early disease stages.^[36] Unlike proteins, which often derive from apoptotic cells and lack tumor-specific signatures, exosomal oncomirs reflect live cell secretions, providing mechanistic insights into oncogenesis.^[36] For instance, urinary miRNA ensembles, as blood byproducts, have emerged as promising for early detection in urological and other cancers, with profiles distinguishing malignant from benign conditions.^[37] In lung cancer, circulating multi-miRNA panels in plasma demonstrate robust diagnostic performance for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) subtypes, achieving 83% sensitivity for adenocarcinoma and 92% for squamous cell carcinoma in a 2024 validation cohort of over 4,000 patients, with area under the curve (AUC) values up to 0.98.^[38] Panels incorporating miR-21, a key oncomir upregulated in NSCLC, enhance early identification when combined with imaging, as shown in studies of peripheral blood from patients with pulmonary nodules.^[39] Similarly, a 2025 meta-analysis of 29 studies on colorectal cancer reported pooled sensitivity of 85% and specificity of 84% (AUC 0.90) for plasma-based multi-miRNA panels, outperforming single-miRNA assays by integrating diverse regulatory pathways like PI3K/AKT.^[40] Tissue-based oncomir profiling from tumor biopsies supports subtype classification and prognostic stratification. In lymphomas, miR-155 signatures in biopsies distinguish activated B-cell-like from germinal center B-cell-like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and predict outcomes, with high expression linked to shorter overall survival and progression-free survival in multiple cohorts.^[41] Elevated miR-21 in tumor tissues across cancers, including breast and lung, correlates with aggressive disease; a 2025 meta-analysis of breast cancer studies (pooled HR 2.37 for overall survival, 95% CI 1.42–3.98; HR 1.97 for disease-free survival, 95% CI 1.39–2.80) underscores its role in forecasting poor prognosis, particularly in triple-negative subtypes (HR 5.69).^[42] Multi-miR panels in tissues further refine predictions by capturing heterogeneous expression patterns, surpassing individual oncomirs in accuracy for survival forecasting.^[40] Despite these advances, oncomir biomarkers encounter hurdles in clinical adoption, including standardization of detection via qPCR and NGS, where variability in sample collection, hemolysis, and normalization—lacking consensus internal controls—compromises reproducibility.^[43] Specificity remains challenging due to miRNA sequence homology causing cross-reactivity and elevated levels in inflammatory or non-cancerous states, necessitating refined protocols to distinguish tumor-derived signals.^[43]

Therapeutic Strategies Including Anti-oncomirs

Therapeutic strategies targeting oncomirs primarily involve inhibiting their oncogenic activity to restore tumor suppressor pathways and disrupt cancer progression. Anti-oncomirs, such as synthetic antisense oligonucleotides including antagomirs and locked nucleic acids (LNAs), are designed to bind and sequester oncomirs, preventing their interaction with target mRNAs.^[44] These inhibitors have shown promise in preclinical models by reducing tumor growth and enhancing apoptosis, particularly for overexpressed oncomirs like miR-21, miR-155, and the miR-17-92 cluster.^[45] For miR-21, a key oncomir in glioblastoma (GBM), LNA-based inhibitors and antagomirs delivered via lipid nanoparticles have demonstrated reduced tumor proliferation and increased sensitivity to temozolomide in preclinical studies.^[45] Similarly, CRISPR-SaCas9-mediated editing of the miR-21 locus using a single adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector in GBM mouse models led to up to 180-fold reduction in miR-21 expression, upregulation of suppressors like PTEN and PDCD4, and a 31% increase in median survival (from 21.5 to 28.5 days).^[46] In hematological malignancies, inhibition of miR-155 with the LNA-modified MRG-106 (cobomarsen) in preclinical cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) models induced antileukemic effects, including transcriptome changes consistent with target de-repression and reduced cell proliferation.^[47] For the miR-17-92 cluster, preclinical inhibition using targeted inhibitors like MIR17PTi slowed tumor progression in multiple myeloma by modulating pathways such as PTEN and HIF-1α.^[44] Beyond direct inhibition, miRNA mimics of tumor suppressor miRNAs can indirectly counteract oncomir effects by restoring regulatory balance, such as miR-34a mimics that enhance antitumor drug efficacy in various cancers.^[48] CRISPR-based editing of oncomir loci offers precise genomic disruption, as seen in GBM models targeting miR-21 to exploit oncomir addiction vulnerabilities.^[46] Combination therapies integrating anti-oncomirs with chemotherapy address resistance; for instance, anti-miR-21 with doxorubicin in GBM liposomes overcomes multidrug resistance by downregulating ABC transporters like ABCC1.^[49] Similarly, miR-155 inhibitors combined with standard agents in AML models sensitize cells by modulating NF-κB and apoptosis pathways.^[44] Effective delivery remains a critical challenge, with nanoparticle systems (e.g., PLGA, lipid-based) and viral vectors (e.g., AAV, lentiviral) enabling tumor-specific targeting while protecting anti-oncomirs from degradation.^[50] Lipid nanoparticles improve stability and biodistribution but face issues like low encapsulation efficiency (due to miRNA hydrophilicity) and rapid clearance by the mononuclear phagocyte system.^[50] Viral vectors offer high transfection but risk immunogenicity and insertional mutagenesis.^[50] Off-target effects, immune activation, and poor endosomal escape further complicate translation, though exosome-based delivery shows potential for crossing barriers like the blood-brain barrier in GBM.^[44] Clinical progress includes phase I/II trials for miR-155 inhibitors like cobomarsen in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (NCT02580552), demonstrating safety and partial responses, with preclinical extensions to leukemia.^[44] For miR-21, ongoing preclinical work in GBM has shown promise, while miR-17-92 targeting remains largely preclinical, with safety data from related miR-17 inhibitors in non-cancer trials (e.g., NCT04536688).^[51] These advances highlight anti-oncomirs' potential, though optimizing delivery and minimizing toxicity are essential for broader efficacy.^[44]

Resources and Further Study

Databases and Tools

Several major databases serve as foundational resources for oncomir research, providing curated data on miRNA sequences, annotations, and cancer-specific interactions. miRBase remains the primary repository for microRNA sequences and annotations, cataloging over 48,000 mature miRNAs from 271 organisms in its latest release (v22.1 as referenced in 2025 studies). Updated annotations in 2024 incorporated improved structural predictions and expression data integration, facilitating oncomir identification across species. OncomiRDB, launched in 2014, specializes in experimentally verified oncogenic and tumor-suppressive microRNAs, compiling direct functional evidence such as regulation of cancer-related phenotypes from literature sources. It enables targeted queries for oncomir-target interactions, with over 1,000 entries linking miRNAs to validated pathways. miRTarBase, updated in 2025, collects over 3.8 million experimentally validated miRNA-target interactions from more than 13,000 articles, including cancer-specific data on drug resistance and therapeutic implications; it supports oncomir research through searchable MTIs and integration with tools for network analysis.^[52] The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) miRNA data portals, accessible via the Genomic Data Commons, offer comprehensive cancer-specific expression profiles from thousands of tumor samples across 33 cancer types, including raw sequencing data and normalized datasets for oncomir dysregulation analysis. Computational tools complement these databases by predicting and analyzing oncomir functions. TargetScan employs a seed-matching algorithm to forecast conserved miRNA target sites in vertebrate mRNAs, prioritizing 6-8mer sites in 3' UTRs for high-confidence predictions; it is widely used for oncomir studies due to its integration of evolutionary conservation scores. DIANA-microT (now microT-CDS) utilizes machine learning to score miRNA-mRNA interactions based on binding energy and site accessibility, supporting batch predictions for multiple oncomirs and exporting results in tabular formats. CircInteractome focuses on miRNA binding sites within circular RNAs, aiding analysis of circulating miRNA interactions in extracellular vesicles; it incorporates TargetScan predictions to map potential regulatory networks in cancer biofluids. Practical usage of these resources involves straightforward querying and data integration. For instance, researchers can query miR-21 targets in TargetScan to retrieve predicted genes like PTEN, then cross-reference expression datasets from TCGA portals to validate dysregulation in specific cancers. Downloading miRBase annotation files allows alignment with OncomiRDB for functional annotation of novel oncomirs. Recent 2025 updates have integrated AI-driven pattern recognition into pipelines combining NGS data from TCGA with tools like microT-CDS, enabling automated discovery of oncomir signatures through deep learning models for target prioritization. Despite their utility, these databases and tools face limitations requiring careful curation. Context-dependency of miRNA targeting—such as tissue-specific expression or post-transcriptional modifications—often leads to false positives in predictions, necessitating experimental validation beyond computational outputs. Additionally, while most resources like miRBase and TargetScan are open-access, proprietary platforms (e.g., certain TCGA-derived analytics suites) restrict full data access, hindering reproducibility in global research efforts.

Emerging Research Directions

Recent research has increasingly focused on the role of oncomirs in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and metastasis, particularly their contributions to immune evasion and stromal interactions. Oncomirs such as miR-21 and miR-155 are upregulated in the TME under hypoxic and acidic conditions, promoting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the recruitment of suppressive immune cells like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs).^[3] Exosomal transfer of miR-21 from cancer cells or TAMs to stromal cells downregulates tumor suppressors like PTEN and PDCD4, enhancing matrix metalloproteinase activity, extracellular matrix degradation, invasion, and angiogenesis via pathways such as YAP1/HIF-1α.^[53] These mechanisms facilitate immune evasion by suppressing antitumor responses and preparing premetastatic niches, as evidenced in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) models where exosomal miR-21 correlates with poor prognosis.^[53] The context-dependent functions of oncomirs highlight their dual roles across cancer types, complicating therapeutic targeting but offering nuanced insights into tumor biology. For instance, miR-184 acts as an oncomir in HNSCC and osteosarcoma (with controversial evidence in glioma) by promoting proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis through targeting genes like SOX7, INPPL1, and BCL2L1.^[54] Conversely, it functions as a tumor suppressor in lung, breast, colorectal, gastric, prostate, endometrial, ovarian, renal cell, hepatocellular, and retinoblastoma carcinomas, where downregulation enhances migration, invasion, and EMT via pathways such as Wnt/β-catenin and AKT/mTORC1.^[54] Advancements in liquid biopsy have leveraged these context-specific profiles, with circulating miRNAs enabling non-invasive detection; a 2023 study using droplet digital PCR on plasma from 268 genitourinary cancer patients identified panels like hsa-miR-155-5p/hsa-miR-375-3p for renal cell carcinoma (80.54% specificity) and hsa-miR-126-3p/hsa-miR-375-3p for bladder cancer (94.87% specificity), supporting early diagnosis and risk stratification. Gaps in oncomir research include limited exploration of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) crosstalk and AI-driven discovery, alongside underrepresentation of recent studies in genitourinary cancers. NcRNA crosstalk, such as interactions between oncomirs and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) or RNA-binding proteins, modulates tumor progression by altering gene expression networks, yet comprehensive models remain sparse.^[55] AI and machine learning have accelerated miRNA identification, with 2024 reviews highlighting deep learning for predicting oncogenic miRNAs across cancers like gastric and head and neck, achieving high accuracy in survival models via explainable AI.^[56] Studies from 2023-2025 on genitourinary malignancies, such as miR-155-5p promoting proliferation in renal cell carcinoma via JADE-1 targeting and miR-371a-3p as a serum biomarker for testicular germ cell tumors, underscore diagnostic potential but lack integration into broader therapeutic frameworks.^[57] Looking ahead, oncomir profiling promises to advance personalized medicine by tailoring therapies to individual miRNA signatures, while integration with immunotherapy could enhance efficacy. Circulating miRNA panels may guide patient stratification for immune checkpoint inhibitors, with miR-21 levels predicting responses in biliary tract cancer chemoimmunotherapy.^[58] Combining miRNA modulation with vaccines or checkpoint blockade, as in miRNA-enhanced dendritic cell therapies, holds potential to overcome resistance and boost antitumor immunity.^[59]

References

[1]
OncomiRs: the discovery and progress of microRNAs in cancers
Recent evidences indicate that miRNAs can function as tumor suppressors and oncogenes, and the miRNAs with a role in cancer are designated as oncogenic miRNAs ( ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[2]
OncomiRs as noncoding RNAs having functions in cancer - Frontiers
The overexpression of oncomiRs in cancer cells promote cancer through the regulation of the expression of multiple tumor suppressor gene targets with cancer- ...
[3]
The regulatory mechanisms of oncomiRs in cancer - ScienceDirect
The current review summarises the different mechanisms controlling the upregulation of oncomiR expression in cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment (TME).
[4]
microRNAs as oncogenes and tumor suppressors - ScienceDirect.com
Feb 1, 2007 · These oncogene miRNAs, called “oncomirs”, usually promote tumor development by negatively inhibiting tumor suppressor genes and/or genes that ...Review · Mirna Biogenesis · Microrna Microarray
[5]
OncomiR or Tumor Suppressor? The Duplicity of MicroRNAs in ...
Generally, oncogenic miRNAs (oncomiRs) are overexpressed in cancers while tumor suppressive miRNAs are underexpressed. When these oncomiRs or tumor suppressor ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[6]
The Drosha-DGCR8 complex in primary microRNA processing
The nuclear RNase III Drosha cleaves primary miRNAs (pri-miRNAs) to release hairpin-shaped pre-miRNAs that are subsequently cut by the cytoplasmic RNase III ...
[7]
The Duality of OncomiR Addiction in the Maintenance and ...
OncomiRs perpetuate cancer through regulation of biological pathways that include apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, cell senescence, and angiogenesis.
[8]
CMC: Cancer miRNA Census – a list of cancer-related miRNA genes
Jan 23, 2024 · We created a list of 165 cancer-related miRNA genes called the Cancer miRNA Census (CMC). The list is based on a score, built on various types of functional ...
[9]
The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with ...
The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14 ... Cell. 1993 Dec 3;75(5):843-54. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(93) ...
[10]
Pan-cancer analysis of somatic mutations in miRNA genes
In this study, we identified 7110 mutations in miRNA genes across 33 cancer types based on data available in the TCGA repository. Most of the mutations were ...
[11]
A Comprehensive Review of Cancer MicroRNA Therapeutic ...
MiRNA binding through a partial complementary sequence (seed sequence) within the target mRNA 3'UTR primarily inhibits translation or promotes its degradation.2. Altered Microrna... · 2.4. Mirna Replacement... · 3.5. Nanoparticles
[12]
https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(24)10981-4
[13]
Regulation of cancer metastasis by microRNAs - PMC
Many studies have shown that microRNAs could directly target genes playing a central role in epithelia-mesenchymal-transition (EMT), a cellular transformation ...
[14]
Extracellular RNA in oncogenesis, metastasis and drug resistance
Aug 6, 2024 · We review the roles of specific miRNAs that have been detected in EVPs and that play a role in oncogenesis and metastasis. KEYWORDS:.
[15]
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09284
[16]
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1201516109
[17]
The miR-17/92 cluster: a comprehensive update on its genomics ...
Nov 11, 2013 · The miR-17/92 cluster is among the best-studied microRNA clusters. Interest in the cluster and its members has been increasing steadily.
[18]
Genetic dissection of the miR-17∼92 cluster of microRNAs in Myc ...
The miR-17∼92 cluster is frequently amplified or overexpressed in human cancers and has emerged as the prototypical oncogenic polycistron microRNA (miRNA).
[19]
A Polycistronic MicroRNA Cluster, miR-17-92, Is Overexpressed in ...
Nov 1, 2005 · The miR-17-92 cluster, which comprises seven miRNAs and resides in intron 3 of the C13orf25 gene at 13q31.3, is markedly overexpressed in lung cancers.
[20]
Consequences of the feedback loops involving miR-17-92, E2F, and ...
The cluster is composed of 7 mature miRs, namely, miR-17–5p, miR-17–3p, miR-18a, miR-19a, miR-20a, miR-19b, and miR-92–1 (Fig. 2A). The nucleotide sequences and ...Microrna Regulation Of A... · Results And Discussion · Mir-17-92 As An Oncogene And...
[21]
Copy Number Gain of hsa-miR-569 at 3q26.2 Leads to Loss of ...
... Copy Number Gain of hsa-miR-569 at 3q26.2 Leads to Loss of TP53INP1 and Aggressiveness of Epithelial Cancers. Pradeep Chaluvally-Raghavan. Pradeep Chaluvally ...
[22]
Role of miR‑181a‑5p in cancer (Review) - Spandidos Publications
Aug 3, 2023 · Numerous studies have demonstrated that miR‑181a‑5p exerts regulatory influence on cancer development and progression, acting as an oncomiR or ...
[23]
microRNA-184 in the landscape of human malignancies: a review to ...
Nov 24, 2023 · It is documented that miR-184 shows widely deregulation in numerous cancers with controversial functions either as an oncomiR in some cancers ...
[24]
Unraveling the Multifaceted Role of the miR-17-92 Cluster in ...
Feb 28, 2024 · The miR-17-92 cluster is upregulated in colon cancer and contributes to tumor development by promoting angiogenesis through the suppression of ...
[25]
Exosomes as a new frontier of cancer liquid biopsy
Feb 18, 2022 · Compared with CTCs and ctDNA, exosomes have shown greater advantages in liquid biopsy. First, the presence of large amounts of exosomes (~ 109 ...
[26]
Early Cancer Detection via Multi-microRNA Profiling of Urinary ...
Oct 18, 2024 · Urinary miRNA ensembles, which are blood byproducts, have the potential to serve as a cancer warning sign, the same as the blood miRNA ensembles ...
[27]
Circulating miRNA panels as a novel non-invasive diagnostic ...
Aug 30, 2024 · Circulating miRNA signatures demonstrate diagnostic and prognostic value for NSCLC and may guide treatment decisions in clinical practice.
[28]
Clinical value of peripheral blood miR-21 and miR-486 combined ...
Sep 20, 2024 · This study aimed to investigate the clinical significance of combining peripheral blood miR-21 and miR-486 with CT for the early cancer diagnosis in pulmonary ...<|separator|>
[29]
Diagnostic Potential of Cross-Specimen microRNA Panels as ...
Aug 23, 2025 · This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the diagnostic accuracy of multi-miRNA panels and explored their mechanistic relevance to ...
[30]
The Role of microRNA-155 as a Biomarker in Diffuse Large B-Cell ...
Nov 21, 2024 · The study found that increased expression of miR-155 was consistently linked to lower survival rates (OS, PFS, event-free survival) in patients ...
[31]
The Prognostic Power of miR-21 in Breast Cancer - NIH
Oct 6, 2025 · This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to clarify the prognostic significance of miR-21 in BC and explore its molecular mechanisms ...
[32]
MicroRNAs: circulating biomarkers for the early detection of ... - Nature
Jun 5, 2024 · Early studies faced challenges in establishing robust biomarker panels and overcoming the heterogeneity of cancer types.
[33]
MicroRNA in cancer therapy: breakthroughs and challenges in early ...
Apr 21, 2025 · This review examines the dual role of miRNAs in solid and hematological malignancies, starting from their dysregulation in various cancer types.
[34]
microRNAs (miRNAs) in Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM) - MDPI
According to the latest research, two basic strategies for miRNA-based therapy have been proposed, the first of which is to restore the downward-regulated ...Micrornas (mirnas) In... · 4. Tumor Suppressor Mirnas · 6. The Use Of Mirnas In Gbm...
[35]
CRISPR targeting of mmu-miR-21a through a single adeno ...
Jan 8, 2025 · In this study, we demonstrated that disruption of genomic mmu-miR-21a with a single AAV vector influenced glioma development resulting in beneficial anti-tumor ...<|separator|>
[36]
Preclinical Results Supporting Therapeutic Development of Mrg-106 ...
Dec 3, 2015 · Inhibition of miR-155-5p resulted in transcriptome changes consistent with miR-155-5p target gene modulation, reduction in cell ...
[37]
Targeting oncomiRNAs and mimicking tumor suppressor miRNAs
One of the solid results emerging from different independent studies is that miRNA replacement therapy can enhance the antitumor effects of the antitumor drugs.
[38]
MicroRNA-Based Combinatorial Cancer Therapy: Effects of ... - NIH
Combination therapies have been proposed to overcome therapeutic resistance via the combined inhibition of different mechanisms. For example, the combination of ...
[39]
MicroRNA delivery through nanoparticles - PMC - PubMed Central
The main challenges in miRNA delivery with nanocarriers are related to their low encapsulation efficiency [60], and the need for cell targeting, as shown ...
[40]
Advances in MicroRNA Therapeutics: From Preclinical to Clinical ...
In this review, we present recent advances in the development of miRNA therapeutics currently in preclinical or clinical stages for treating both rare genetic ...Advances In Microrna... · Mirna Therapeutics... · Mirna-Based Therapeutics In...<|control11|><|separator|>
[41]
MicroRNAs as Emerging Therapeutic Targets Modulating the Tumor ...
For instance, exosomal miR-21 can downregulate PDCD4, TPM1, and PTEN in neighboring cells, promoting tumor invasion and immune evasion [17]. This bidirectional ...
[42]
microRNA-184 in the landscape of human malignancies: a review to ...
Nov 24, 2023 · It is documented that miR-184 shows widely deregulation in numerous cancers with controversial functions either as an oncomiR in some cancers or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
Crosstalk between RNA-binding proteins and non-coding RNAs in ...
This article has provided a comprehensive review of the roles played by RNA-binding proteins and their associated non-coding RNAs in tumor biology.
[44]
Advancing miRNA cancer research through artificial intelligence
Dec 17, 2024 · This review comprehensively examines current developments in the application of machine learning techniques in miRNA research across diverse cancers.Missing: oncomirs 2023-2025
[45]
MicroRNAs in Genitourinary Malignancies: An Exciting Frontier of ...
In this review, we describe how novel miRNAs can be used in the treatment of prostate, urothelial, kidney, testicular, and other genitourinary cancers, both in ...
[46]
Circulating miRNAs as potentially predictive biomarkers for ... - Nature
Aug 30, 2025 · Circulating miRNAs as potentially predictive biomarkers for chemoimmunotherapy in advanced biliary tract cancer: a post-hoc analysis of the ...
[47]
A new era of cancer immunotherapy: vaccines and miRNAs - PMC
Apr 1, 2025 · This review examines the important role of vaccines in cancer therapy, focusing on recent advancements such as dendritic cell vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and ...