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PLGA

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a synthetic, biodegradable copolymer composed of lactic acid and glycolic acid monomers, widely recognized for its biocompatibility, tunable degradation properties, and extensive use in biomedical applications such as controlled drug delivery and tissue engineering.^[1] This aliphatic polyester degrades hydrolytically into non-toxic metabolites—lactic acid and glycolic acid—that are naturally metabolized via the Krebs cycle or excreted by the kidneys, making it an ideal material for implantable medical devices.^[2] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved PLGA for clinical use since the 1980s, highlighting its safety profile and versatility in formulations ranging from microspheres to scaffolds.^[3] PLGA is typically synthesized through ring-opening polymerization of the cyclic dimers lactide (from lactic acid) and glycolide (from glycolic acid), often using catalysts like stannous octoate at temperatures between 130–220°C to achieve high molecular weights (10–100 kDa).^[2] Alternative methods include direct polycondensation or enzymatic polymerization, though the ring-opening approach predominates due to its efficiency in producing polymers with controlled structures.^[2] The degradation mechanism proceeds in four stages: initial hydration of the polymer chain, followed by hydrolysis of ester linkages leading to molecular weight reduction, mass loss through constant degradation, and final solubilization of oligomers.^[2] Key properties are influenced by the lactide-to-glycolide ratio (e.g., 50:50, 75:25, or 85:15), molecular weight, and end-group modifications; for instance, a 50:50 ratio yields the fastest degradation (1–3 months) due to higher hydrophilicity, while higher lactide content (e.g., 85:15) extends degradation to 4–6 months or more by increasing hydrophobicity and crystallinity.^[1]^[4] PLGA exhibits a glass transition temperature above 37°C, rendering it glassy and mechanically robust at body temperature, with solubility in organic solvents like tetrahydrofuran.^[1] Historically, PLGA's development began in the 1960s with its use in bioresorbable surgical sutures, evolving in the 1970s–1980s to drug delivery systems, culminating in the 1989 FDA approval of Lupron Depot—the first PLGA-based microsphere formulation for sustained leuprolide release in prostate cancer treatment.^[3] Subsequent advancements have focused on nanotechnology, including PLGA nanoparticles for targeted therapies in cancer, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases, with approximately 27 FDA-approved long-acting injectable products as of 2025, such as Zoladex and Sandostatin LAR, demonstrating its clinical impact.^[3]^[5] In tissue engineering, PLGA scaffolds support bone regeneration and wound healing by providing temporary structural support that degrades as new tissue forms.^[1] Ongoing research addresses challenges like initial burst release and scale-up, paving the way for hybrid PLGA systems enhanced with imaging agents or stimuli-responsive features.^[3]

Chemical Composition and Synthesis

Monomers and Copolymer Structure

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a linear aliphatic polyester copolymer synthesized from the monomers lactide and glycolide, which are the cyclic dimers of lactic acid and glycolic acid, respectively.^[2] These monomers are polymerized to form a random copolymer where repeating units of lactic acid (more hydrophobic) and glycolic acid (more hydrophilic) are incorporated into the chain.^[6] The chemical formula of PLGA is (C_3H_4O_2)_m(C_2H_2O_2)_n, where m and n denote the number of lactide and glycolide units, respectively, determining the overall composition.^[7] The polymer features ester linkages connecting the monomeric units along its backbone, contributing to its susceptibility to hydrolysis, and it is registered under CAS number 26780-50-7.^[6]^[8] PLGA is available in various lactide:glycolide ratios, such as 50:50, 75:25, and 85:15, which modulate key properties including hydrophilicity and degradation rate; for instance, higher glycolide content increases hydrophilicity due to the polar nature of glycolic acid units.^[6] These ratios influence degradation kinetics, with balanced compositions like 50:50 exhibiting faster breakdown compared to lactide-rich variants.^[9] PLGA was developed in the 1970s as a biodegradable alternative to non-degradable synthetic polymers for biomedical applications, building on earlier work with homopolymers like poly(glycolic acid) and poly(lactic acid) introduced in surgical sutures during the late 1960s and early 1970s.^[10]

Polymerization Methods

The primary method for synthesizing poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of the cyclic dimers lactide, derived from lactic acid, and glycolide, derived from glycolic acid.^[11]^[12] This process involves the nucleophilic attack on the carbonyl carbon of the cyclic monomers, leading to chain propagation and formation of the copolymer.^[13] Typically, ROP is catalyzed by tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate (Sn(Oct)₂) or other organometallic compounds, which facilitate the coordination-insertion mechanism essential for controlled polymerization.^[11]^[14] The reaction proceeds in either the melt (bulk) phase or solution phase at temperatures ranging from 130°C to 180°C, allowing for efficient monomer conversion while minimizing side reactions such as racemization or transesterification.^[15]^[16] Molecular weight (MW) of PLGA is controlled primarily by the initiator-to-monomer ratio, yielding polymers in the range of 5,000 to 200,000 Da, with a polydispersity index (PDI) typically between 1.5 and 2.0, indicative of relatively narrow distributions suitable for biomedical applications.^[17]^[18] End-group modifications, such as carboxylic acid (using water or hydroxyl initiators) or ester termini (using alcohols), enable tailored functionality for subsequent conjugation or degradation control.^[19]^[6] Alternative methods include direct polycondensation of lactic and glycolic acids, which is less common due to challenges in achieving high MW beyond approximately 10,000 Da without additional chain extension agents, resulting in lower yields and broader PDI.^[20]^[21] Coordination-insertion mechanisms, often employed in ROP variants, further enhance stereocontrol and MW precision but require precise catalyst selection to avoid residual metal content.^[13]^[14]

Properties

Physical and Mechanical Properties

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) exhibits a glass transition temperature (Tg) typically ranging from 40 to 60 °C, which renders it in a glassy, rigid state at physiological temperatures. This Tg value is influenced by the lactide:glycolide ratio, with higher lactide content elevating Tg due to the more hydrophobic and crystalline nature of polylactic acid segments compared to polyglycolic acid.^[22]^[23] PLGA demonstrates good solubility in organic solvents such as chlorinated compounds like chloroform and dichloromethane, as well as fluorinated solvents, tetrahydrofuran, acetone, and ethyl acetate, facilitating processing techniques like emulsification and electrospinning. It remains insoluble in water, which contributes to its stability in aqueous environments prior to hydrolysis. The polymer's density is approximately 1.25–1.35 g/cm³, providing a balance suitable for dense implants and scaffolds. Thermally, PLGA maintains stability up to around 250 °C before decomposition begins, allowing for melt processing without significant degradation.^[7]^[24]^[25] Mechanically, PLGA is characterized by a tensile strength of 40–55 MPa and a Young's modulus of 1.2–2.2 GPa, particularly for the 50:50 lactide:glycolide composition, making it suitable for load-bearing applications despite its brittleness at room temperature. These properties arise from its amorphous structure and can be tuned by molecular weight and copolymer ratio, with higher lactide fractions enhancing stiffness. Inherent viscosity, a key indicator of molecular weight, ranges from 0.2 to 1.0 dL/g and is adjustable during synthesis to optimize rheological behavior for extrusion or injection molding.^[25]^[26]

Biocompatibility

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in medical devices since the 1970s, initially for applications such as sutures, owing to its non-immunogenic properties that minimize adverse immune responses.^[27] This approval underscores PLGA's established safety profile in biomedical contexts, where it exhibits low reactivity with biological tissues.^[1] Upon degradation, PLGA breaks down into lactic acid and glycolic acid, which are naturally metabolized through the Krebs cycle into carbon dioxide and water, facilitating safe elimination without accumulation of toxic byproducts.^[27] In vivo, PLGA elicits minimal inflammation, typically manifesting as mild foreign body reactions that resolve over time, with the local pH dropping to approximately 5-6 during degradation but being effectively buffered by physiological conditions to prevent significant tissue irritation.^[27] Cytotoxicity evaluations of PLGA, conducted according to ISO 10993-5 standards, demonstrate low toxicity to cells, with fibroblast viability often exceeding 99% in direct and extract-based assays, indicating no cytotoxic effects at relevant concentrations.^[28] Additionally, PLGA maintains its biocompatibility following common sterilization methods such as gamma irradiation or ethylene oxide exposure, which do not introduce alterations that compromise its biological safety.^[27]

Biodegradability and Degradation Mechanisms

PLGA exhibits biodegradability primarily through the hydrolysis of its ester bonds in aqueous biological environments, leading to the breakdown into lactic acid and glycolic acid monomers that are metabolized via the tricarboxylic acid cycle and excreted as carbon dioxide and water. This process occurs via a bulk erosion mechanism, where water rapidly penetrates the entire polymer matrix—faster than the degradation rate itself—resulting in uniform internal hydrolysis rather than surface-limited erosion. The hydrophobic nature of the lactide units initially limits water ingress, but once absorbed, hydrolysis proceeds throughout the bulk, often accelerated by autocatalysis from the generated acidic by-products.^[1] The degradation rate of PLGA is highly tunable and depends on the copolymer composition, with the 50:50 lactide:glycolide ratio degrading the fastest at approximately 2-3 months in vivo due to the higher hydrophilicity and faster hydrolysis of glycolide segments. In contrast, compositions with higher lactide content, such as 75:25 or 85:15, exhibit slower degradation over 6-12 months because lactide's methyl side groups enhance hydrophobicity and crystallinity, impeding water access and hydrolysis. Additional factors include molecular weight, where higher values (e.g., >100 kDa) prolong degradation by increasing chain entanglement; pH, with acidic conditions accelerating the process through proton-catalyzed ester cleavage; and temperature, as elevated levels (e.g., body temperature of 37°C) promote molecular mobility and reaction kinetics.^[1] Degradation proceeds in distinct stages: an initial lag phase (days to weeks) characterized by water uptake and hydration without significant mass loss, during which the polymer swells as water diffuses into amorphous regions; this is followed by autocatalytic hydrolysis, where carboxylic acid end groups from initial bond cleavage lower the internal pH to 1.5-2.5, dramatically accelerating ester bond scission and reducing molecular weight; mass loss then ensues as water-soluble oligomers form and diffuse out, leading to structural weakening; finally, fragmentation occurs, with the polymer breaking into small, soluble pieces that are fully resorbed. The process is predominantly non-enzymatic, driven by hydrolytic cleavage, though in vivo environments show faster rates than in vitro due to contributions from enzymes like esterases and cellular interactions that enhance local acidity and diffusion.^[2]^[29] Hydrolysis kinetics approximate first-order dependence on ester bond concentration, with rate constants typically ranging from $10^{-2} to $10^{-4} day^{-1}, where lower values correspond to lactide-rich compositions and higher molecular weights that slow the reaction. This kinetic model underscores the predictability of PLGA's degradation for biomedical design, though actual rates can vary with implant geometry and biological site due to diffusion limitations of degradation products.^[1]

Fabrication and Formulations

Nanoparticles and Microparticles

PLGA nanoparticles and microparticles are produced through a variety of fabrication techniques that enable the formation of spherical or near-spherical particulates for encapsulation and controlled delivery. These methods leverage the amphiphilic nature of PLGA to incorporate therapeutic agents, with particle size and morphology tailored to specific applications such as systemic circulation or localized injection. Emulsion-based approaches dominate due to their versatility in handling both hydrophobic and hydrophilic payloads, while alternative processes like spray drying and supercritical fluid extraction offer scalability and uniformity. The emulsion-solvent evaporation method is widely used for generating PLGA particulates, involving the dispersion of a polymer solution in an immiscible phase followed by solvent removal to solidify the particles. For hydrophobic drugs, a single oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion is formed by dissolving the drug and PLGA in an organic solvent like dichloromethane, emulsifying it into an aqueous surfactant solution, and evaporating the solvent under stirring or reduced pressure. This process yields high encapsulation efficiencies, often exceeding 70%, by minimizing drug partitioning into the external phase during solidification.^[30]^[31] For hydrophilic drugs, the double emulsion (w/o/w) technique is preferred, where the aqueous drug solution is first emulsified within the organic PLGA phase to form a primary water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion, which is then re-emulsified into a larger aqueous volume to create the w/o/w structure. Solvent evaporation then hardens the particles, trapping the inner aqueous droplets and achieving encapsulation while preserving drug stability. This method is particularly effective for proteins and peptides, with particle formation controlled by parameters like surfactant concentration and emulsification speed.^[32]^[33] Nanoparticles, typically sized 10-200 nm, are designed for enhanced cellular uptake via endocytosis, owing to their ability to navigate biological barriers and accumulate in target tissues through the enhanced permeability and retention effect. In contrast, microparticles range from 1-100 µm, making them ideal for injectable depots that provide sustained release without rapid clearance. These size ranges are achieved by adjusting formulation variables such as polymer concentration and homogenization intensity, ensuring monodispersity for reproducible performance.^[34]^[35] Drug loading in PLGA particulates spans 1-50% w/w, influenced by drug-polymer interactions and solubility; hydrophobic agents integrate more readily into the matrix, while hydrophilic ones require emulsion stabilization to reach higher capacities. Surface modifications, such as PEGylation through blending PLGA with PEG or post-formation conjugation, confer stealth properties by forming a hydrophilic corona that reduces protein adsorption and phagocytosis, thereby extending systemic half-life.^[36]^[37] Spray drying offers a continuous, solvent-efficient alternative for uniform microparticles, where a PLGA-drug solution is atomized into a hot gas stream, rapidly evaporating the solvent to form dry spheres with narrow size distributions suitable for inhalation or injection. Supercritical fluid methods, including supercritical CO₂-assisted extraction or precipitation, produce highly uniform nano- and microparticles by exploiting the fluid's tunable density to dissolve and nucleate PLGA without harsh organic solvents, minimizing residual impurities.^[38]^[39] A key challenge in these systems is the initial burst release, where 10-30% of the drug diffuses rapidly from the particle surface within the first day due to surface-associated payload or matrix porosity. This can be addressed via core-shell architectures, engineered by sequential emulsification or coating to isolate the drug core, promoting more uniform degradation-driven release tied to PLGA's hydrolytic breakdown.^[40]^[41]

Scaffolds and Implants

PLGA scaffolds and implants are fabricated into macroscopic structures to provide temporary mechanical support and structural guidance in biomedical applications. These structures leverage the polymer's biodegradability and tunable properties to create porous architectures that facilitate integration with host tissues while degrading over time. Common fabrication techniques emphasize control over porosity, mechanical integrity, and degradation profiles to suit implantation needs. Key methods for producing PLGA scaffolds include electrospinning, which generates nanofibrous mats mimicking the extracellular matrix, with typical pore sizes ranging from 1 to 50 µm to support cell adhesion and nutrient diffusion.^[42] 3D printing enables the creation of custom scaffolds with precise geometries, allowing for patient-specific designs and controlled pore architectures through techniques like fused deposition modeling.^[43] Solvent casting combined with porogen leaching is widely used to produce porous implants; in this process, PLGA is dissolved in a solvent, mixed with porogens such as NaCl particles, cast into molds, and then leached to yield interconnected pores.^[44] Porosity in PLGA scaffolds is typically engineered to 70-90% to promote cell infiltration and vascularization, with pore interconnectivity ensuring efficient mass transport.^[45] Mechanical reinforcement is often achieved by blending PLGA with polylactic acid (PLA), which enhances tensile strength and flexibility without compromising biodegradability, as PLA's higher hydrophobicity balances PLGA's faster degradation.^[46] PLGA implants commonly take forms such as sutures, screws, and meshes, where degradation is tuned via copolymer ratios to last 3-24 months, matching tissue remodeling timelines.^[47]^[48] For instance, PLGA-based sutures like Vicryl retain approximately 50% of their tensile strength at 21 days, with complete resorption in 56-70 days, while screws and meshes in orthopedic applications degrade over 12-24 months to avoid long-term foreign body reactions.^[49] Processing parameters are critical to preserve PLGA's integrity; extrusion for filaments or scaffolds is conducted at 150-200°C to remain above the glass transition temperature (35-60°C) while minimizing thermal degradation.^[50]^[51] Recent advances as of 2025 include bioactive glass composites, such as PLGA scaffolds incorporating magnesium-doped micro-nano bioactive glass, which enhance osteoconductivity by promoting apatite formation and bone mineralization.^[52] These hybrids improve bioactivity for orthopedic implants, with 3D-printed PLGA/bioactive glass structures demonstrating superior integration in calvarial defect models.^[53] Additionally, 2025 reviews highlight PLGA-based resorbable implants for surgical fixation and tissue engineering, including functionalized scaffolds with Cu-Sr bioactive glass for vascularized bone regeneration.^[54]^[55]

Applications

Drug Delivery Systems

PLGA is widely utilized in drug delivery systems due to its ability to provide controlled and sustained release of therapeutics, leveraging a combination of diffusion through the polymer matrix and erosion of the degrading polymer. This dual mechanism enables zero-order release kinetics in optimized formulations, where the drug release rate remains constant over extended periods, typically spanning weeks to months, minimizing fluctuations in plasma concentrations and improving therapeutic efficacy while reducing dosing frequency.^[56]^[57] Among the earliest and most successful applications are FDA-approved injectable depot formulations for hormone therapies. Lupron Depot, approved in 1989, encapsulates leuprolide acetate in PLGA microspheres to treat prostate cancer and endometriosis, providing sustained release over 1 to 6 months depending on the dosage form. Similarly, Eligard, an in situ-forming PLGA-based implant, delivers leuprolide acetate subcutaneously for the same indications, achieving controlled release profiles over 1 to 6 months through polymer hydrolysis and erosion. These products exemplify PLGA's clinical translation for long-term pharmacotherapy.^[3] PLGA systems are versatile for encapsulating a range of therapeutics, including small-molecule drugs, proteins, and vaccines, by incorporating them during microsphere or nanoparticle fabrication via emulsion methods. However, initial burst release—due to surface-adsorbed drug—can compromise efficacy, particularly for sensitive biologics; this is mitigated through multilayer designs, such as coating drug-loaded cores with drug-free PLGA layers, which create diffusion barriers and promote more uniform release.^[58]^[59] Administration routes for PLGA-based systems include injectable depots for intramuscular or subcutaneous sustained release, oral nanoparticles to enhance bioavailability and protect against gastrointestinal degradation, and ocular inserts for localized, prolonged delivery to the eye, such as in treating posterior segment diseases.^[58]^[60] Recent advancements (2023–2025) have focused on PLGA-based long-acting formulations for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), such as in situ-forming implants loaded with cabotegravir, which provide ultra-long protection against SHIV infection in preclinical models for up to 6–11 months.^[61] Such PLGA systems aim to address adherence challenges observed in oral PrEP; clinical programs for long-acting cabotegravir PrEP have reported approximately 85% on-time injections and 83% retention at 6 months.^[62]

Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

PLGA scaffolds play a pivotal role in tissue engineering by providing a biocompatible, porous architecture that closely mimics the extracellular matrix (ECM), enabling cell adhesion, proliferation, and nutrient diffusion essential for regenerative processes. Their tunable porosity, often exceeding 80-90%, supports the infiltration of cells and vasculature, facilitating the reconstruction of complex tissues. In bone regeneration, 3D-printed PLGA scaffolds combined with hydroxyapatite demonstrate enhanced osteoconductivity, promoting new bone formation in critical-sized defects through controlled degradation that aligns with tissue remodeling. For cartilage repair, oriented microtubular PLGA scaffolds seeded with chondrocytes exhibit improved hyaline-like matrix production, while in skin regeneration, bioactive PLGA dermal scaffolds accelerate wound closure by fostering fibroblast migration and collagen deposition.^[63]^[64]^[65] Cell seeding on PLGA scaffolds is highly effective due to their surface properties, which support the attachment and viability of stem cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Incorporation of growth factors, exemplified by bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) loaded into PLGA nanoparticles or scaffolds, significantly enhances osteogenic and chondrogenic differentiation; for instance, BMP-2-grafted nHA/PLGA hybrid nanofibers stimulate ectopic bone formation in rodent models by sustaining factor release over weeks. This compatibility extends to co-delivery systems where PLGA matrices encapsulate multiple bioactives, optimizing the microenvironment for tissue-specific regeneration without eliciting adverse immune responses.^[66]^[67] In vivo applications highlight PLGA's efficacy in matching scaffold degradation with tissue ingrowth, ensuring mechanical support transitions seamlessly to regenerated tissue. For cranial defect repair, PLGA microsphere-based scaffolds implanted in rabbit calvarial models promote osteogenesis without exogenous growth factors, achieving near-complete defect closure by 12 weeks as the material hydrolyzes into non-toxic byproducts. In vascular grafts, PLGA membranes facilitate endothelial cell proliferation and reduce thrombosis, supporting patency in small-diameter constructs. This degradation profile, typically 4-6 months for 50:50 PLGA formulations, correlates with progressive ECM deposition and vascularization, minimizing inflammation.^[68]^[69]^[70] Blends of PLGA with natural polymers like chitosan enhance bioactivity by improving hydrophilicity and cell-scaffold interactions, leading to superior osteogenic outcomes in composite scaffolds for bone and skin applications. Recent 2024 advances in 3D bioprinting leverage PLGA-based bioinks to fabricate patient-specific scaffolds with precise pore architectures, as demonstrated in studies integrating PLGA with gelatin for multi-layered cartilage constructs that support zonal tissue mimicry. PLGA hydrogels, such as thermoresponsive PLGA-PEG-PLGA formulations, further advance cartilage regeneration by encapsulating MSCs to upregulate cartilage-specific markers like type II collagen in preclinical models, paving the way for clinical translation.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Other Biomedical Uses

PLGA-based materials have found application in wound dressings and barriers, particularly in dental procedures for guided tissue regeneration (GTR). For instance, the Powerbone synthetic membrane, composed of non-woven PLGA microfibers, serves as a resorbable barrier that prevents epithelial cell migration while promoting stem cell adhesion and site stabilization.^[74] This membrane maintains structural integrity for 4–6 weeks and fully resorbs in 10–15 weeks, outperforming collagen alternatives in challenging oral environments with dehiscence or tension.^[74] Similarly, bilayer PLGA membranes have demonstrated enhanced bone regeneration in periodontal defects by facilitating controlled degradation and tissue integration.^[75] In orthopedic applications, PLGA is utilized in degradable screws and plates for fracture fixation, offering temporary mechanical support without the need for secondary removal surgeries. These implants provide sufficient stability during healing, with resorption occurring over months to years depending on the lactic-to-glycolic acid ratio.^[76] In a rabbit mandible fracture model, PLGA plates and screws supported new bone formation by 8–10 weeks post-implantation, with minimal inflammation and no cytotoxicity observed.^[76] Such devices are particularly advantageous in pediatric trauma, where growth plates must remain undisturbed, and in high-load areas like the mandible.^[77] PLGA nanoparticles also serve as vectors in gene therapy for delivering DNA and RNA therapeutics, leveraging their biocompatibility and ability to protect nucleic acids from degradation. These particles encapsulate plasmids or siRNA, enabling targeted transfection with efficiencies comparable to viral methods but reduced immunogenicity.^[78] For example, PEI-coated PLGA nanoparticles delivered miR-26a to HepG2 cells, achieving a 7.73-fold increase in expression and inducing G1 phase cell cycle arrest with over 90% cell viability.^[78] In broader applications, PLGA formulations have facilitated siRNA knockdown in vivo, supporting therapies for cancer and genetic disorders.^[79] Beyond core regenerative uses, PLGA contributes to cosmetics and dental products, including fillers and antimicrobial coatings. In aesthetic medicine, PLLA/PLGA microspheres blended with collagen provide sustained soft tissue augmentation for skin sagging, offering immediate volume via collagen and long-term neocollagenesis through microsphere degradation.^[80] These composites exhibit injectability through 23G needles and promote endogenous collagen regeneration in rat models, with PLGA degrading earlier to extend filling duration.^[80] In dentistry, PLGA nanoparticles loaded with quaternary ammonium silane enhance sealants and resin-dentin bonds by reducing cariogenic biofilms by over 57% without compromising bond strength (up to 33.67 MPa after 12 months).^[81] Emerging applications as of 2025 include PLGA integration in wearable sensors and drug-eluting patches for personalized medicine. These flexible patches combine biosensing (e.g., strain or pH monitoring) with controlled transdermal release, using PLGA microparticles for sustained drug delivery triggered by ultrasound or mechanical deformation.^[82] For instance, PLGA-based microneedle arrays enable on-demand insulin or anti-cancer agent release, improving patient compliance in diabetes and oncology management.^[82] Such systems highlight PLGA's role in multifunctional, biodegradable wearables that reduce systemic side effects.^[82] As of November 2025, additional advancements encompass PLGA-based resorbable implants for cardiovascular interventions, such as stents and patches, and multifunctional PLGA nanosystems for combined diagnostic and therapeutic (theranostic) applications in cancer management.^[54]^[83]

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Poly(Lactic Acid)-Based Microparticles for Drug Delivery Applications
The spray drying mechanism is based on the atomizing and subsequent drying of a feed (i.e., a liquid, S/O or W/O, dispersion of particles solution) by spraying ...
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Production of PLGA micro- and nanocomposites by supercritical ...
The present study demonstrates the feasibility of producing sub-micron particles of PLGA through a novel process, namely supercritical fluid extraction of ...
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Characterization of the initial burst release of a model peptide from ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In summary, over the first 24 h of drug release, a non-porous film forms spontaneously at the surface of octreotide acetate-loaded PLGA ...
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PLGA Core-Shell Nano/Microparticle Delivery System for ... - NIH
The primary role of core–shell particles is to deliver the loaded drugs as they are capable of sequence-controlled release and provide protection of drugs.
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Preparation, physicochemical properties and biocompatibility of ...
Feb 1, 2017 · ... scaffolds, displayed a pore size range of 50–500 μm, high compressive modulus (566.6 ± 8.8 kPa), suitable glass transition temperature (46.8 ...
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3D Printing of Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration Applications - PMC
In this review, we discuss the criteria for printing viable and functional scaffolds, scaffolding materials, and 3DP technologies used to print scaffolds for ...
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Physical and degradation properties of PLGA scaffolds fabricated by ...
Porous polymer scaffolds were prepared by solvent casting/particulate leaching where we used NaCl salt as particulate porogen (200-300 µm). PLA and PGA with ...
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Fabrication and characterization of poly(D,L‐lactide‐co‐glycolide ...
Feb 2, 2010 · A typical porosity of 70–90% as well as a pore diameter of at least 100 μm is known to be necessary for cell penetration and a proper ...<|separator|>
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PLGA Implants for Controlled Drug Delivery and Regenerative ...
The LA:GA ratio also affects implant morphology; faster-degrading 50:50 PLGA generates porosity more quickly and lowers local pH through acidic byproducts, ...
[45]
Mechanical Properties and In Vitro Degradation of PLGA Suture ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The absorbable suture (Vicryl ® ), made from PLGA (10% L-lactide and 90% glycolide), can maintain functional strength over 28 days and shows ...
[46]
MRI evaluation of resorbable poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA ...
Aug 14, 2020 · Some in vitro studies indicate that PLGA implants decompose within 24 months, but both in vitro and in vivo degradation is highly dependent ...Missing: meshes | Show results with:meshes
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[PDF] Medical Device Material Safety Summaries - ECRI Reports - FDA
Nov 9, 2020 · An increase in MMPs by 6 weeks with PLGA implants were reported in 1 RCT. ... Observations on adverse effects: No signs of degradation at any time ...
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Hot-Melt Extrusion-Based Dexamethasone–PLGA Implants - NIH
Samples were processed using a seven-step DSC method. The upper temperature limits were set at 200 °C for PLGA polymers and 268.5 °C for the micronized ...
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[PDF] 3D printing PLGA: a quantitative examination of the effects of ...
PLGA glass transition was observed between 35°C to 60°C, which is significantly lower than extrusion temperature. b. Comparison of molecular weight of five PLGA ...
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Advances in biomaterials for osteonecrosis treatment - PMC
May 21, 2025 · This article reviews the latest progress of biomaterials for the treatment of osteonecrosis. These materials support bone repair by improving the local ...
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Functionalization of 3D printed PLGA-based scaffolds for bone ...
Oct 14, 2025 · Recent advances in PLGA-Based biomaterials for bone tissue regeneration ... An osteoconductive PLGA scaffold with bioactive β-TCP and anti ...
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Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) controlled release systems - NIH
As polymer degradation proceeds, small fragments and monomers from PLGA begin to erode away from the device, which will in turn accelerate the diffusion rate ...Vii. Plga Degradation · Viii. Plga Release Mechanism · Ix. Current Plga Controlled...
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Ultra-long-acting tunable biodegradable and removable controlled ...
Sep 20, 2019 · The release rate of MK-2048 within the zero order kinetics ranged between 17.4 μg/week (1:2 w/w PLGA/NMP) to 43.6 μg/week (1:8 w/w PLGA/NMP).Results · Solubility Of Arv Drugs In... · In Vitro Release Studies
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Recent Applications of PLGA in Drug Delivery Systems - MDPI
Surface modification can be achieved by conjugating functional groups, such as amino groups or carboxylic acids, to the surface of PLGA nanoparticles. These ...
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Reduction in burst release after coating poly(D,L-lactide-co ...
Aug 7, 2025 · A PLGA coating layer is known to act as an effective barrier in preventing the premature release of drugs into aqueous media [30] [34][35] [36] ...
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[PDF] PLGA IMPLANTS FOR OCULAR DRUG DELIVERY
They are not suitable as a monotherapy but in combination with anti-. VEGF therapy they may reduce injection frequency and improve long-term efficacy [56–59].
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Ultra-long-acting in-situ forming implants with cabotegravir protect ...
Feb 9, 2023 · Ultra-long-acting delivery platforms for HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) may increase adherence and maximize public health benefit.
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High Retention and Adherence With Rapid Long-acting Injectable ...
Jun 4, 2025 · In a low-barrier, long-acting preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) program in a safety net setting, permitting same-day or next-day initiation, 85% of ...
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Application of 3D-Printed, PLGA-Based Scaffolds in Bone Tissue ...
May 23, 2022 · The results showed that the scaffold was biocompatible and biodegradable for up to 12 weeks. HA coating could promote the healing of rabbit ...Missing: skin | Show results with:skin
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The impact of PLGA scaffold orientation on in vitro cartilage ...
This study explored the impact of microtubular oriented scaffold on in vitro cartilage regeneration. Porcine articular chondrocytes were seeded into microtubule ...Missing: skin | Show results with:skin<|separator|>
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3D Printed Bioactive PLGA Dermal Scaffold for Burn Wound Treatment
Mar 20, 2023 · In this study, we report on a 3D printed poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) dermal scaffold containing bioactive PLGA for burn wound healing.Introduction · Results and Discussion · Conclusions · Experimental Section
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BMP-2 Grafted nHA/PLGA Hybrid Nanofiber Scaffold Stimulates ...
Bone morphogenic protein-2 (BMP-2) loaded hybrid coating on porous hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Journal of Materials Science ...
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Integration of BMP-2/PLGA microspheres with the 3D printed PLGA ...
May 16, 2024 · This 3D printed scaffold is capable to accelerate the repair of complex bone defects by promoting new bone formation.
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The induction of bone formation by 3D-printed PLGA microsphere ...
Oct 24, 2024 · The study demonstrated that PLGA microsphere-based scaffolds support bone growth in the absence of additional growth factors and promote osteogenesis.
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Advances in medical polyesters for vascular tissue engineering
Aug 8, 2024 · The researchers discovered that PLGA membranes exhibited superior adhesion and enhanced cell proliferation. Furthermore, these biodegradable ...
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Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) porous scaffolds for tissue engineering ...
Mar 14, 2012 · Recently, Kofron et al. reported that the degradation behaviour of amorphous PLGA scaffolds was more suitable for bone tissue engineering ...
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PLGA-chitosan/PLGA-alginate Nanoparticle Blends as ... - NIH
All the results indicated the potential application of the biodegradable colloidal gels as an injectable scaffold in tissue engineering and drug release.
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Advances in 3D printing technology for preparing bone tissue ...
Nov 13, 2024 · This review summarizes recent advances in 3D bioprinting for BTE scaffold applications, exploring the strengths and limitations of various materials.
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Innovative hydrogel solutions for articular cartilage regeneration - NIH
The focus of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of commonly used hydrogels for articular cartilage repair, discussing their current clinical ...
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[PDF] Powerbone SYNTHETIC MEMBRANE | Restore Surgical
PLGA is widely used in orthopaedic and dental applications such as sutures, pins, and screws. As a fully man-made technology Powerbone Synthetic membrane is a.
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Development of layered PLGA membranes for periodontal tissue ...
The present study demonstrates that the bilayer biodegradable polymer membranes facilitate tissue regeneration in vivo, and therefore represent a prospective ...Missing: synthetic | Show results with:synthetic
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Evaluation of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) plate and screw ... - PubMed
The biodegradable plate and screw system that we evaluated in this study is effective for treatment of mandible fracture, one of the regions under a high load- ...Missing: degradable | Show results with:degradable
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11634198/
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PLGA-based gene delivering nanoparticle enhance suppression ...
This study presents an effective gene delivery vehicle, PLGA-based nanoparticle, which may contribute to the gene therapy for tumor and other miRNA-related ...
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Highly efficient nucleic acid encapsulation method for targeted gene ...
Sep 6, 2024 · It was revealed that PSMA-PLGA nanoparticles containing siRNA were capable of knocking down the target gene expression efficiently (Figure 2E).
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Biodegradable PLLA/PLGA microspheres/collagen composites for ...
Aug 15, 2024 · The developed PLLA/PLGA microspheres/collagen composites with good biocompatibility and sustained filling property hold great promise for improved treatment of ...
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[PDF] PLGA nanoparticles loaded with quaternary ammonium silane and ...
Dec 17, 2020 · 50⁞k21 specimens exhibited superior antibacterial/antibiofilm effects against cariogenic biofilms after bonding-resins infiltration without ...
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Advancements in Wearable and Implantable BioMEMS Devices
PLGA is commonly used in both wearable and implantable devices due to its versatility and ability to be tailored for controlled drug release. Smart wearable ...