Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Outflow boundary

An outflow boundary is a mesoscale or storm-scale meteorological phenomenon representing a sharp boundary that separates cooler air outflow from a thunderstorm's downdraft from the warmer surrounding environment, functioning similarly to a cold front in its effects on local weather patterns.^[1] This boundary forms when downdraft air, chilled by evaporating precipitation within the storm, impacts the ground and spreads radially outward, creating a density gradient that can produce strong winds and gusts along its leading edge.^[2] Often associated with gust fronts, outflow boundaries play a critical role in thunderstorm dynamics by providing lift through convergence at the boundary, which can initiate new convective cells if sufficient moisture and instability are present in the atmosphere.^[3] These features can persist from minutes to 24 hours or more, and are challenging to forecast due to their small scale and rapid evolution, yet they pose significant hazards to aviation and surface activities through sudden wind shifts and shear.^[4] In severe weather scenarios, outflow boundaries can contribute to the organization of squall lines or the redevelopment of storms in otherwise stable regions.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

An outflow boundary is a storm-scale or mesoscale boundary that separates the cooler air outflow originating from a thunderstorm downdraft from the warmer surrounding environmental air. This boundary delineates a region of thunderstorm-cooled air spreading horizontally outward from the storm base, creating a sharp transition zone near the surface.^[5]^[2] Key characteristics of an outflow boundary include its role as a density gradient, arising from the contrast between the denser, cooler outflow air and the less dense ambient air, as well as a pressure discontinuity similar to that of a cold front. It is frequently synonymous with a "gust front," representing the leading edge of diverging cool air masses that propagate along or near the ground. Passage of this boundary is typically marked by a sudden wind shift, temperature drop, and pressure rise, enhancing its distinct meteorological identity.^[6]^[7]^[5] As a mesoscale phenomenon, outflow boundaries generally span horizontal dimensions from tens to hundreds of kilometers, distinguishing them from larger synoptic-scale features while associating them closely with convective storms like thunderstorms, where downdrafts drive the initial air outflow.^[8]^[5]

Comparison to Other Boundaries

Outflow boundaries differ markedly from cold fronts in scale, duration, and underlying mechanisms. Cold fronts represent synoptic-scale boundaries, often spanning hundreds to thousands of kilometers, formed by the advection of contrasting air masses with significant temperature and moisture gradients that persist for days.^[9] In contrast, outflow boundaries are mesoscale features, typically spanning tens to hundreds of kilometers and often propagating far from thunderstorm activity, with lifespans of mere hours due to their dependence on localized evaporative cooling within downdrafts that produce denser, cooler air parcels.^[10] This short-lived nature excludes outflow boundaries from traditional front classifications, as they lack the depth and persistence of synoptic systems.^[9] The terminology surrounding outflow boundaries often overlaps with that of gust fronts, leading to frequent interchangeability in meteorological descriptions. Both denote the leading edge of a surge of cool, dense air from thunderstorms, creating abrupt wind shifts and convergence zones.^[11] However, gust front may encompass a broader array of wind surges not exclusively tied to convective outflows, whereas outflow boundary specifically emphasizes the boundary formed by thunderstorm-generated air masses.^[11] As a subset of atmospheric density currents, outflow boundaries share the fundamental physics of gravity-driven propagation of denser fluid under lighter ambient air.^[12] Yet, they are distinguished by their origin in convective downdrafts, where precipitation-induced evaporative cooling and latent heat release create the density anomaly, unlike density currents from non-convective sources such as nocturnal cold pools or volcanic ash flows.^[13] For a structured overview, the following table compares key attributes of outflow boundaries with cold fronts, sea breezes, and haboobs, highlighting their relational distinctions:

Boundary Type	Scale	Duration	Driving Mechanism	Typical Wind Speeds
Outflow Boundary	Mesoscale (tens to hundreds km)	Hours to 1 day	Evaporative cooling in thunderstorm downdrafts	20-50 mph
Cold Front	Synoptic (1000+ km)	Days	Large-scale air mass temperature/moisture contrasts	20-40 mph
Sea Breeze	Local-mesoscale (10-100 km inland)	Diurnal (several hours)	Land-sea thermal contrast inducing density differences	5-20 mph
Haboob	Mesoscale (up to 100s km)	3-6 hours	Thunderstorm outflow in arid regions lifting dust	30-45 mph

Data derived from observational studies and meteorological analyses.^[10]^[9]^[14]^[15]^[16]

Formation and Dynamics

Origin in Thunderstorms

Outflow boundaries primarily originate from downdrafts within mature thunderstorms, where falling rain and evaporating precipitation cool the surrounding air, increasing its density and causing it to sink rapidly toward the surface before spreading outward in a horizontal surge.^[17] This cooling effect is amplified by the latent heat release during evaporation, transforming the descending air into a coherent pool that propagates away from the storm core.^[18] The resulting boundary marks a sharp transition between the cool, outflowing air and the warmer ambient environment, often manifesting as a density gradient that drives further atmospheric interactions.^[19] These boundaries typically form during the mature and dissipating stages of cumulonimbus cloud development, when the thunderstorm has transitioned from a predominantly updrafts-dominated phase to one featuring robust precipitation loading and active downdrafts.^[20] At this point, the storm's vertical structure supports the entrainment of mid-level dry air, which enhances evaporative cooling efficiency and strengthens the downdraft's negative buoyancy.^[4] Insufficient mid-level moisture can limit this process, as it reduces the potential for significant evaporative cooling and weaker outflows.^[21] The environmental conditions favoring outflow boundary generation involve high convective available potential energy (CAPE) values, often exceeding 2000 J/kg, combined with atmospheric instability that sustains intense convection.^[4] Such setups are prevalent in supercell or multicell thunderstorm clusters during summer afternoons, particularly in regions with abundant low-level moisture and steep lapse rates.^[22] These prerequisites ensure the storms reach maturity with enough precipitation to produce vigorous downdrafts. The conceptual foundations of outflow boundaries trace back to mid-20th-century studies of gust fronts, with early observations linking them to pressure jumps ahead of squall lines in thunderstorms.^[23] Detailed documentation advanced in the post-1970s era through enhanced radar networks, enabling precise tracking of outflows at sites like the National Severe Storms Laboratory, where multiple cases were analyzed starting in 1971.^[19] This period marked a shift toward quantitative understanding of their storm-scale origins.^[10]

Physical Processes

Outflow boundaries arise from the negative buoyancy of air cooled primarily through the evaporation of precipitation and mixing with drier environmental air within thunderstorm downdrafts. This cooled air, denser than the surrounding environment, spreads horizontally as a gravity current, driven by the horizontal density gradient that generates pressure perturbations. The resulting outflow propagates outward from the storm base at typical speeds of 20–60 km/h, behaving as a mesoscale density current that maintains its integrity through buoyancy forces.^[4]^[24] The propagation speed c of the outflow boundary can be approximated using the shallow-water theory for gravity currents:

c = \sqrt{2 g h \frac{\Delta \theta}{\theta}}

where g is the acceleration due to gravity ($9.8 \, \mathrm{m/s^2}), h is the depth of the outflow layer (typically 1–2 km), \Delta \theta is the potential temperature deficit in the outflow relative to the ambient air (usually 2–10°C), and \theta is the ambient potential temperature. This formula derives from the balance of momentum and buoyancy in an inviscid, hydrostatic flow, assuming a uniform density difference across the current depth; observed speeds align closely with this estimate when integrated buoyancy is considered.^[24]^[25] The internal structure of an outflow boundary consists of a distinct head at the leading edge, a body comprising the main pool of cool air, and a trailing wake. The head features intense updrafts and rotating eddies that generate vorticity through shear at the interface with ambient air, often producing pressure perturbations via cyclostrophic balance. The body represents the reservoir of negatively buoyant air, while the wake exhibits turbulent mixing and billow instabilities. Surface friction decelerates the current, particularly in the body and wake, reducing speeds by up to 20–30% over rough terrain, while topographic features like hills can channel or disrupt the flow, altering the head's elevation and overall propagation.^[24]^[26] The intensity of outflow boundaries, manifested in their speed and buoyancy deficit, is modulated by environmental moisture content, outflow depth, and ambient wind shear. In drier conditions, enhanced evaporative cooling from entrained dry air increases the temperature deficit, strengthening the gravity current and leading to faster propagation and more pronounced density contrasts. Greater outflow depth amplifies buoyancy forces, while low-level wind shear can accelerate the head relative to the body or induce asymmetries, with tailwinds boosting speeds and headwinds impeding them.^[27]^[4]^[28]

Observation and Detection

Visual Appearance

Outflow boundaries often manifest visually at the surface as a sharp, advancing line of dust, debris, or low-lying clouds rolling across the landscape, driven by the denser cool air undercutting warmer surface air. This leading edge can appear as a turbulent wall of suspended particles, particularly in arid or dusty environments, where it may resemble a haboob—a massive dust storm formed by thunderstorm outflows that drastically reduces visibility to near zero.^[29] The boundary is frequently marked by sudden wind shifts and a noticeable temperature drop of around 5-10°C as the cooler outflow air arrives, creating a stark contrast to the preceding warm conditions.^[9] Prominent cloud formations associated with outflow boundaries include arcus clouds, commonly observed as shelf clouds, which form a low, horizontal, wedge-shaped structure attached to the base of the parent thunderstorm. These shelf clouds develop as the gust front lifts moist air along its leading edge, often spanning several kilometers and presenting a dramatic, ominous appearance. Behind the leading edge, virga—precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground—may trail, appearing as wispy streaks descending from the cloud base in drier atmospheres. Roll clouds, a detached variant, can also occur, resembling elongated, tube-like formations parallel to the boundary.^[30] Visibility of outflow boundaries varies diurnally; during the day, the dust and debris are more readily apparent against the brighter sky, enhancing recognition from afar, while at night, the feature may be silhouetted by lightning flashes within the associated thunderstorm or appear as a dark, advancing wall in regions prone to haboob-like events. In nocturnal settings, the absence of sunlight can make subtle dust features harder to discern without illumination from storms.^[31] Observers should note that outflow boundaries can precede hazardous conditions, including damaging wind gusts of 50-100 km/h, which may arrive abruptly after an initial period of deceptive calm ahead of the front. This visual progression serves as a critical warning for potential straight-line wind damage, prompting shelter and caution, especially in open areas.^[32]

Radar Signatures

Outflow boundaries are primarily detected on weather radar through a distinctive "fine line" signature on base reflectivity scans, appearing as a narrow band of enhanced or low reflectivity values that delineate a sharp gradient in echo returns. This feature arises from abrupt changes in hydrometeor concentration or refractive index discontinuities at the boundary interface, often caused by lofted insects, dust, or debris along the leading edge.^[33] In Doppler velocity data, outflow boundaries exhibit convergent wind shift patterns, with radial velocities showing inflow toward the boundary on the warm side and outflow away from it on the cool side, reflecting the density-driven circulation. These shifts can involve gust speeds reaching up to 30 m/s, particularly in strong thunderstorm outflows, and the boundary often manifests as an arc-shaped or bow echo configuration on radar displays, indicating organized mesoscale forcing.^[34]^[33]^[35] Advanced detection techniques leverage dual-polarization radar capabilities, where drops in differential reflectivity (Z_DR) across the boundary highlight variations in particle shape and orientation, such as from spherical raindrops to more irregular biological or non-meteorological scatterers. Additionally, integrating radar data with wind profilers reveals the vertical structure of the boundary, capturing low-level convergence and head overturning up to several kilometers aloft, enhancing three-dimensional analysis.^[36]^[37] Detection limitations include masking by heavy precipitation echoes, which can obscure the fine line signature during intense convective episodes, and potential misidentification as tornado debris balls in tornadic supercells due to similar high-reflectivity anomalies from lofted material. Historically, radar detection of outflow boundaries evolved significantly with the deployment of NEXRAD (WSR-88D) systems in the early 1990s,^[38] incorporating Doppler processing and improved sensitivity that enabled routine identification of these low-level features previously challenging with earlier non-Doppler radars.^[39]^[40]

Meteorological Impacts

Local Weather Effects

The passage of an outflow boundary typically generates sudden wind gusts ranging from 40 to 80 km/h (25 to 50 mph), with intensities escalating to microburst levels exceeding 100 km/h in severe instances, accompanied by pressure rises of 1-3 hPa.^[41]^[42] These gusts result from the density-driven propagation of cool outflow air, akin to a gravity current, and can inflict localized damage including downed trees, overturned vehicles, and disrupted power lines.^[27]^[43] Temperature effects are pronounced, with rapid cooling of 3-8°C occurring within minutes behind the boundary due to the advection of thunderstorm-chilled air, while dew points rise on the warm side from the uplift of moist low-level air.^[42] This thermal contrast enhances atmospheric instability along the boundary, often leading to increased relative humidity and potential for brief, localized precipitation such as showers or virga.^[32] Outflow boundaries commonly amplify low-level turbulence, creating significant aviation hazards through sudden wind shifts and shear that can endanger low-altitude flights.^[44] Such effects are prevalent during summer thunderstorms across the U.S. Great Plains, where frequent supercell activity routinely produces these disruptions.^[18]

Influence on Convection

Outflow boundaries function as a critical lifting mechanism in the atmosphere by advancing as density currents, where the cooler, denser air undercuts and forces the ascent of warmer, more humid boundary-layer air ahead of it. This forced uplift releases convective available potential energy (CAPE), destabilizing the air mass and generating zones of low-level convergence that serve as foci for updrafts. The convergence along the boundary enhances vertical motion, often amplified by internal gravity waves or Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities that create periodic lifting sites, thereby initiating new convective cells.^[45] In the context of storm regeneration, these boundaries play a pivotal role in multicell thunderstorm clusters by triggering the formation of successive convective cells along their leading edge, extending the lifespan of the overall storm system beyond that of isolated cells. New updrafts develop in the convergent zones every 5 to 15 minutes, as the gust front propagates and interacts with ambient shear, allowing older cells to dissipate while younger ones mature. When outflows from multiple storms collide or merge, they can organize into elongated squall lines, fostering widespread convective activity with enhanced intensity due to the collective cold pool depth.^[46]^[47] Outflow boundaries further modulate the convective environment through interactions with larger-scale features, such as low-level jets and drylines, which increase low-level wind shear and streamline the inflow of moist air into developing updrafts. For example, boundaries aligned perpendicular to a low-level jet can trap wave energy, producing bore-like disturbances that provide sustained lift and reduce convective inhibition, thereby intensifying mesoscale convective systems. In tropical settings, these boundaries emanating from eyewall downdrafts may introduce stable air that disrupts convection in the cyclone core, potentially weakening intensification, while simultaneously generating outer rainbands through localized convergence and shear-enhanced updrafts in the spiral bands.^[6]^[48] From a forecasting perspective, outflow boundaries are explicitly represented in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models to anticipate severe weather outbreaks, as they delineate regions of enhanced convective potential. High-resolution simulations capture their propagation and collision dynamics to predict triggers for new thunderstorms, with objective detection algorithms aiding in the identification of gust fronts for fire weather and aviation hazards. Observational studies, including radar analyses across the United States, reveal that a significant portion of convective initiations occur along such boundaries, including outflows from prior storms, highlighting their dominance in air-mass thunderstorm environments and informing probabilistic severe weather outlooks.^[33]

References

[1]
Glossary - NOAA's National Weather Service
Outflow Boundary: A storm-scale or mesoscale boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled air (outflow) from the surrounding air; similar in effect to a cold ...
[2]
Weather Glossary: O's - NOAA
Apr 17, 2023 · Outflow Boundary. A storm-scale or mesoscale boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled air (outflow) from the surrounding air; similar in ...
[3]
National Weather Service Glossary 'O'
Outflow. Air that flows outward from a thunderstorm. Outflow Boundary. A storm-scale or mesoscale boundary separating thunderstorm-cooled air (outflow) from ...Missing: meteorology | Show results with:meteorology<|control11|><|separator|>
[4]
THUNDERSTORMS
Since the storm moves, outflow produces lift that enables new storms to grow on the storm's periphery. Over time, a line a storms result. These storms primarily ...
[5]
https://forecast.weather.gov/glossary.php?word=outflow%20boundary
[6]
The Relation between Nocturnal MCS Evolution and Its Outflow ...
... outflow boundary. Bore-like boundaries became most apparent where the ... density gradient) or, more commonly, solenoidally (e.g., Miao and Geerts 2007) ...
[7]
[PDF] The outflow of downdraft air from thunderstorms along the ground is ...
Damaging winds229 often occur at this boundary, which is usually referred to as the gust front. In this section, we explore its dynamics. The gust front is ...
[8]
Glossary - NOAA's National Weather Service
Mesoscale: Size scale referring to weather systems smaller than synoptic-scale systems but larger than storm-scale systems. Horizontal dimensions generally ...Missing: length | Show results with:length
[9]
[PDF] fronts.pdf
Simple gust fronts, outflow boundaries, and sea breezes are excluded from this category because they are generally too short or too shallow to be considered ...
[10]
Vertical Structure of Thunderstorm Outflows in - AMS Journals
Forexample, cold fronts are generally much deeper andlonger-lived than outflows and have broader horizontalextent. Seabreeze fronts result from air density ...
[11]
Outflow Boundaries and Gust Fronts - DTN
Gust fronts and outflow boundaries are the same thing. Similar to a cold front, they separate the thunderstorm cooled air from the rest of the environment.Missing: seminal paper
[12]
Estimating the Maximum Vertical Velocity at the Leading Edge of a ...
An atmospheric density current is a common phenomenon often created by thunderstorm outflow. The cooler, denser air beneath the thunderstorm races outward ...
[13]
Evaluating the Detection of Mesoscale Outflow Boundaries Using ...
A well-defined form of outflow boundary is generated when convective and mesoscale downdrafts form a density current on the surface, known as a cold pool [12].
[14]
Sea breeze: Structure, forecasting, and impacts - Miller - AGU Journals
Sea breeze front (SBF) is the landward edge of the SBG and the SBC, often associated with sharp changes in temperature, moisture, and wind. Its approach may be ...Abstract · INTRODUCTION · ANCIENT HISTORY · MODERN UNDERSTANDING
[15]
[PDF] Numerical simulation of “an American haboob” - ACP
Average haboob duration is about 3 h. These and other characteristics reported by Sutton (1931), such as fluctuation in air pressure, fall in air temperature, ...
[16]
The Impact of Land Surface Properties on Haboobs and Dust Lofting in
Haboobs are dust storms formed by strong surface winds in convective storm outflow boundaries, or cold pools, which can loft large quantities of mineral dust as ...
[17]
[PDF] Thunderstorms - Teachers Guide - National Weather Service
Outflow boundaries are a result of the rush of cold air as a thunderstorm moves overhead. The rain-cooled air acts as a "mini cold front", called an outflow ...
[18]
[PDF] Thunderstorm - UCI ESS
Mar 14, 2019 · During the dissipation stage, an airmass thunderstorm will typically produce an outflow of cool air. The cool air, generated by evaporation of ...
[19]
[PDF] lI,ers C.I. ..rt .. , Secretar, - the NOAA Institutional Repository
The gust front is a zone of sharp contrasts in wind., temperature, pressure, and moisture. Gust fronts often move far ahead of associated precipitation.
[20]
The Thunderstorm Project - AMS Journals
Midlevel inflow into thunderstorms was clearly recognized and its magnitude calculated (Byers and. Hull 1949); as well as the fact that much of the air in a ...
[21]
Precipitation-Maintained Downdrafts - AMS Journals
It is confirmed that cooling by evaporation is most efficient if the drop radii are small, and that the most severe downdrafts are produced in air from the ...
[22]
[PDF] An Outline of Severe Local Storms with the Morphology of ...
Outflow boundaries are generated by thunderstorm downdrafts and can ... nity during the 1970's and classifies thunderstorms as nonsevere. (i.e., the ...
[23]
morris tepper - American Meteorological Society
A and B along the cold front produce pressure jumps which move out downstream; numerals refer to time positions of the two jumps; the circle encloses the region ...
[24]
[PDF] 4.3 Multicell Storms - Mesoscale Meteorology
The gust front associated with thunderstorm outflow propagates along the surface in the form of a density or gravity currents. A density current, or gravity ...
[25]
Do Cold Pools Propagate According to Theory? - AMS Journals
Accurate estimations of convective cold pool propagation speeds are important for predicting high-impact weather such as intense convection, damaging wind gusts ...
[26]
A Numerical Study of the Effects of Ambient Flow and Shear on ...
km, while the current body, for example, measured by the -0.1-K isoline ... the density current head height and a tail wind tends to flatten it. This ...
[27]
Thunderstorm Hazards - Damaging Wind | National Oceanic and ...
Jun 2, 2023 · The cooled air and falling precipitation marks the development of the downdraft, which is located alongside the updraft in a mature thunderstorm ...
[28]
Do Cold Pools Propagate according to Theory? in - AMS Journals
Abstract. This study evaluates a popular density current propagation speed equation using a large, novel set of radiosonde and dropsonde observations.
[29]
Dust Storms and Haboobs - National Weather Service
Haboobs occur as a result of thunderstorm outflow winds. Strong thunderstorm winds can start a dust storm that can drastically reduce visibility.Missing: characteristics scale mechanism<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
None
### Summary of Gust Front, Outflow, Visual Indicators, Wind Speeds, and Temperature Drops from AC 00-24C
[31]
https://www.weather.gov/glossary/glossary_g
[32]
Severe Weather 101: Damaging Winds Types
Gust fronts are characterized by a wind shift, temperature drop, and gusty winds out ahead of a thunderstorm. Sometimes the winds push up air above them ...
[33]
Radar-Based Comparison of Thunderstorm Outflow Boundary ...
The wind gust ratios (WGRs), or the ratio between a measured wind gust and the associated outflow boundary speed, had a nationwide median of 1.44, mean of 1.68, ...
[34]
A Multiscale Overview of the El Reno, Oklahoma, Tornadic Supercell ...
... Doppler velocity and other variables. The reader is referred to Pazmany et ... convergent wind-shift line. Since the first storms did not form along ...
[35]
[PDF] Radar Observations of the Early Evolution of Bow Echoes
outflow from previous convection. The existence of the boundary may help to explain the frequency of mergers observed in these cases (65% of the bow echoes that.<|separator|>
[36]
Using Doppler, dual-pol radar to interrogate storms - Looking Aloft
May 1, 2012 · An outflow boundary is the leading edge of the cool, downdraft air that accompanied the rain falling out of the thunderstorms. As this cool air ...
[37]
Radar and Profiler Analysis of Colliding Boundaries: A Case Study
Aug 5, 2025 · Detailed information on the mature bore structure was obtained by a cluster of profiling instruments including two boundary layer wind profilers ...
[38]
Radar Images: Reflectivity - NOAA
Developing storms near the radar are shown in the composite reflectivity. Storm scale features such as hook echoes and outflow boundaries are often masked.
[39]
NWS Doppler Radar Dual Pol - Tornado Debris
This is dual pol's depiction of a "debris ball" at the location of the tornado, i.e., various debris caught within and rotating around the tornado, and lifted ...
[40]
Wind Safety Rules - National Weather Service
The second is downburst/gust front winds which are straight-line in character. ... A typical gusty breeze around 25 mph accompanied by a temperature drop ...
[41]
Gust Front Characteristics and the Kinematics Associated with ...
... Structure and Evolution of a Numerically Simulated Thunderstorm Outflow" Journal of the Korean earth science society Vol. 28, No. 7, pp 857, 1225-6692.<|control11|><|separator|>
[42]
Dust storm over the Black Rock Desert: Larger‐scale dynamic ...
Mar 29, 2011 · A temperature drop of approximately 10°C follows the gust front passage (delayed by approximately 6 h). This delay was in response to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
[PDF] Chapter 12 - Weather Theory
The combination of atmospheric pressure differences, Coriolis force, friction, and temperature differences of the air near the earth cause two kinds of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
The Initiation and Organization of Convective Cells atop a Cold-Air ...
The study of this outflow is important since the gust front was solely responsible for the initiation of numerous convective cells.
[45]
[PDF] Thunderstorms.pdf
Each cell generates a cold outflow that can combine to form a gust front. Convergence along this boundary causes new cells to develop every 5 to 15 minutes in ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[46]
Analysis of Outflow Boundary Collisions in North-Central Alabama in
Dec 1, 2009 · 1. Introduction. Collisions between two separate outflow boundaries (OB) have been shown to induce convective initiation (CI), which sometimes ...
[47]
A Mesoscale Low-Level Thunderstorm Outflow Boundary ...
As in midlatitudes, the tropical precipitation process can produce strong downdrafts through both precipitation loading and the evaporation of rain into a dry ...