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PINK1

PINK1, or PTEN-induced putative kinase 1, is a mitochondrial serine/threonine protein kinase encoded by the PINK1 gene on human chromosome 1p36.12, essential for maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis and protecting cells from stress-induced damage.^[1] The protein localizes to mitochondria via an N-terminal targeting sequence and features a transmembrane domain and a kinase domain with unique insertions that enable its regulatory functions.^[2] In healthy cells, PINK1 is imported into mitochondria and rapidly degraded by proteases, but upon mitochondrial damage—such as membrane depolarization—it stabilizes on the outer mitochondrial membrane, initiating protective responses.^[3] A core function of PINK1 is to orchestrate mitophagy, the selective autophagic removal of dysfunctional mitochondria, primarily through its interaction with the E3 ubiquitin ligase Parkin.^[3] Upon accumulation on damaged mitochondria, PINK1 autophosphorylates and phosphorylates ubiquitin and Parkin at serine 65, activating Parkin's ligase activity to ubiquitinate outer membrane proteins, which recruits autophagosomal machinery for degradation.^[2] This pathway not only clears defective mitochondria but also supports mitochondrial biogenesis and dynamics, including fission via Drp1 phosphorylation and calcium homeostasis.^[2] Beyond mitophagy, PINK1 exhibits pro-survival roles, such as inhibiting apoptosis under oxidative stress.^[4] It also influences neuronal plasticity through downstream signaling like PKA-BDNF cascades.^[5] Mutations in PINK1, numbering over 70 identified variants including missense, nonsense, and structural changes, predominantly cause autosomal recessive early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD), accounting for 1–9% of familial PD cases and up to 15% of early-onset forms.^[2] These loss-of-function mutations impair mitophagy and lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, accumulation of damaged organelles, energy deficits, and selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, mimicking key PD pathologies like α-synuclein aggregation observed in patient-derived iPSC models.^[2] The PINK1 pathway's disruption highlights mitochondrial fidelity as a central mechanism in PD pathogenesis, with therapeutic strategies targeting mitophagy enhancement—such as USP30 inhibitors or NAD+ boosters—showing promise in preclinical studies.^[2]

Genetics and Discovery

Gene Characteristics

The PINK1 gene is located on the short arm of human chromosome 1 at position 1p36.12 and spans approximately 18 kb of genomic DNA, comprising 8 exons.^[1]^[6] This gene is primarily transcribed into a 2,657 bp mRNA transcript (RefSeq NM_032409.3), which encodes a 581-amino acid precursor protein that undergoes post-translational processing to produce the mature form.^[7]^[1] PINK1 exhibits tissue-specific expression patterns, with the highest mRNA levels detected in heart, skeletal muscle, and testis, alongside notable expression in brain and other tissues such as placenta, liver, kidney, and pancreas; these patterns are regulated through promoter activity and alternative splicing, which generates multiple transcript variants including short splice forms and influences gene expression in response to cellular conditions.^[6]^[8]^[9] The PINK1 gene demonstrates high evolutionary conservation across mammalian species, with functional orthologs present in model organisms like Drosophila melanogaster (where it is denoted as Pink1), enabling key insights into its role through genetic manipulation studies.^[1]^[10]^[11]

Historical Context

The PINK1 gene, which corresponds to the PARK6 locus on chromosome 1p36.12, was first identified in 2001 by Unoki and Nakamura through suppression subtractive hybridization screening of genes upregulated by the tumor suppressor PTEN in endometrial cancer cells. They cloned the full-length cDNA using 5'-RACE and named it PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) due to its predicted serine/threonine kinase domain and transcriptional activation by PTEN. Initial characterization suggested PINK1's role in growth suppression, as its overexpression inhibited anchorage-independent growth in cancer cell lines. In 2004, mutations in PINK1 were linked to autosomal recessive early-onset Parkinson's disease (PD) in families mapped to the PARK6 locus. Valente et al. reported two homozygous mutations in the kinase domain—a truncating nonsense mutation (Q456X) and a missense mutation (G309D)—in three consanguineous Italian families, confirming PINK1 as the causative gene for PARK6-linked parkinsonism.^[12] Concurrent studies by others identified additional PINK1 mutations in sporadic early-onset PD cases, establishing its association with mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegeneration.^[13] During the mid-2000s, Drosophila models provided key insights into PINK1's function. In 2006, Park et al. and Clark et al. independently generated pink1 null mutants, revealing mitochondrial abnormalities including disrupted cristae, impaired electron transport chain function, and reduced ATP levels, leading to flight muscle degeneration and male sterility. These phenotypes were rescued by wild-type human PINK1 expression but not by PD-associated mutants, and genetic interactions showed pink1 acts upstream of parkin in a common pathway protecting against mitochondrial dysfunction.^[14]^[15] Key milestones in early PINK1 research included functional validation of its kinase activity and emerging roles in mitochondrial quality control. Although early structural studies were limited to modeling the kinase domain, experimental confirmation of PINK1's mitophagy role came in 2010 with seminal work by Narendra et al. and Matsuda et al., demonstrating that PINK1 accumulates on depolarized mitochondria to recruit and activate Parkin, triggering selective autophagic degradation of damaged organelles.^[16]^[17] Prior to 2020, significant research gaps persisted, including a lack of full-length PINK1 structures, which hindered understanding of its regulatory mechanisms and mitochondrial import dynamics; these gaps have been addressed through cryo-EM and crystallography of orthologs and, in 2025, the first high-resolution structure of full-length human PINK1, revealing its interactions with the TOM complex on depolarized mitochondria.^[18]^[19]

Protein Structure

Domain Organization

The PINK1 protein, encoded by the PARK6 gene, consists of 581 amino acids and exhibits a modular domain architecture tailored for mitochondrial targeting, membrane association, and kinase-mediated signaling. The N-terminal region features a mitochondrial targeting sequence (MTS) spanning residues 1–34, which serves as an amphipathic α-helix that facilitates import of the precursor protein into mitochondria via interaction with the TOM complex.^[20] Immediately following the MTS is an outer membrane localization sequence (OMS) from residues 74–93, which aids in proper positioning on the mitochondrial surface, and a hydrophobic transmembrane domain (TMD) encompassing residues 94–110. This TMD anchors full-length PINK1 to the outer mitochondrial membrane in a hairpin-like orientation, with the bulk of the protein, including the kinase domain, oriented toward the cytosol to enable substrate access.^[21] The central functional core of PINK1 is its serine/threonine kinase domain, extending from residues 156–509, which shares homology with other eukaryotic protein kinases and is responsible for phosphorylating targets such as ubiquitin and Parkin. Within this domain, key structural motifs ensure catalytic competence, including the conserved catalytic triad: lysine 219 (Lys219) in the VAIK motif for ATP coordination, aspartate 362 (Asp362) in the HRD motif for proton abstraction, and aspartate 384 (Asp384) in the DFG motif for magnesium ion binding and phosphoryl transfer. The kinase domain also contains three unique insertions (Ins1: 174–215, Ins2: 244–277, Ins3: 284–312) in the N-lobe that contribute to its specificity and regulation, distinguishing PINK1 from canonical kinases.^[22]^[23] C-terminal to the kinase domain lies the regulatory extension (CT-REG), comprising residues 510–581, which lacks a defined secondary structure but harbors potential autophosphorylation sites, including serine 495 (Ser495), that may influence kinase activation and stability. PINK1 is subject to various post-translational modifications that fine-tune its function; predicted N-glycosylation sites, such as at asparagine residues in accessible loops, could affect protein folding and trafficking, while ubiquitin-binding motifs within the kinase domain—particularly a hydrophobic pocket near the active site—enable direct interaction with ubiquitin for phosphorylation at Ser65. These modifications, including ubiquitination of lysine residues in the CT-REG, regulate PINK1 turnover and activity in response to mitochondrial stress.^[21]^[24]^[25]

Structural Determinations

The initial structural insights into PINK1 were provided by X-ray crystallography of the kinase domain from the insect Tribolium castaneum (TcPINK1), determined at 2.78 Å resolution in 2017, which revealed the canonical bilobal kinase fold augmented by unique insertions in the N-lobe and a C-terminal extension (CTE) that contributes to autoinhibition.^[18] This structure highlighted how the CTE and an insertion loop (Ins3) position near the active site, sterically blocking substrate access in the basal state, consistent with PINK1's autoinhibited conformation under normal conditions. Subsequent refinement came from a 2.5 Å crystal structure of TcPINK1 bound to a non-hydrolyzable ATP analog in 2018, further delineating the active site geometry and confirming the bilobal architecture's conservation across species.^[26] A major advance occurred in 2025 with the cryo-EM structure of full-length human PINK1 at 3.1 Å resolution, captured in a dimeric complex stabilized at a mitochondrial TOM-VDAC array within detergent micelles to mimic the membrane environment.^[27] This work by the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute (WEHI) team visualized the mitochondrial targeting sequence (MTS) extension interacting with the TOM complex and the transmembrane helix anchoring PINK1 to the outer membrane, revealing how depolarization arrests PINK1 import and promotes accumulation. Key observations included the autoinhibited state where the C-terminal regulatory (CT-REG) region occludes the active site, and ubiquitin binding induces repositioning of the activation loop to enable phosphorylation at Ser65 of ubiquitin.^[27] Comparative analyses have elucidated PINK1-Parkin interfaces through modeled complexes based on crystal structures, showing that phosphorylated ubiquitin bridges PINK1's Ins3 loop to Parkin's UBL domain, facilitating allosteric activation.00991-6) For the Parkinson's disease-associated G309D variant (located in Ins3), structural modeling from the TcPINK1 framework indicates disruption of ubiquitin substrate binding and potential interference with dimerization required for autophosphorylation at Ser228 (human numbering), impairing kinase initiation.^[18] Methodologically, progress evolved from early truncation studies of soluble domains to full-length reconstructions in lipid-mimetic environments, enabling capture of membrane-dependent dimerization and regulatory dynamics essential for PINK1's mitochondrial roles.00991-6)^[27]

Molecular Mechanisms

Kinase Activity

PINK1 functions as a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, catalyzing the magnesium-dependent transfer of the γ-phosphate group from ATP to target serine or threonine residues on substrates. This enzymatic activity is essential for its role in mitochondrial quality control, with the kinase domain exhibiting a typical Km for ATP in the range of 100 μM, consistent with many eukaryotic kinases. The catalytic mechanism involves coordination of two magnesium ions in the active site, facilitating nucleophilic attack by the substrate hydroxyl group on the ATP γ-phosphate, as observed in structural studies of orthologous PINK1 variants.^[28]^[26] PINK1 preferentially targets ubiquitin (Ub) and the ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domain of Parkin as substrates, phosphorylating Ub at Ser65 and Parkin at the homologous Ser65 residue to initiate downstream signaling. In vitro kinase assays using recombinant human or insect PINK1 demonstrate robust phosphorylation of these substrates, with Km values for Ub around 84 μM and for other targets like Drp1 (at Ser616) up to 288 μM, highlighting substrate-specific kinetics. Additionally, PINK1 undergoes autophosphorylation at Ser228 and Ser402 within its kinase domain, which enhances its catalytic efficiency toward exogenous substrates without altering the core phosphorylation motif preferences. These sites are phosphorylated in trans, as evidenced by mutagenesis studies showing reduced activity upon serine-to-alanine substitutions.^[29]^[30]^[31] The substrate specificity of PINK1 is distinguished from other serine/threonine kinases, such as STK4 (MST1), by its unique ability to efficiently phosphorylate the structured globular protein ubiquitin at a buried Ser65 site and its strict dependence on mitochondrial localization for full activity. Unlike cytosolic kinases like STK4, which lack ubiquitin kinase capability, PINK1's activity is tuned for mitochondrial substrates, with in vitro assays confirming selective phospho-Ub formation over generic peptide motifs. This specificity underscores PINK1's specialized role, as recombinant forms show minimal cross-reactivity with non-mitochondrial targets.^[31]^[30]

Regulatory Activation

Under healthy mitochondrial conditions, PINK1 is imported into the inner mitochondrial membrane, where it undergoes proteolytic cleavage by the presenilin-associated rhomboid-like protease (PARL) at position A103, truncating the protein and leading to its degradation by the proteasome, thereby maintaining low steady-state levels.^[32] This negative regulatory mechanism prevents unwarranted kinase activity and ensures PINK1 does not accumulate on functional mitochondria.^[33] In response to mitochondrial stress, such as loss of membrane potential (ΔΨm depolarization), PINK1 import is halted at the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) complex, resulting in its stabilization and accumulation as full-length protein on the outer mitochondrial membrane.^[16] This accumulation, observed within 30 minutes of depolarization in cellular models, positions PINK1 to sense and respond to organelle damage by initiating downstream signaling.^[34] Upon outer membrane accumulation, PINK1 undergoes trans autophosphorylation at Ser228 within a dimeric complex, which stabilizes the active kinase conformation by remodeling the N-lobe and activation loop, enabling substrate recognition.^[35] This autophosphorylation event is essential for PINK1 to phosphorylate ubiquitin at Ser65, generating phospho-ubiquitin that serves as a priming signal to amplify the mitophagy pathway.^[36] Crystal structures of the autophosphorylated kinase domain reveal conformational shifts in the αC helix and insert regions that facilitate ubiquitin binding post-dimer dissociation.^[35] PINK1's kinase activity is further modulated allosterically through nucleotide binding and small-molecule interactions at the ATP site. Type I inhibitors, such as PRT062607, competitively bind the active DFG-in conformation, blocking ATP hydrolysis and ubiquitin phosphorylation with IC50 values around 1-2 μM.^[28] In contrast, activators like MTK458 stabilize the active form, enhancing mitophagy induction at low nanomolar stressor concentrations by sensitizing cells to mitochondrial damage.^[37] ATP binding supports phosphoryl transfer, while elevated ADP levels from hydrolysis may influence turnover rates exceeding 30 min⁻¹ in the absence of substrates.^[28] Recent structural studies, including 2024 crystal structures of inhibitor-bound PINK1 (PDB: 8UCT, 8UDC), elucidate front-to-back signaling in the kinase domain, where ubiquitin binding at the C-terminal extension propagates allosteric changes from the substrate site to the ATP-binding cleft, enhancing catalytic efficiency.^[28] These insights, combined with 2025 functional analyses of phospho-ubiquitin elevation in neurodegeneration, highlight how ubiquitin-induced conformational relays fine-tune PINK1 activation under stress.^[37]

Cellular Functions

Mitophagy Regulation

PINK1 plays a central role in the selective autophagy of damaged mitochondria, known as mitophagy, primarily through the PINK1-Parkin pathway. Upon mitochondrial damage, PINK1 accumulates on the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) of affected organelles, where it phosphorylates both Parkin and ubiquitin at serine 65. This phosphorylation activates Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, recruiting it from the cytosol to the damaged mitochondria. Once activated, Parkin ubiquitinates multiple OMM proteins, such as mitofusins (MFN1 and MFN2) and voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), generating polyubiquitin chains that mark the mitochondria for degradation.^[38]^[16]^[39] The recruitment cascade is amplified by phospho-ubiquitin (pUb), which serves as a key receptor for autophagy adaptors. PINK1-generated pUb on the OMM directly binds to ubiquitin-binding domains in adaptors like optineurin (OPTN) and nuclear dot protein 52 kDa (NDP52), facilitating their recruitment even in the absence of Parkin. These adaptors link ubiquitinated mitochondria to LC3/GABARAP family proteins on forming autophagosomes, promoting engulfment and lysosomal degradation. This process can occur independently of Parkin at low levels but is greatly enhanced by Parkin-mediated ubiquitin chain amplification.^[40] Activation of the pathway is triggered by mitochondrial stressors that lead to PINK1 stabilization, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and calcium dysregulation. Elevated ROS from damaged electron transport chains contributes to membrane potential (ΔΨm) loss, preventing PINK1 import and cleavage, thus stabilizing its full-length form on the OMM. Similarly, mitochondrial calcium overload induces oscillations that promote PINK1 accumulation and subsequent Parkin recruitment, often via Drp1-mediated fission to isolate damaged segments. These thresholds ensure selective targeting of dysfunctional mitochondria while sparing healthy ones.^[41]^[42] Beyond the canonical Parkin-dependent route, PINK1 influences non-Parkin mitophagy pathways, such as those mediated by BCL2/adenovirus E1B 19 kDa-interacting protein 3 (BNIP3). BNIP3, induced by hypoxia, directly binds LC3 to drive receptor-mediated mitophagy independently of PINK1 and Parkin. However, BNIP3 interacts with PINK1 to inhibit its cleavage, stabilizing PINK1 on the OMM, promoting Parkin recruitment for amplified ubiquitination, and thereby enhancing BNIP3-mediated mitophagy efficiency. This crosstalk allows PINK1 to bolster mitophagy under diverse stresses. Recent studies (as of 2025) have identified additional regulators, such as the lactate-HIF-1α axis that promotes PINK1 mitophagy under hypoxia and Urolithin A that activates the pathway to mitigate inflammation.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46] Quantitative assessments using mitophagy flux assays, such as mt-Keima or GFP-LC3 reporters, demonstrate the pathway's impact: PINK1 knockout or knockdown cells exhibit significantly reduced mitophagy flux upon mitochondrial stressors, reflecting impaired Parkin activation and adaptor recruitment while basal mitophagy via alternative routes persists.^[47]^[37]

Protein Interactions

PINK1 primarily interacts with Parkin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, through a phospho-ubiquitin bridge formed by PINK1's phosphorylation of ubiquitin at serine 65, which recruits and activates Parkin on damaged mitochondria with a binding affinity of approximately 1 μM. This interaction facilitates Parkin's translocation to mitochondria as a key step leading to mitophagy. PINK1 also binds to components of the TOM complex, particularly TOM70 and TOM20, to regulate its own mitochondrial import and stabilization under stress conditions. Additionally, PINK1 associates with mitofusins MFN1 and MFN2 on the outer mitochondrial membrane, where it promotes their phosphorylation and subsequent ubiquitination to inhibit mitochondrial fusion.^[48] PINK1 further interacts with Beclin-1, enhancing its role in initiating autophagy by promoting autophagosome formation.^[49] Among negative regulators, PINK1 binds to the intramembrane protease PARL at the inner mitochondrial membrane, where PARL cleaves full-length PINK1 at alanine 103 to promote its degradation under normal conditions.^[32] Similarly, the chaperone HSPA1A (also known as HSP70) interacts with PINK1 to facilitate its proteasomal degradation, thereby modulating PINK1 levels and activity.^[50] Interactome analyses using yeast two-hybrid screening and co-immunoprecipitation have identified over 20 binding partners for PINK1, with a significant enrichment in the mitochondrial proteome, including proteins involved in import, dynamics, and quality control.^[49]^[51] Recent studies, including 2024 T-cell epitope mapping, have revealed PINK1-derived peptides as autoantigens recognized by T cells in Parkinson's disease patients, highlighting an immune dimension to its interactions.^[52]

Pathological Implications

Parkinson's Disease Link

Mutations in the PINK1 gene follow an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern, where biallelic pathogenic variants are a well-established cause of early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOPD). A 2025 meta-analysis indicates that these biallelic mutations account for 1-9% of EOPD cases globally, with higher prevalence in geographic hotspots such as Polynesian populations, challenging prior underestimations of their frequency.^[53] Common PINK1 mutations associated with PD include the missense variant p.Gly309Asp (G309D), which impairs kinase activity by reducing protein expression and stability; the nonsense mutation p.Gln456Ter (Q456X), leading to premature truncation and loss of function; and deletions spanning exons 4-5, which disrupt the kinase domain and abolish enzymatic activity.^[54]^[55]^[56] These mutations predominantly affect the kinase domain, compromising PINK1's role in mitochondrial homeostasis. The primary pathomechanism involves impaired mitophagy due to defective PINK1 kinase activity, resulting in the accumulation of damaged mitochondria, oxidative stress, and selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. This mitochondrial dysfunction exacerbates energy deficits and contributes to neuronal vulnerability in PD.^[57] Clinically, PINK1-related PD typically presents with onset before age 40 (mean around 32 years), slow disease progression, and a favorable, sustained response to levodopa therapy, often with early motor complications like dyskinesia. Lewy body pathology, characterized by α-synuclein aggregates, is observed in a majority (approximately 88%) of postmortem cases, though its presence can vary.^[58]^[59]^[53] Structural studies of PINK1 mutants, such as p.Gly309Asp and p.Ile368Asn, reveal disruptions in ubiquitin phosphorylation at serine 65, which impairs Parkin recruitment and mitophagy initiation, thereby promoting α-synuclein aggregation and Lewy body formation. A 2025 meta-analysis highlights these effects in the context of PINK1-related PD pathology.^[60]^[61]^[53]

Broader Disease Associations

Beyond its established role in Parkinson's disease, PINK1 has been implicated in several other disorders through disruptions in mitochondrial quality control and mitophagy.^[62] In Alzheimer's disease, impaired mitophagy contributes to neuronal damage, with amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation leading to failure in the AMPK/PINK1/Parkin axis. A 2025 review highlights how Aβ disrupts this pathway, resulting in reduced PINK1 stabilization on damaged mitochondria and diminished Parkin recruitment, which exacerbates mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and tau hyperphosphorylation in affected neurons.^[62] This axis's dysregulation underscores PINK1's involvement in Aβ-induced mitophagy failure as a key pathological mechanism in Alzheimer's progression.^[62] Emerging evidence also points to autoimmune dimensions, particularly in sporadic Parkinson's, where PINK1 serves as a T-cell autoantigen. A 2024 study identified specific HLA-restricted epitopes within PINK1 that elicit CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses in patients, suggesting an immune-mediated component to mitochondrial-targeted autoimmunity that may extend to broader neurodegenerative contexts.^[63] PINK1's connections to cancer stem from its original identification as a gene upregulated in PTEN-suppressed tumors. Discovered in 2001 as a downstream target of the tumor suppressor PTEN, PINK1 expression is induced to counteract oncogenic signaling in cancer cells with PTEN loss, promoting mitochondrial homeostasis to limit tumor growth.^[64] Heterozygous variants in PINK1 have been associated with increased glioma risk, as they compromise PINK1's tumor-suppressive function, allowing enhanced proliferation and metabolic reprogramming in glioblastoma cells.^[65] Overlaps with other neuropathies include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, where PINK1 and Parkin pathway activation ameliorates axonal degeneration and motor deficits in preclinical models of mitochondrial dysfunction.^[66] In cardiovascular contexts, PINK1 exerts a cardioprotective role during ischemia by facilitating mitophagy, as its loss heightens vulnerability to ischemia-reperfusion injury through accumulated damaged mitochondria and exacerbated oxidative damage.^[67] Population-level genetic studies reveal PINK1 variants at frequencies of 2-5% in healthy controls, indicating they are relatively common polymorphisms without overt pathogenicity in isolation.^[68] However, rare homozygous variants in PINK1 are occasionally observed in multisystem atrophy cohorts, though they do not appear to drive disease pathogenesis broadly.^[69] These associations highlight mitophagy defects as a common thread linking PINK1 dysfunction across diverse diseases.^[70]

Therapeutic Strategies

Pharmacological Interventions

Pharmacological interventions targeting PINK1 primarily focus on small-molecule modulators to enhance or inhibit its kinase activity, aiming to restore mitophagy in Parkinson's disease (PD) models. Kinase activators, such as the purine analog kinetin, have been shown to increase PINK1 catalytic activity by serving as a precursor to kinetin triphosphate (KTP), which acts as an alternative substrate to amplify phosphorylation of downstream targets like ubiquitin and Parkin. In cellular studies, including those using fibroblasts from PD patients with PINK1 mutations, kinetin application elevated PINK1-dependent Parkin signaling and mitophagy, reducing mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.^[71]^[72] Research inhibitors of PINK1 kinase activity have been developed to probe its mechanistic roles, particularly in autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation. High-throughput thermal shift assays have identified small molecules, such as certain aminopyrazole derivatives, that bind the ATP-binding pocket of PINK1 and inhibit ubiquitin phosphorylation with IC50 values in the low micromolar range, thereby blocking Parkin recruitment and mitophagy induction in vitro. These type I and type II kinase inhibitors have been instrumental in dissecting PINK1 pathways, revealing that suppression of autophosphorylation at Ser228 disrupts the formation of active PINK1 dimers essential for mitochondrial quality control.^[28]^[73] Ubiquitin mimetics, particularly phospho-mimetic variants of ubiquitin (e.g., S65D mutant), have emerged as tools to bypass PINK1 deficiency by directly stabilizing Parkin E3 ligase activity. These synthetic analogs mimic the phosphorylated ubiquitin generated by PINK1, binding to Parkin's ubiquitin-like domain to promote its translocation to damaged mitochondria and enhance ubiquitination of outer membrane proteins, thereby rescuing mitophagy defects in PINK1 knockout models. In Drosophila and mammalian cell studies, expression or application of such phospho-mimetic polyubiquitin chains prevented mitochondrial degeneration observed in PD-linked PINK1 loss-of-function scenarios.^[74] As of 2025, PINK1 activators remain in preclinical development for early-onset PD (EOPD), with no compounds yet in human trials, though first-in-human studies are anticipated by 2027. Recent discoveries by Progenra Inc. have yielded small-molecule activators that restore mutant PINK1 function in patient-derived cells, improving mitochondrial stress responses and mitophagy, with ongoing optimization for efficacy in EOPD models targeting the 1–9% of familial cases linked to PINK1 mutations. These efforts emphasize mitochondrial rescue as a disease-modifying strategy.^[75] Key challenges in advancing PINK1-targeted pharmacology include achieving sufficient blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, as many kinase modulators exhibit poor CNS bioavailability due to efflux transporters like P-glycoprotein. Additionally, off-target effects on related kinases (e.g., LRRK2 or other Ser/Thr kinases) pose risks of unintended pathway modulation, necessitating structure-based design to enhance selectivity and minimize toxicity in neurodegenerative contexts.^[76]^[77]

Emerging Therapies

Gene therapy strategies targeting PINK1 have demonstrated therapeutic potential in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease (PD) by overexpressing wild-type PINK1 to restore mitochondrial quality control. In rodent models of mitochondrial toxicity, such as those induced by MPTP, PINK1 overexpression has been shown to protect dopaminergic neurons from degeneration and mitigate oxidative stress central to PD progression.^[78]^[79] CRISPR-based gene editing has emerged as a precise tool for correcting PINK1 mutations in patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), offering a pathway to personalized therapies for PD. Preclinical studies using CRISPR-Cas9 to model and potentially edit PD-related mutations, including those in PINK1, have demonstrated restoration of mitochondrial function and neuronal survival, suggesting feasibility for autologous cell therapies in patients with PINK1 variants.^[80]^[81] Stem cell-based therapies involving the transplantation of dopaminergic neurons derived from iPSCs represent an innovative avenue to replenish lost neuronal populations while enhancing mitochondrial resilience. Preclinical transplantation of human iPSC-derived midbrain dopaminergic neurons into PD rodent models has shown improved graft survival and partial restoration of motor function through increased dopamine release. Engineering such cells to enhance pathways like PINK1-Parkin could further augment mitophagy and reduce vulnerability to PD-related toxins.^[82] Immunotherapeutic approaches targeting PINK1 as an autoantigen aim to modulate aberrant T-cell responses implicated in PD neurodegeneration. Recent studies have identified PINK1-specific epitopes recognized by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in PD patients, with elevated responses correlating to disease severity and suggesting mitochondrial autoimmunity. Proposed strategies, such as peptide-based vaccines or T-cell receptor modulators to dampen anti-PINK1 immunity, may reduce neuroinflammation and preserve dopaminergic integrity in mutation carriers.^[52]^[63] As of November 2025, no PINK1-specific therapies are in clinical trials, though related mitophagy enhancers (e.g., USP30 inhibitors) are in early-phase testing for PD. Looking ahead, combining PINK1-targeted therapies with Parkin enhancers holds promise for synergistic activation of mitophagy, as evidenced by recent funding initiatives for multi-modal PD interventions. Preclinical data support integrating gene editing or AAV delivery with Parkin activators to amplify mitochondrial clearance in PINK1-deficient models. Clinical trials for PD gene and cell therapies, potentially including PINK1-focused approaches, are projected to initiate between 2026 and 2028.^[83]^[84]^[85]

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Structure of human PINK1 at a mitochondrial TOM-VDAC array
Mar 13, 2025 · We resolved in our structure residues 63 to 581 of human PINK1, with residues 70 to 110 located within the TOM40 barrel (Fig. 3A). The cytosolic ...
[26]
Identification and structural characterization of small molecule ...
Apr 2, 2024 · The structures provide insights into the specific polar interactions formed with the kinase hinge and active site residues such as the DFG motif ...
[27]
PINK1 phosphorylates Drp1S616 to regulate mitophagy ...
Jun 2, 2020 · Km and Kcat for PINK1‐mediated phosphorylation of ubiquitin and Drp1. ... ATP production was measured using muscle lysates generated from PINK1 ...
[28]
PINK1 Kinase Catalytic Activity Is Regulated by Phosphorylation on ...
We show here that phosphorylation of serines 228 and 402 increases the capacity of PINK1 to phosphorylate its substrates Parkin and Ubiquitin.
[29]
An invisible ubiquitin conformation is required for efficient ...
The Ser/Thr protein kinase PINK1 phosphorylates the well‐folded, globular protein ubiquitin (Ub) at a relatively protected site, Ser65.
[30]
PINK1 cleavage at position A103 by the mitochondrial protease PARL
These combined results suggest that PINK1 cleavage is important for basal mitochondrial health and that PARL cleaves PINK1 to produce the ΔN-PINK1 fragment.
[31]
Intramembrane protease PARL defines a negative regulator of PINK1
Since fully imported proteins cannot pass the outer membrane of healthy mitochondria unassisted, we have concluded that PARL cleaves a PINK1–66 import ...
[32]
PINK1 Is Selectively Stabilized on Impaired Mitochondria to Activate ...
Jan 26, 2010 · Mitochondrial PINK1 accumulates on the outer mitochondrial membrane following mitochondrial depolarization. (A) HeLa cells treated with 1 µM ...
[33]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4590680/
[34]
PINK1 autophosphorylation is required for ubiquitin recognition
Feb 23, 2018 · Ser205 (Ser228 in human PINK1) is located at the base of the putative regulatory αC‐helix in the N‐lobe of the kinase domain and is the only ...Missing: Ser495 | Show results with:Ser495
[35]
Putative PINK1/Parkin activators lower the threshold for mitophagy ...
Aug 27, 2025 · Here, we characterize two mitophagy activators: a novel Parkin activator, FB231, and the reported PINK1 activator MTK458. Both compounds lower ...
[36]
Parkin is recruited selectively to impaired mitochondria and ...
Nov 24, 2008 · Our results suggest that Parkin may compensate by targeting impaired Pink1-deficient mitochondria for degradation. Knockdown of Pink1 leads ...
[37]
PINK1 phosphorylates ubiquitin to activate Parkin E3 ubiquitin ... - NIH
PINK1-mediated phosphorylation of the Parkin ubiquitin-like domain primes mitochondrial translocation of Parkin and regulates mitophagy. Sci Rep. 2:1002 ...
[38]
The ubiquitin kinase PINK1 recruits autophagy receptors to induce ...
The ubiquitin kinase PINK1 recruits NDP52 and Optineurin, but not p62, to mitochondria to directly activate mitophagy independent of Parkin.
[39]
Mitochondrial Ca2+ oscillation induces mitophagy initiation ... - NIH
Jun 19, 2021 · Specifically, dysregulation of mitophagy by PINK1-Parkin is believed as one of the main factors contributing to cell death and pathogenesis in ...Missing: ROS | Show results with:ROS
[40]
pivotal role for PINK1 and autophagy in mitochondrial quality control
Thus, PINK1 plays a pivotal, multifactorial role in mitochondrial homeostasis. As autophagic recycling represents the final tier of mitochondrial quality ...
[41]
The mitophagy pathway and its implications in human diseases
Aug 16, 2023 · In cancer cells, PINK1 activates ARIH1, and then ARIH1 regulates mitophagy by ubiquitinating OMM proteins in damaged mitochondria (Fig. 4a).
[42]
Molecular mechanisms and physiological functions of mitophagy
PINK1 has subsequently been reported to regulate Parkin E3 activity upon mitochondrial depolarization (Matsuda et al, 2010; Narendra et al, 2010). Since ...
[43]
PINK1-parkin-mediated neuronal mitophagy deficiency in prion ...
Feb 18, 2022 · ... PINK1 in PINK1- knockdown cells was reduced by about 66%) (Fig. S4C, D) in N2a cells and revealed that N2a cells treated with PrP106-126 for ...Missing: knockout | Show results with:knockout
[44]
PINK1- Phosphorylated Mitofusin 2 is a Parkin Receptor for ... - NIH
We show that the mitochondrial outer membrane GTPase mitofusin (Mfn) 2 mediates Parkin recruitment to damaged mitochondria.
[45]
The Parkinson-associated protein PINK1 interacts with Beclin1 and ...
Jan 8, 2010 · We also demonstrate that PINK1 significantly enhances basal and starvation-induced autophagy, which is reduced by knocking down Beclin1 ...
[46]
HSP70-mediated mitochondrial dynamics and autophagy represent ...
May 28, 2024 · HSP70 (also known as HSPA1A) is a protein chaperone ... This may occur by regulating the PINK1-mediated phosphorylation and subsequent proteasomal ...
[47]
BAG5 Protects against Mitochondrial Oxidative Damage through ...
PINK1 interacts with BAG5 in vitro and in vivo. To identify potential PINK1 partners, we employed the yeast two-hybrid screen. The full-length of human PINK1 ...Missing: interactome | Show results with:interactome
[48]
PINK1 is a target of T cell responses in Parkinson's disease - JCI
Dec 17, 2024 · We identified PINK1, a regulator of mitochondrial stability, as an autoantigen targeted by T cells, as well as its unique epitopes, and their HLA restriction.
[49]
Rethinking 'rare' PINK1 Parkinson's disease: A meta-analysis of ...
Jan 14, 2025 · Consanguinity of people carrying PINK1 heterozygous variants increases the likelihood of offspring receiving both mutated copies and thus PD, as ...
[50]
Entry - *608309 - PTEN-INDUCED KINASE 1; PINK1 - OMIM
► Mapping. Valente et al. (2004) stated that the PINK1 gene is located on chromosome 1p36.
[51]
Early-onset Parkinson's disease due to PINK1 p.Q456X mutation - NIH
Recessive mutations in the PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1) gene cause early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOPD).Missing: G309D | Show results with:G309D
[52]
Neuropathological findings in PINK1-associated Parkinson's disease
Two PINK1 mutations, a heterozygous exon 4–5 deletion and a homozygous exon 1 [c. 230T > C (p.Leu77Pro)] mutation. •. Gliosis and a large loss of melanin ...
[53]
Mitophagy and Parkinson's Disease - Biospective
Jan 20, 2025 · Failures in PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy have been linked to the selective degeneration and death of dopaminergic neurons in PD.
[54]
PINK1-linked parkinsonism is associated with Lewy body pathology
The phenotype was characterized by an early-onset (mean: 31.6, standard deviation: 9.6 years, range: 14–45 years), slowly progressive levodopa-responsive ...
[55]
Clinico-Genetic Profiles of Seven Patients With <i>PINK1</i>
Sep 19, 2024 · PARK-PINK1 presents as an EOPD with tremor-predominant phenotype, good levodopa-responsiveness, early motor fluctuation and dyskinesia.Missing: SNPs | Show results with:SNPs
[56]
Mechanisms Associated with PINK1 Mutations in Parkinson's Disease.
Oct 20, 2025 · This review explores the complex relationship between PINK1 mutations and PD, highlighting their involvement in key pathogenic mechanisms. It ...
[57]
The PINK1 p.I368N mutation affects protein stability and ubiquitin ...
Apr 24, 2017 · PINK1 structure is depicted in cartoon ribbons colored according to the domain structure. Residue Ile368 is highlighted in licorice ...
[58]
Research Progress of the AMPK/PINK1/Parkin Pathway ... - IMR Press
Aug 30, 2025 · In mouse models of AD, activation of the AMPK/PINK1/Parkin pathway could significantly increase the level of mitophagy, improve ...
[59]
PINK1 is a target of T cell responses in Parkinson's disease - PubMed
Dec 17, 2024 · We identified PINK1, a regulator of mitochondrial stability, as an autoantigen targeted by T cells, as well as its unique epitopes, and their HLA restriction.
[60]
The emerging multifaceted role of PINK1 in cancer biology
Sep 7, 2022 · In 2001, it was discovered that the PINK1 gene is a PTEN target, and in 2004, it was found that early-onset PD and PINK1 have a significant ...
[61]
PINK1 Is a Negative Regulator of Growth and the Warburg Effect in ...
Aug 15, 2016 · PINK1 has been reported to inhibits glioblastoma growth (36) , while in lung cancer, increased PINK1 expression promotes proliferation and ...<|separator|>
[62]
PINK1 and Parkin Ameliorate the Loss of Motor Activity and ... - NIH
Mar 9, 2023 · Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is a group of inherited peripheral nerve disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness and atrophy, ...
[63]
Loss of PINK1 Increases the Heart's Vulnerability to Ischemia ...
We show that the loss of PINK1 increases the heart's vulnerability to ischemia-reperfusion injury. This may be due, in part, to increased mitochondrial ...
[64]
PINK1 heterozygous rare variants: prevalence, significance and ...
These findings suggest that PINK1 heterozygous rare variants play only a minor susceptibility role in the context of a multifactorial model of PD.Missing: glioma | Show results with:glioma
[65]
Mutational analysis of parkin and PINK1 in multiple system atrophy
Our results indicate that genetic variants at the parkin and PINK1 loci do not play a critical role in the pathogenesis of MSA.
[66]
Mitophagy in Alzheimer's disease: Molecular defects and ... - Nature
Jun 3, 2022 · Studies have identified two major types of mitophagy (PINK1/Parkin-dependent or independent) activated by a plethora of stimuli and implicating ...
[67]
A Neo-Substrate that Amplifies Catalytic Activity of Parkinson's ...
Aug 15, 2013 · Three catalytic residues (catalytic lysine, D in the HRDL and D in the DFG motif) are conserved across all kinases. (B) Comparison of kinases in ...
[68]
Parkinson's Disease: Are PINK1 Activators Inching Closer to ... - NIH
Jun 15, 2023 · The activation of PINK1 by small molecules has emerged as a promising strategy in treating Parkinson's disease (PD).
[69]
Identification and structural characterization of small molecule ... - PMC
Apr 2, 2024 · In this study, we used a thermal shift assay with insect PINK1 to identify small molecules that inhibit ATP hydrolysis and ubiquitin phosphorylation.
[70]
Evidence that phosphorylated ubiquitin signaling is involved in the ...
Expressing phospho-mimetic polyUb chains on mitochondria rescues the mitochondrial degeneration caused by the loss of PINK1, suggesting that endogenous Parkin ...
[71]
A New Parkinson's Disease Drug Function in Inherited form of ...
Inactivating mutations in Parkin, a ubiquitin E3 ligase and PINK1, a kinase, present a significant population of inherited Parkinsons's disease. In a ...
[72]
Kinase inhibitors in neurodegenerative disease - News-Medical.net
Apr 28, 2025 · Moreover, the blood-brain barrier presents a considerable challenge. It limits the transport of numerous potential therapeutic agents into the ...
[73]
Emerging Molecular Targets in Neurodegenerative Disorders: New ...
Sep 8, 2025 · In many cases, these failures are attributed to late-stage intervention, poor blood–brain barrier (BBB) penetration and the complex, ...
[74]
Inactivation of Pink1 Gene in Vivo Sensitizes Dopamine-producing ...
Mutations in the mitochondrial PTEN-induced kinase 1 (Pink1) gene have been linked to Parkinson disease (PD). Recent reports including our own indicated that ...Missing: rodent | Show results with:rodent
[75]
Hypoxic postconditioning promotes mitophagy against transient ...
Jun 18, 2021 · In addition, PINK1 overexpression by AAV-PINK1 increased the level of mito-PINK1, accompanied by increased mito-Parkin and mitochondrial ...
[76]
CRISPR in Parkinson's Disease: Research, Gene Therapy, and ...
CRISPR-Cas9 mosaicism enabled different degrees of PINK1 deletion, allowing researchers to understand the complexity of the associated phenotypes. CRISPR-based ...
[77]
Parkin and PINK1 Patient iPSC-Derived Midbrain Dopamine ... - NIH
Sep 15, 2016 · A subset of familial PD is linked to mutations in PARK2 and PINK1, which lead to dysfunctional mitochondria-related proteins Parkin and PINK1.Missing: transplantation | Show results with:transplantation
[78]
New funding opportunity: Combination therapies for Parkinson's
Cure Parkinson's is seeking to fund both preclinical and clinical projects that involve combinations of two or more potentially disease-modifying drugs for ...Missing: directions PINK1 Parkin 2026-2028
[79]
Prospects for the Development of Pink1 and Parkin Activators for the ...
Nov 19, 2022 · This review will consider such class of drug compounds as mitophagy activators and these drugs in the treatment of Parkinson's disease.