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PD

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting the motor system, characterized by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the midbrain region known as the substantia nigra, leading to core symptoms of resting tremor, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), muscle rigidity, and postural instability.^[1]^[2] Non-motor manifestations, including cognitive impairment, depression, autonomic dysfunction, and sleep disturbances, often emerge alongside or precede motor signs, complicating diagnosis and management.^[3] The condition typically onset after age 60, with prevalence estimated at around 1% in those over 60 and rising sharply thereafter, making it the second-most common neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease.^[4] First systematically described in 1817 by London physician James Parkinson in his monograph An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, the disease was later distinguished from other forms of parkinsonism by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, who emphasized its non-paralytic nature and coined the eponymous term.^[5] The etiology remains largely idiopathic, with only 5–10% of cases linked to identifiable genetic mutations such as in SNCA, LRRK2, or PARKIN genes, while environmental exposures—including pesticides, herbicides, and industrial solvents—have been associated in epidemiological studies, though causation is not definitively established and debated amid confounding factors like rural living.^[6] Pathologically, PD features intraneuronal alpha-synuclein aggregates in Lewy bodies and neurites, alongside widespread neuronal loss, but these findings are neither fully specific nor sufficient for antemortem diagnosis, which relies on clinical criteria combining bradykinesia with at least one of rest tremor or rigidity, excluding alternative explanations.^[2] No disease-modifying therapies exist, with management centered on symptomatic relief via levodopa (often combined with carbidopa to mitigate peripheral side effects), dopamine agonists, MAO-B inhibitors, and in advanced stages, deep brain stimulation targeting the subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus; however, long-term levodopa use frequently induces motor fluctuations and dyskinesias, highlighting treatment limitations.^[7]^[8] Key advancements include the 1960s elucidation of dopamine deficiency as the biochemical basis, enabling pharmacological interventions that transformed PD from a relentlessly disabling condition to one where many patients maintain functional independence for years, though emerging research into alpha-synuclein-targeted immunotherapies, gene editing, and neuroprotective agents remains investigational without proven efficacy. Controversies persist over rising global incidence—potentially exceeding aging demographics alone—and putative triggers like gut microbiome dysbiosis or viral infections, with some analyses questioning over-reliance on observational data prone to recall bias or underemphasizing genetic penetrance.^[9] Despite extensive research, PD's heterogeneity underscores challenges in early detection and personalized therapy, with postmortem confirmation often revealing atypical features in up to 25% of clinically diagnosed cases.^[10]

Law and Government

Law Enforcement

A police department (PD) refers to a municipal or local government agency responsible for law enforcement within a specific jurisdiction, such as a city or town, focusing on crime prevention, public order maintenance, and emergency response.^[11] In the United States, these departments form the primary level of local policing, operating under city or county authority and handling the majority of routine criminal matters, distinct from state police or federal agencies like the FBI.^[12] As of 2021, there were approximately 18,000 law enforcement agencies nationwide, with local police departments comprising the largest category and employing over 450,000 sworn officers.^[13] Core responsibilities include uniformed patrol to deter crime and respond to service calls, traffic enforcement, arrest of suspects, and preliminary crime scene processing.^[14] Investigative units within PDs conduct follow-up probes into felonies, gather evidence, and prepare cases for prosecution, while specialized roles address vice, narcotics, or tactical situations.^[15] Officers also perform non-enforcement duties such as community outreach, accident assistance, and public safety education, though empirical data indicates patrol and response account for 60-70% of officer time in many departments.^[16] Structurally, PDs follow a paramilitary hierarchy topped by a chief of police, who reports to elected officials and directs bureaus like operations, support services, and internal affairs.^[17] Patrol divisions form the operational core, with ranks progressing from officer to sergeant, lieutenant, captain, and command staff; larger PDs incorporate civilian analysts for data-driven policing.^[18] Modern PDs increasingly integrate technology such as body cameras and predictive analytics, though implementation varies, with federal grants influencing adoption since the 1994 Crime Bill.^[11] Historically, formalized PDs in the U.S. developed in the 1840s amid urban growth and riots, with New York City's force established on May 7, 1845, as the first paid, uniformed department modeled on London's 1829 Metropolitan Police.^[19] Preceding systems relied on colonial sheriffs and volunteer watches from the 1630s, rooted in English common law rather than antebellum slave patrols, which were informal and regionally limited; claims overstating the latter's influence lack comprehensive causal evidence across PD evolutions.^[20] By 1900, over 400 cities had PDs, professionalizing via reforms like those from the 1931 Wickersham Commission, which emphasized efficiency over political patronage.^[21]

Legal Professions

A public defender is an attorney employed or appointed by a government entity to provide legal representation to indigent defendants in criminal proceedings who cannot afford private counsel. This role ensures the Sixth Amendment right to counsel, extended to state courts via the Fourteenth Amendment, is upheld for those unable to pay. In the United States, public defenders handle the majority of cases involving low-income defendants, often in felony, misdemeanor, and juvenile matters, with offices operating at federal, state, and local levels.^[22]^[23] The modern public defender system in the U.S. traces its origins to the Supreme Court's decision in Gideon v. Wainwright on March 18, 1963, which ruled that states must provide counsel to indigent defendants in felony cases to guarantee a fair trial, overturning prior precedents limited to capital cases. Prior to Gideon, indigent defense relied on sporadic volunteer efforts or court-appointed private attorneys, leading to inconsistent representation; the ruling prompted the establishment of dedicated public defender offices in many jurisdictions, though implementation varied. By the 1970s, states like California (with its statewide system established in 1970) and federal circuits had formalized structures, but reliance on ad hoc assignments persisted in some areas.^[24]^[25]^[26] Public defenders perform core functions including client interviews, evidence review, plea negotiations, motion filing, and courtroom advocacy, often prioritizing case investigation and witness preparation to counter prosecution narratives. They may also represent clients in pretrial hearings, sentencing, and appeals, with a focus on mitigating penalties through alternatives like diversion programs. In practice, the profession attracts lawyers motivated by advocacy for marginalized clients, though it demands resilience amid adversarial dynamics with better-resourced prosecutors. Federal public defenders, for instance, manage about 60% of indigent federal cases, with the remainder handled by panel attorneys.^[22]^[27]^[28] Organizational models include government-run offices (e.g., state public defender agencies), nonprofit entities, or hybrid systems using contract or assigned counsel, with variations by jurisdiction; for example, some states elect chief defenders to enhance independence. Entry-level salaries have historically lagged, averaging $39,000 annually as of 2004, contributing to turnover, while training emphasizes criminal procedure and ethics under heavy workloads.^[29]^[30] Persistent challenges include chronic underfunding and excessive caseloads, which undermine effective representation; a 2023 RAND Corporation study recommended limiting felony workloads to seven cases per attorney annually (requiring 286 hours per case), far below standards in many offices where defenders handle hundreds of matters yearly, correlating with higher pretrial detention rates and plea coercion. Federal funding shortfalls as of July 2025 have forced some defenders to work unpaid, exacerbating delays and resource strains. Critics, including legal scholars, argue this systemic disparity—where prosecutors receive superior budgets—violates Gideon's intent, resulting in inferior outcomes for the poor, though defenders continue advocating for reforms like increased staffing and holistic defense approaches incorporating social services.^[31]^[32]^[27]

Political Organizations

The acronym PD designates several political parties globally, primarily center-left or conservative organizations advocating democratic principles within their national contexts. Italy's Partito Democratico (PD), founded on October 14, 2007, emerged from the merger of center-left groups including the Democrats of the Left (a successor to the Italian Communist Party) and centrist formations like Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy.^[33] Positioned as a social-democratic entity, it has governed Italy in coalitions, such as under Prime Ministers Enrico Letta (2013–2014) and Paolo Gentiloni (2016–2018), emphasizing European integration, social welfare expansion, and labor market reforms.^[33] Elly Schlein has served as secretary since her election on March 12, 2023, leading the party in opposition to the center-right government as of 2025.^[34] Albania's Partia Demokratike e Shqipërisë (PD), established on December 11, 1990, by students and intellectuals including Azem Hajdari, spearheaded the country's post-communist democratic transition and first multiparty elections in 1991.^[35] As a conservative party, it promotes low taxes, economic incentives for high-tech enterprises, and traditional values encompassing freedom, patriotism, family structures, and religious belief.^[36]^[37] The party has alternated in power, notably forming governments in 1992–1997 and 2005–2013, though internal divisions have impacted its cohesion since the early 2010s.^[35] Other entities include Timor-Leste's Partido Democrático (PD), formed in 2001 to support democratic consolidation post-independence, focusing on social development and anti-corruption measures in a multiparty system. Historical examples, such as Portugal's Democratic Party (1912–1926), preceded authoritarian rule and influenced early republican politics, while Brazil's Partido Democrático (1926–1945) opposed the Vargas dictatorship from a liberal-democratic stance.^[38] These organizations reflect PD's recurrent association with pro-democracy movements, though ideological variances exist across contexts.

Science and Medicine

Medical Conditions

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder primarily affecting the central nervous system, characterized by the gradual loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra region of the brain, leading to impaired motor control and other symptoms.^[39]^[40] The condition typically manifests in individuals over age 60, though younger-onset cases occur, and it involves alpha-synuclein protein aggregation into Lewy bodies, contributing to neuronal dysfunction.^[41] PD is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's, with no known cure, but treatments focus on symptom management and slowing progression.^[42] Core motor symptoms include resting tremor, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), muscle rigidity, and postural instability, often asymmetric at onset and worsening over time.^[39] Non-motor symptoms, which can precede motor signs by years, encompass cognitive impairment, depression, anxiety, sleep disturbances such as rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder, autonomic dysfunction (e.g., constipation, orthostatic hypotension), and sensory issues like pain or olfactory loss.^[40]^[41] These features distinguish PD from other parkinsonian syndromes, though diagnosis relies on clinical evaluation excluding secondary causes like drug-induced parkinsonism or vascular lesions.^[43] Etiology involves a combination of genetic susceptibility and environmental exposures, with most cases sporadic rather than familial; monogenic forms account for under 5% of instances, linked to mutations in genes such as SNCA, LRRK2, or PARKIN.^[44] Environmental factors predominate in idiopathic PD, including pesticide exposure (e.g., paraquat, rotenone), industrial solvents, and rural living, which elevate risk via oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, while protective factors include smoking and caffeine consumption.^[45]^[46] Gene-environment interactions amplify vulnerability, as evidenced by higher incidence in genetically predisposed individuals exposed to toxins.^[47] Epidemiologically, PD affects approximately 1% of people over 60 worldwide, with U.S. prevalence at 1.1 million cases as of recent estimates, projected to reach 1.2 million by 2030 amid aging populations.^[48] Globally, over 8.5 million individuals had PD in 2019, with prevalence doubling in the prior 25 years and forecasts indicating 25 million cases by 2050 due to demographic shifts and potential environmental contributors.^[40]^[49] Incidence rises sharply after age 60, with annual U.S. diagnoses near 90,000.^[50] Management centers on pharmacological interventions like levodopa combined with carbidopa to replenish dopamine, dopamine agonists, and monoamine oxidase-B inhibitors, alongside physical therapy to address gait and balance.^[43] Surgical options, such as deep brain stimulation targeting the subthalamic nucleus, benefit select patients with motor fluctuations.^[41] Emerging research explores neuroprotective agents, alpha-synuclein-targeted therapies, and biomarkers for early detection, though clinical trials emphasize the disorder's heterogeneity and need for personalized approaches.^[51]

Chemical Elements

Palladium is a chemical element with the symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It belongs to group 10, period 5 of the periodic table, classified as a transition metal characterized by its dense, ductile, and malleable silvery-white appearance.^[52]^[53] The element has a standard atomic weight of 106.42 and exists primarily as a solid at room temperature, with a density of 12.023 g/cm³, melting point of 1554.9 °C, and boiling point of 2963 °C.^[54] Discovered on February 7, 1803, by English chemist and physicist William Hyde Wollaston, palladium was isolated from platinum ore residues through dissolution in aqua regia followed by precipitation.^[53] Wollaston named it after the recently discovered asteroid Pallas, reflecting the era's astronomical interests.^[53] The element's electron configuration is [Kr] 4d¹⁰, enabling common oxidation states of +2 and +4, with palladium(II) compounds often forming square planar complexes that underpin its catalytic properties.^[54] Palladium occurs naturally in trace amounts, primarily as a byproduct of nickel and copper mining, with major production from Russia (accounting for about 40% of global output in recent years), South Africa, and Canada.^[53] It is one of the six platinum-group metals, comprising less than 1 ppm of Earth's crust, and its six stable isotopes—¹⁰²Pd (1.02%), ¹⁰⁴Pd (11.14%), ¹⁰⁵Pd (22.33%), ¹⁰⁶Pd (27.33%), ¹⁰⁸Pd (26.46%), and ¹¹⁰Pd (11.72%)—include the most abundant ¹⁰⁶Pd at 27.33%.^[52] The metal's hallmark property is its capacity to absorb up to 900 times its volume in hydrogen at room temperature, forming interstitial hydrides that facilitate applications in purification and storage.^[54] In industrial use, palladium serves as a key catalyst in automotive catalytic converters, where it converts harmful emissions like carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons into less toxic substances, consuming over 80% of global supply as of 2023.^[53] It also enables cross-coupling reactions in organic synthesis, such as the Heck and Suzuki reactions, earning a 2010 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for developers of palladium-catalyzed processes.^[54] Additional roles include hydrogen sensors, dental alloys, and electronic components like multilayer ceramic capacitors, though supply constraints from geopolitical factors have driven price volatility exceeding $3,000 per ounce in 2022 peaks.^[53] Palladium exhibits low toxicity in elemental form but can pose risks in nanoparticle applications due to potential bioaccumulation, as noted in environmental studies.^[52]

Physics Concepts

Potential difference (PD), also known as voltage, is defined as the work done per unit positive charge in transferring that charge between two points in an electric field.^[55] This quantity arises from the conservative nature of the electrostatic force, where the potential energy difference per unit charge determines the energy transfer in circuits or fields.^[56] Mathematically, the potential difference V between points A and B is given by V = -\int_A^B \mathbf{E} \cdot d\mathbf{l}, where \mathbf{E} is the electric field strength and the integral follows the path from A to B; for uniform fields, it simplifies to V = Ed, with d as the distance.^[55] The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (V), defined such that 1 V equals 1 joule per coulomb (J/C), meaning 1 joule of work is done when 1 coulomb of charge moves across a 1 V difference.^[57] In practical terms, PD drives current in electrical circuits according to Ohm's law, V = IR, where I is current and R is resistance, quantifying the energy dissipation as heat or work in components like resistors or batteries.^[55] For instance, a standard AA battery provides approximately 1.5 V, corresponding to the PD maintained by chemical reactions separating charges.^[58] In electrostatics, equipotential surfaces—where PD is zero—have no component of the electric field perpendicular to them, implying field lines are orthogonal to these surfaces.^[55] PD differs from electromotive force (EMF), which is the total energy supplied per unit charge by a source like a battery, excluding internal losses; across a resistor, PD equals the IR drop, but terminal PD is less than EMF due to internal resistance.^[59] Measurements use voltmeters connected in parallel, with high resistance to minimize loading effects, ensuring accuracy in quantifying PD.^[57]

Computing and Technology

In computing, "PD" commonly denotes public domain, a legal status for software, data, or other digital works where copyright, patent, or other intellectual property protections have expired or never applied, allowing unrestricted use, modification, and distribution without licensing fees or permissions. This contrasts with open-source software, which often carries specific licenses like the MIT or GPL; public domain dedication, such as via tools like CC0, explicitly waives all rights to facilitate reuse in projects like free operating systems or databases. Pure Data (Pd) is an open-source visual programming environment for real-time multimedia processing, particularly audio and graphics, developed by Miller Puckette starting in 1996 as a successor to Max/MSP. It enables users to create interactive applications through a graphical interface of objects connected by patches, supporting features like digital signal processing, MIDI integration, and cross-platform execution on Windows, macOS, Linux, and Android; as of 2023, it remains actively maintained with extensions for machine learning and networking. Pd's design emphasizes accessibility for artists and researchers, with over 1,000 external libraries available for advanced functionalities like 3D rendering. In hardware and networking technology, "PD" refers to USB Power Delivery (USB-PD), a protocol standardized by the USB Implementers Forum in 2012 and revised through version 3.1 in 2021, enabling up to 240 watts of power transmission over USB-C cables for charging devices like laptops and negotiating voltage/current dynamically between source and sink. Separately, in Power over Ethernet (PoE) systems defined by IEEE 802.3 standards since 2003, a powered device (PD) is any endpoint equipment, such as IP cameras or VoIP phones, that draws power from Ethernet cabling without separate AC adapters, with PoE budgets typically ranging from 15.4W (802.3af) to 90W (802.3bt) per port.

Economics and Business

Economic Concepts

Palladium functions primarily as an industrial commodity rather than a store of value like gold, with its economic value driven by applications in catalysis and electronics. Approximately 80% of global demand stems from its use in automotive catalytic converters, which reduce harmful emissions from internal combustion engines, a necessity reinforced by environmental regulations such as the Euro 6 standards and U.S. EPA Tier 3 requirements.^[60]^[61] Other significant uses include chemical production, hydrogen purification, and electronics, contributing to a market valued at around $20 billion in 2024.^[62] Supply is highly concentrated, with Russia and South Africa accounting for over 80% of mined production, exposing the market to geopolitical risks and operational disruptions. Russia produced an estimated 75 metric tons in 2024, making it the largest supplier, while South African output has faced challenges from labor strikes and electricity shortages.^[63]^[64] Global production has struggled to meet demand, resulting in persistent deficits for over a decade, exacerbated by limited new mine development due to high capital costs and long lead times.^[65] Recycling from spent catalysts supplies about 30-40% of annual needs, providing a buffer but insufficient to offset primary shortfalls.^[66] Demand dynamics are closely tied to global vehicle production and regulatory pressures, with automotive fabrication consuming roughly 8-9 million ounces annually. Economic cycles influence this, as recessions reduce car sales and thus palladium intake, while booms amplify it; for instance, post-2008 recovery spurred demand surges.^[67] Price volatility arises from these imbalances: supply shocks, such as the 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict, drove prices to a record $3,420 per ounce intraday, while subsequent substitution efforts and weaker auto demand caused declines to around $1,110 per ounce by mid-2025.^[68]^[69] Geopolitical sanctions on Russian exports, currency fluctuations, and speculative trading further amplify swings, with historical peaks also linked to Japanese automaker stockpiling in the early 2000s.^[70]^[71] Looking ahead, the market faces structural challenges from the transition to electric vehicles (EVs), which eliminate catalytic converter needs, potentially halving automotive demand by 2030 if EV adoption accelerates. Automakers have increasingly substituted cheaper platinum for palladium in gasoline engines since 2021, moderating deficits, though hybrids and persistent internal combustion engine (ICE) sales in emerging markets may sustain demand at 3.2-3.3 million ounces in 2025.^[72]^[73] Forecasts indicate a shift to surpluses from 2025 onward due to enhanced recycling and flat demand growth, projecting market expansion to $23.6 billion by 2032 at a 2.1% CAGR, contingent on industrial substitution and supply diversification efforts like North American mining initiatives.^[62]^[74]

Business and Development

In business, product development serves as a core driver of competitive advantage and revenue generation, integrating market analysis, financial forecasting, and strategic alignment to transform ideas into commercially viable offerings. Companies allocate significant resources to this process, with successful outcomes often yielding substantial returns; for instance, firms that excel in new product development can derive up to 50% of their sales from products introduced within the past five years, according to industry benchmarks.^[75] The business case evaluation stage critically assesses projected costs, pricing strategies, and return on investment (ROI), ensuring alignment with organizational goals and mitigating risks such as market misalignment or excessive development expenses.^[76] A widely adopted framework for managing these business elements is the Stage-Gate process, which structures product development into discrete phases separated by decision gates where cross-functional teams review progress against business criteria like feasibility, profitability, and resource demands. Originating from research by Robert G. Cooper, this model includes stages such as scoping (initial market validation), business case development (detailed financial modeling), and commercialization (go-to-market planning), enabling firms to prune unviable projects early and optimize capital allocation.^[77] In practice, business leaders prioritize ideation informed by customer voice and competitive intelligence, followed by rigorous testing to validate demand, as evidenced by integrations of tools like agile methodologies to accelerate time-to-market while controlling costs.^[78] Economically, effective product development contributes to firm-level growth and broader innovation ecosystems, with new products accounting for approximately 12% net positive impact on sales growth in analyzed sectors, offsetting declines from legacy offerings. However, failure rates remain high—around 40-50% for consumer goods—often due to inadequate business analysis or economic downturns that constrain budgets and shift consumer priorities, underscoring the need for robust risk assessment and adaptive strategies.^[79] Businesses mitigate these through diversified portfolios and data-driven forecasting, fostering long-term value creation amid volatile markets.^[80]

Intellectual Property

The public domain constitutes the corpus of creative works, inventions, and expressions not subject to exclusive intellectual property rights, permitting unrestricted access, use, modification, and distribution by anyone without permission or payment.^[81]^[82] This status arises either because no valid IP protection was ever obtained—such as for ideas, facts, or functional elements ineligible for copyright—or because protection has lapsed due to expiration, forfeiture, or deliberate waiver by the rights holder.^[83]^[84] In copyright law, the primary mechanism for entry into the public domain is the termination of fixed terms, which vary by jurisdiction but adhere to international minima under the Berne Convention. In the United States, for works created on or after January 1, 1978, copyright endures for the author's life plus 70 years, or 95 years from publication for works made for hire; earlier works follow transitional rules, with those published before 1929 entering the public domain as of January 1, 2025.^[83]^[85] In the European Union, protection generally lasts for the author's life plus 70 years, after which works enter the public domain on January 1 of the following year.^[86] Corporate or anonymous works often follow publication-based terms, such as 70 years post-publication in the EU.^[87] Pre-1978 U.S. works required compliance with formalities like notice and renewal, and failure to do so placed many in the public domain immediately.^[83] U.S. federal government creations are automatically in the public domain upon production, reflecting policy favoring public access to taxpayer-funded outputs.^[88] For patents, public domain entry occurs after a statutorily defined term—typically 20 years from filing for utility patents in the U.S.—at which point the invention becomes freely exploitable, promoting cumulative innovation.^[82] Trademarks differ, as rights persist indefinitely with continued use and non-abandonment, but marks that become generic through public usage (e.g., "aspirin" in the U.S.) lose protection and effectively enter the public domain as descriptive terms.^[82] Rights holders can proactively dedicate works to the public domain via irrevocable waivers, though enforceability varies; in common law jurisdictions, explicit instruments or tools approximating waiver (e.g., Creative Commons Zero) facilitate this, absent formal mechanisms like those under civil law.^[83] The concept of the public domain emerged in early modern IP statutes to balance private incentives against public access, as in the English Statute of Anne (1710), which limited copyright terms to prevent perpetual monopolies, and the Statute of Monopolies (1624), which confined patents to novel inventions for limited durations.^[89] By the 18th and 19th centuries, unprotected materials were termed "public property" or "common," evolving into the modern "public domain" to denote a shared repository enabling derivative works and cultural dissemination.^[89] Jurisdictional divergences persist, with some nations applying shorter terms (e.g., life plus 50 years in certain Berne adherents), and perpetual extensions in areas like moral rights complicating full commercialization.^[82]^[87]

Arts and Entertainment

Literature and Authors

P. D. James (1920–2014), born Phyllis Dorothy James White, was a British author renowned for her detective novels featuring the poet-detective Adam Dalgliesh, with her first Dalgliesh novel, Cover Her Face, published in 1962 and subsequent works exploring themes of crime, morality, and human frailty in detailed procedural narratives.^[90] Her bibliography includes over 20 novels, including Death Comes to Pemberley (2011), a sequel to Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice set in the Sherlock Holmes tradition, which debuted at number one on the UK bestseller lists.^[91] P. D. Eastman (1909–1986), born Philip Dey Eastman, was an American author and illustrator specializing in children's books, often using simple, repetitive language and bold illustrations to teach basic concepts; notable works include Are You My Mother? (1960), which has sold over 6 million copies, and Go, Dog. Go! (1961), both praised for engaging young readers through rhythmic storytelling.^[92] Eastman collaborated with Dr. Seuss early in his career, contributing to military training films before transitioning to children's literature, with his books emphasizing phonics and visual humor. P. D. Workman, a contemporary Canadian author active as of 2025, has published over 100 novels across genres like young adult fantasy, mystery, and social issue fiction, often featuring diverse protagonists and themes of mental health and marginalized communities; her works include series such as the Zeze Zanini Investigations.^[93]

Media and Games

Public domain works in media encompass films, music, and other audiovisual content whose copyrights have expired or were never properly secured, allowing unrestricted reproduction, adaptation, and distribution. For instance, the 1968 horror film Night of the Living Dead entered the public domain due to the omission of a copyright notice, enabling widespread remakes, colorized versions, and merchandise without licensing fees.^[94] In the United States, films published in 1929, such as the musical The Broadway Melody, entered the public domain on January 1, 2025, following the 95-year copyright term for pre-1978 works.^[85] Similarly, the 1928 animated short Steamboat Willie, featuring an early version of Mickey Mouse, entered the public domain on January 1, 2024, permitting derivative uses like video game appearances while trademark protections on the character persist.^[95] Musical compositions from 1929 also became public domain in 2025, including George Gershwin's An American in Paris and Maurice Ravel's Boléro, alongside sound recordings from 1924, which facilitates their incorporation into new media productions without royalties.^[85]^[96] This status supports archival preservation and creative remixing, as seen in public domain day celebrations that highlight thousands of annual entries, though actual exploitation varies due to restoration costs and audience interest.^[97] In video games, public domain examples are scarce owing to the medium's recency and robust copyright enforcement, with most commercial titles from the 1970s–1980s still protected until at least the 2070s.^[98] Notable exceptions include Colossal Cave Adventure (1976), intentionally released into the public domain by its creator Will Crowther, allowing free ports and modifications across platforms.^[99] Other games like Abuse (1996) and Ballerburg (1987) were explicitly dedicated to the public domain, enabling community-driven updates and source code reuse.^[99] Public domain influences games more through adaptations of literary or film sources, such as indie titles drawing from 1920s works entering the domain in recent years, including Winnie-the-Pooh (1926, PD 2022) in horror games like Winnie-the-Pooh: Blood and Honey (2023).^[100] Characters like Sherlock Holmes (core stories PD since 1980s) and Dracula (1897 novel PD) provide foundations for mechanics and narratives without infringement risks, promoting innovation among small developers while avoiding litigation from IP holders.^[100]^[101] However, trademarks on brands and modern elements can limit commercial viability, as evidenced by Disney's ongoing protections post-Steamboat Willie.^[95] This dynamic encourages reliance on open-source engines over pure PD games, balancing accessibility with legal clarity.^[102]

Music and Performing Arts

In music, public domain (PD) status applies to compositions and lyrics whose copyrights have expired, enabling unrestricted performance, adaptation, recording, and distribution without royalties or permission. In the United States, musical works published in 1929 or earlier entered the public domain as of January 1, 2025, following the 95-year term for works published between 1923 and 1977 under the Copyright Act of 1976.^[85] Sound recordings fixed before February 15, 1972, enter PD on a staggered schedule; for instance, those from 1924 became PD in 2025, while pre-1923 recordings were already PD prior to recent extensions.^[85] This distinction is critical, as a PD composition can be freely performed, but a specific copyrighted recording or arrangement remains protected.^[103] Performing public domain music incurs no licensing fees for nondramatic uses, such as concerts or broadcasts, unlike copyrighted works requiring payment to performing rights organizations like ASCAP or BMI.^[104] However, dramatic performances—such as staged musicals or operas—involving PD scores may still demand "grand rights" clearance if the production incorporates protected elements like modern librettos or choreography, though pure PD operas like Mozart's The Magic Flute (1791) or Puccini's La Bohème (1896) allow full liberty for revivals.^[104]^[105] Examples of newly accessible PD music include George Gershwin's An American in Paris (1929) and Maurice Ravel's Boléro (1928), which joined classics like Beethoven's symphonies and folk standards such as "House of the Rising Sun."^[85] In performing arts, PD extends to scripts, scores, and choreography for plays and operas predating copyright thresholds, fostering adaptations without infringement risks. Works like J.M. Barrie's Peter Pan (1904 play, PD in the US since 1960 but with perpetual UK protections via statutory extensions) and Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera (1928, PD in the US as of 2024) exemplify this, enabling community theaters and professionals to stage productions freely, though new translations or designs may introduce derivative copyrights.^[106] Shakespeare's plays and Verdi operas, long in PD globally, continue to underpin repertoires, with over two dozen classic dramas by authors like Anton Chekhov and Oscar Wilde available for unrestricted use.^[107] This accessibility supports educational and amateur performances, but performers must verify PD status per jurisdiction, as EU terms often extend to 70 years post-author's death, delaying entries like Stravinsky's early ballets.^[83]

Geography and Places

Airports and Transportation

Porter Airlines, assigned the IATA airline designator PD, is a Canadian short-haul airline founded in 2006 and headquartered in Toronto, Ontario. It operates primarily from hubs at Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport (YTZ) and John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport (YHM), serving over 20 destinations across Canada and the northeastern United States with a fleet of approximately 29 Bombardier Q400 turboprops and Embraer E195-E2 jets as of 2023. The airline emphasizes point-to-point service to city centers, avoiding major hubs like Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ) for faster turnaround times.^[108] In logistics and ground transportation, PD commonly denotes "pick-up and delivery," referring to local freight operations where drivers collect shipments from origins and deliver them to destinations within a defined urban or regional area, typically using box trucks or smaller vehicles. These PD routes contrast with long-haul trucking by focusing on high-volume, short-distance tasks, often comprising 60-70% of a carrier's daily operations in less-than-truckload (LTL) shipping. PD drivers handle multiple stops per shift, with average daily mileage under 200 miles, prioritizing efficiency in congested areas over interstate travel.^[109] In aviation regulation, PD stands for "pilot deviation," defined as any action by a pilot that violates Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), such as airspace incursions, altitude deviations, or runway transgressions. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) tracks PD incidents through reports and may issue violations leading to certificate actions, with over 1,000 PD cases annually contributing to safety data analysis. These deviations often occur near airports during takeoff, landing, or taxiing phases, prompting remedial training or enforcement to mitigate risks.^[110]

Regions and Locations

Province of Padua (Italian: Provincia di Padova; PD) is an administrative division in the Veneto region of northern Italy, encompassing the capital city of Padua and surrounding municipalities. It spans 2,142 km² with a population of approximately 930,000 residents. The province's abbreviation PD is standardized for Italian provinces.^[111]^[112] Port Dickson (PD) is a beach resort town and municipality in the state of Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, situated roughly 90 km south of Kuala Lumpur along the Strait of Malacca. Locally abbreviated as PD, it serves as a popular destination for its sandy beaches, water sports, and proximity to the capital, attracting day-trippers and vacationers.^[113]^[114]

Professions and Organizations

Professional Roles

In legal professions, particularly within the United States judicial system, PD refers to a public defender, a state- or county-employed attorney tasked with representing indigent defendants in criminal proceedings who cannot afford private counsel.^[115] This role ensures access to legal representation as a constitutional right under the Sixth Amendment, handling cases from initial hearings through potential appeals, often under high caseloads that strain resources in many public defender offices.^[116] In academic contexts, especially at universities in German-speaking countries such as Germany, PD denotes Privatdozent (or Privatdozentin for women), a title awarded to scholars who have completed a habilitation—a rigorous post-doctoral qualification demonstrating independent research and teaching capability—allowing them to lecture and supervise students without a university salary, typically funded by student fees or external grants.^[117] Privatdozenten often balance teaching duties with research, serving as a stepping stone to full professorship, though the position's unsalaried nature has drawn criticism for perpetuating precarious academic careers.^[118] In media and broadcasting, PD can signify program director, a senior role overseeing content selection, scheduling, and production for radio or television stations to align with audience demographics and regulatory standards.^[119] This position involves coordinating creative teams, managing budgets, and adapting to market trends, such as the shift to digital streaming as of the early 2020s.^[120] Similarly, in project management across industries, PD may abbreviate project director, responsible for leading complex initiatives from inception to completion, ensuring timelines, budgets, and stakeholder objectives are met.^[119]

Corporate and Institutional Entities

Phelps Dodge Corporation (PD) was a major American mining company specializing in copper and other metals, originating from Phelps, Dodge & Company founded in 1834 in New York as a metals trading firm.^[121] It expanded into mining operations in the late 19th century, becoming one of the largest U.S. copper producers with key sites like Morenci in Arizona, and maintained its NYSE ticker symbol PD until its $25.9 billion acquisition by Freeport-McMoRan in March 2007.^[122] In Indonesia, Perusahaan Daerah (PD) designates government-owned enterprises established by regional authorities under Law No. 5 of 1962 to manage local public utilities and commercial activities, such as water distribution through Perusahaan Daerah Air Minum (PDAM).^[123] These entities, now reclassified as Badan Usaha Milik Daerah (BUMD) since 2014, aim to support regional development while operating on commercial principles, with examples including PDAM serving over 60 million customers nationwide as of 2023.^[124] In the United States, PD abbreviates Police Department, referring to municipal or local law enforcement institutions tasked with crime prevention, investigation, and public safety, distinct from state or federal agencies.^[116] This usage appears in official contexts, such as departmental titles for over 18,000 agencies nationwide per the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting Program data as of 2022.^[125]

Other Uses

General Abbreviations

Public domain refers to creative works to which no exclusive intellectual property rights apply, such as those whose copyrights have expired.^[116]^[126] Per diem, Latin for "per day", denotes a daily allowance, especially for expenses like meals and lodging during travel.^[116] Potential difference is the voltage or electric potential between two points in a circuit, measured in volts.^[116] Postal district identifies a specific area for mail sorting and delivery within a larger postal system.^[116] Post data (P.D.), from Latin "post diem" meaning "after the date", is used in correspondence to add information after the main body or signature.^[127]

Miscellaneous Technical Terms

In physics and electrical engineering, PD denotes potential difference, the work done per unit charge in moving a charge between two points in an electric field, equivalent to voltage and measured in volts (V).^[128]^[129] This term is fundamental in circuit analysis, where it drives current flow according to Ohm's law, V = IR, with empirical validation from experiments like those measuring voltage drops across resistors.^[130] In chemistry, PD refers to palladium, a transition metal with atomic number 46 and symbol Pd, known for its catalytic properties in hydrogenation reactions and use in fuel cells due to high hydrogen solubility.^[131] Discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston through dissolution of platinum ore residues, its density (12.023 g/cm³ at 20°C) and melting point (1554.9°C) enable applications in electronics and automotive catalysts, supported by spectroscopic data confirming its electronic configuration [Xe] 4f¹⁴ 5d⁹ 6s¹.^[131] Electrical engineering contexts include partial discharge (PD), a localized electrical breakdown in insulation under high voltage, detectable via ultrasonic or electrical sensors for predicting insulation failure in power systems.^[132] Standards like IEC 60270 quantify PD magnitude in picocoulombs, with empirical studies showing inception voltages correlating to void sizes in dielectrics, critical for high-voltage equipment reliability.^[132] In mechanical engineering and drafting, PD stands for pitch diameter, the diameter of an imaginary circle tangent to gear teeth flanks, essential for meshing calculations where it determines center distance as (PD₁ + PD₂)/2 for spur gears.^[133] This metric, derived from thread or gear standards like AGMA 2000, ensures interchangeability, with measurement via over-wire methods yielding precision to 0.001 mm for quality control.^[133] Electronics employs PD for pull-down resistor, a resistor connecting a signal line to ground to ensure a low logic state when inactive, preventing floating inputs in digital circuits. Typical values range from 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ, selected to minimize power dissipation (I²R) while providing reliable thresholding, as verified in TTL/CMOS logic datasheets. In information technology, PD can mean protocol discriminator, a GPRS LLC-layer field identifying message types for routing in mobile networks.^[134] It enables efficient packet data handling, with values standardized in 3GPP TS 24.008 to distinguish signaling from user data, reducing latency in empirical network simulations.^[134]

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Apa International Air S.A.. 7S, Ryan Air f/k/a Arctic Transportation. 8C, Air ... PD, Porter Airlines, Inc. PEQ, SkyLink Express Inc. PF, Primera Air ...
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PD in Aviation commonly refers to Pilot Deviation, which occurs when a pilot does not adhere to established flight rules or procedures.
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Standard Abbreviations of Italian Regions and Provinces
Standard Abbreviations of Italian Regions and Provinces ... VAL - Valle D'Aosta (Aosta Valley) • AO - Aosta. VEN - Veneto • BL - Belluno • PD - Padova (Padua)
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Port Dickson, Malaysia
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PD - Public Defender | AcronymFinder
How is Public Defender abbreviated? PD stands for Public Defender. PD is defined as Public Defender very frequently.
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PD Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
1. per diem 2. police department 3. postal district 4. potential difference 5. program director 6. public defender 7. public domain
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Your future professors and Spotlight on Privatdozenten
Oct 16, 2024 · “Privatdozenten” (abbreviated “PD” before the “Dr.”), usually have a mixture of teaching and research assignments. Formally, a “Privatdozent” ...
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Jun 27, 2018 · A Privatdozent (PD) is a university scholar who has a Habilitation and is thefore allowed to supervise PhD students, but is not (yet) a professor.Is the abreviation 'Doz' equivalent/interchangeable to 'Prof'?How to address a person in a letter? - Academia Stack ExchangeMore results from academia.stackexchange.com
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PD - Definition by AcronymFinder
What does PD stand for? ; PD, Payday ; PD · Public Defender ; PD, Project Director ; PD, Position Description.
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Program Director (Radio) - Berklee College of Music
Radio program directors oversee the conception and selection of all the station's content, and in the process shape the station's demographic, identity, and ...Missing: title | Show results with:title
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OUR HISTORY - Freeport-McMoRan
1834, Phelps, Dodge & Company formed as a metals and mercantile firm; produced brass and copper kettles, rivets, buttons and copper wire ; 1870s, First mining ...
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Phelps Dodge Corporation History (1885-1999) - Republic of Mining
May 5, 2015 · One of the largest copper miners in the world, Phelps Dodge Corporation produces 30 percent of the copper in the United States and operates ...
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[PDF] peranan badan usaha milik daerah sebagai salah satu sumber ...
Undang-Undang Nomor 5 Tahun 1962 tentang Perusahaan Daerah merupakan Undang-Undang yang penyusunannya diilhami dari terbitnya Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti ...
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BUMD: Pengertian, Tujuan, Ciri-Ciri, Jenis dan Contohnya
Sep 10, 2025 · Apa Itu BUMD? BUMD atau Badan Usaha Milik Daerah adalah perusahaan yang seluruh atau sebagian besar modalnya dimiliki oleh pemerintah daerah.
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PD Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary
PD meaning: police department.
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PD Public Domain - All Acronyms
PD - Public Domain. Public Domain (PD) refers to creative works that are not protected by intellectual property laws, allowing them to be freely used, ...
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PD stands for Post Data (Latin: After the Date) - Acronym Finder
PD stands for Post Data (Latin: After the Date). Suggest new definition. This definition appears very frequently and is found in the following Acronym Finder ...
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Physics Words: Pd - GCSE Science Dictionary
Simple Description. An abbreviation for "potential difference", also called voltage. It is defined as "work done per unit charge" and is measured in volts.
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What do the letters p.d. stand for? - Science - Shaalaa.com
Jun 22, 2018 · Solution. The acronym p.d. stands for the potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Potential and Potential Difference. ...
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What is the unit of P.D.? - Quora
Mar 1, 2023 · In physics and electrical engineering, P.D. stands for "potential difference," which is also commonly known as voltage.
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PD Science Abbreviation Meaning - All Acronyms
PD in Science commonly refers to Palladium, a rare, precious metal used in various applications including electronics, catalytic converters, and jewelry due to ...
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PD Engineering Abbreviation Meaning - All Acronyms
PD Engineering Abbreviation ; 1. Partial Discharge · Technology, Marine, Electricity · Technology, Marine, Electricity ; 1. Permitted Development · Construction, ...
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PD Drawing Abbreviation Meaning - All Acronyms
PD in Drawing commonly refers to Pitch Diameter, which is a critical measurement used to define the size of the pitch circle of a gear or screw thread.
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PD - Wikipedia
Other uses in science and technology · PD resistor, a pull-down resistor · Pd test, the outcome of using a drop of para-phenylenediamine (also abbr. · Palladium, ...
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PD - Information Technology - Acronym Finder
What does PD stand for? ; PD, Power Dissipation ; PD, Picture Disc (records) ; PD · Pure Data (programming environment) ; PD, Participatory Design.