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Pak Yŏl

Pak Yŏl (박열; February 3, 1902 – January 17, 1974), born Pak Jun-sik, was a Korean anarchist and independence activist who opposed Japanese colonial rule over Korea through organizing radical groups and publishing subversive materials in Japan.^[1] He co-founded the Futei-sha (Irregulars Society) with his partner Kaneko Fumiko, advocating nihilistic anarchism and direct action against imperial authority.^[2] Active in Tokyo's expatriate Korean and labor communities following the March 1st Movement of 1919, Yŏl helped establish the Black Wave Society (Heukpa) in 1922, an anarchist collective focused on anti-colonial agitation and workers' solidarity.^[3] His writings and speeches denounced Japanese oppression as systemic exploitation, drawing from global anarchist traditions while emphasizing Korean self-liberation.^[4] In 1923, amid the Great Kantō earthquake's anti-Korean pogroms, he and Fumiko were arrested on charges of plotting to assassinate Emperor Hirohito; the trial, marked by coerced confessions and fabricated evidence, resulted in his life sentence, while Fumiko died by suicide in prison under suspicious circumstances.^[2]^[1] Released in 1945 after Japan's defeat, Yŏl briefly led the Korean Residents Union in Japan, promoting ethnic solidarity amid post-war chaos, but ideological disillusionment and political pressures led him to repatriate to North Korea in 1959.^[5] There, despite his anarchist background clashing with the regime's authoritarian communism, he lived out his later years in relative obscurity, occasionally reflecting on his radical past without recanting core anti-imperialist convictions. His legacy endures as a symbol of uncompromising resistance, though later affiliations highlight tensions between principled individualism and statist realities.^[4]

Early Life

Birth and Family Background

Pak Yŏl, born Park Jun-sik, entered the world on 3 February 1902 in Mungyeong, Gyeongsang Province (now North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea), during the waning years of the Korean Empire under Japanese influence.^[6] He hailed from a destitute peasant family, with his father working the land amid economic hardship typical of rural Korea at the time, which shaped his early exposure to socioeconomic inequities. Details on his immediate family remain sparse in historical records, but he was raised in modest circumstances that precluded formal advantages, fostering self-reliance from youth. His parents' identities—potentially including a father named Park Young-soo or Park Ji-su, per varying accounts—and sibling structure (as the youngest among several children) reflect the anonymity of lower-class origins, undocumented beyond local oral traditions and later biographical sketches.^[7] This background of poverty and colonial subjugation under Japanese rule provided the foundational grievances that propelled his trajectory toward radical activism.^[8]

Education and Initial Exposure to Radical Ideas

Pak Yŏl attended Seoul Normal High School, a teacher-training institution in the Korean capital, during his formative years under Japanese colonial rule. His education was interrupted in 1919 when authorities expelled him amid suspicions of involvement in the March First Independence Movement, a nationwide series of protests demanding Korean autonomy from Japan that began on March 1 and spread across the peninsula, resulting in thousands of arrests and deaths. This event marked his initial brush with organized resistance against colonial oppression, fostering early anti-imperialist sentiments.^[6]^[3] Fleeing potential further persecution, Yŏl relocated to Tokyo later in 1919 to resume his studies, initially supporting himself through manual labor such as newspaper delivery. In Japan, he quickly integrated into expatriate Korean student networks, co-founding the Korean Working Students' Group alongside figures like Chung Tae-sung and Kim Chun-hae, which emphasized labor solidarity and self-reliance among colonial subjects pursuing education abroad. These associations provided a platform for discussing grievances against Japanese domination.^[3]^[6] Through these student circles in Tokyo, Yŏl encountered socialist and anarchist ideologies prevalent among both Japanese and Korean radicals, transitioning from nationalist independence activism to broader critiques of state authority and capitalism. He engaged with Japanese thinkers in these environments, absorbing influences that shaped his commitment to anarchism as a means of dismantling imperial hierarchies. This period solidified his rejection of hierarchical systems, viewing them as root causes of colonial subjugation.^[6]^[3]

Activism in Japan

Entry into Anarchist Networks

Following the suppression of the March First Movement in 1919, Pak Yŏl relocated to Tokyo to continue his education amid the political upheaval in Korea under Japanese colonial rule.^[9] In the expatriate Korean student community, he quickly immersed himself in radical intellectual environments, where discussions of independence, socialism, and anti-authoritarianism were prevalent among both Korean and Japanese youth disillusioned with imperialism.^[6] That same year, Pak Yŏl co-founded the Korean Working Student's Group (Chosŏn Nodong Haksaeng Hyŏphoe) alongside figures such as Chung Tae-Sung and Kim Chun-Hae, an organization that served as an early platform for organizing Korean students in Japan and fostering mutual aid amid economic hardships and political exile.^[3] This group provided initial exposure to collective action and ideological exchange, bridging labor concerns with emerging critiques of state power, which aligned with broader anarchist sentiments circulating in Tokyo's underground networks. Through these student associations, Pak Yŏl encountered Japanese radicals influenced by European anarchism, including translations of works by thinkers like Peter Kropotkin, transitioning from nationalist independence activism to explicit anarchist principles emphasizing direct action and rejection of hierarchical authority.^[6]^[3] By engaging in these circles, Pak Yŏl began contributing to pamphlets and discussions that critiqued Japanese imperialism as a form of capitalist oppression, laying the groundwork for his later leadership in more overtly anarchist formations.^[3] His involvement marked a shift from localized Korean resistance to transnational anti-state networks, though sources on these early connections remain limited to activist histories and memoirs, which emphasize personal testimonies over institutional records.^[6]

Formation of Futei-sha Group

In late 1922 or early 1923, Pak Yŏl co-founded the Futei-sha (不逞社; Society of Malcontents) in Tokyo with Kaneko Fumiko and a small cadre of Korean students and Japanese sympathizers, amid growing anarchist networks opposing Japanese imperialism and the emperor system.^[10]^[11] The group emerged from informal discussions among radicals influenced by post-World War I egoist and individualist anarchism, emphasizing personal rebellion over collective nationalism or socialism.^[8] Its core members, numbering fewer than a dozen and predominantly Korean nihilists, rejected hierarchical authority in favor of direct action to erode state power and colonial hierarchies.^[12] The provocative name Futei-sha satirized Japanese officialdom's derogatory labeling of defiant Koreans as "futei" (不逞; malcontents or outlaws), reclaiming the epithet to symbolize unyielding nonconformity and anti-authoritarianism.^[6] Ideologically, the collective blended nihilistic egoism—drawing from Western thinkers like Max Stirner—with critiques of exploitation under colonial rule, advocating individual autonomy and the abolition of the imperial order through subversive means rather than reformist petitions.^[11] Though short-lived, Futei-sha functioned as a hub for intellectual agitation, hosting lectures and debates that challenged both Japanese sovereignty and Korean ethnic nationalism.^[13] To disseminate their principles, Futei-sha produced ephemeral publications, including the pamphlet Atsui Senjin (太い鮮人; "Bold Koreans"), retitled from the rejected Futei Senjin after police scrutiny, and contributed to journals like Genkai Shakai (現社会; "Present Society") that lambasted societal inequities and promoted anarchist direct action.^[14] These outlets, often mimeographed and circulated underground, numbered only a few issues due to resource constraints and surveillance, yet they articulated the group's disdain for institutionalized power and calls for personal revolt.^[11] The formation underscored Pak Yŏl's shift from solitary radicalism to organized dissent, though the group's activities halted abruptly with arrests following the September 1923 Great Kantō Earthquake.^[6]

Relationship and Collaboration with Kaneko Fumiko

Meeting and Partnership

Kaneko Fumiko encountered Pak Yŏl's poetry through a Korean acquaintance who shared his work, including the poem "Inukoro" ("Pup"), which profoundly resonated with her nihilistic and anti-authoritarian sentiments.^[15] Determined to connect with the author, she made repeated efforts to locate him in Tokyo's anarchist circles, eventually succeeding in meeting him around 1922.^[16] Their initial interaction led swiftly to a decision to cohabit, forming the basis of a personal and ideological alliance amid Japan's colonial oppression of Korea.^[16] This partnership extended into collaborative activism, as the two established the Futei-sha ("Society of the Irregulars" or "Malcontents"), an anarchist collective dedicated to critiquing imperialism and societal hierarchies.^[17] Through Futei-sha, they produced publications such as pamphlets and articles denouncing Japanese atrocities in Korea and advocating revolutionary upheaval, drawing on Pak's experiences as a Korean exile and Fumiko's rejection of Japanese patriarchal and imperial norms.^[6] Their joint efforts emphasized individual autonomy and direct action against state power, though these activities remained underground to evade surveillance by Japanese authorities.^[18] The relationship formalized legally during their 1923 imprisonment following the Great Kantō earthquake, when they registered as husband and wife on March 23, 1926, under the advocacy of their defense lawyer Fuse Tatsuji, amid their treason trial.^[12] This union underscored their shared commitment to anarchist principles over national or ethnic divisions, with Fumiko explicitly aligning her nihilism with Pak's independence activism despite cultural barriers.^[11] Primary accounts from trial records and Fumiko's prison memoirs portray their bond as one of mutual intellectual reinforcement, unmarred by conventional marital expectations, though external propaganda later sensationalized it to discredit their politics.^[19]

Shared Ideological Work

In 1922, Pak Yŏl and Kaneko Fumiko co-founded the Futei-sha (不逞社), or "Society of Malcontents," an anarchist study group primarily composed of Korean expatriates in Japan and sympathetic Japanese radicals, which functioned as a hub for propagating individualist anarchism and nihilism.^[17] The name ironically appropriated the derogatory Japanese term for "undesirables" or "lawless elements," often applied to Korean activists under colonial rule, reframing it as a badge of defiance against state categorization and authority.^[20] Their shared work emphasized egoist principles drawn from Max Stirner, rejecting hierarchical structures, nationalism, and imperial loyalty in favor of personal autonomy and direct confrontation with oppression.^[12] Through Futei-sha, the pair produced and distributed publications, including self-titled magazines and pamphlets, that critiqued Japanese imperialism in Korea and advocated violent direct action as a means of dismantling coercive systems. Kaneko contributed articles explicitly promoting nihilist egoism, arguing that individual self-assertion superseded collective ideologies, while Pak integrated anti-colonial themes, linking Korean liberation to broader anarchist insurrection against the emperor and state apparatus.^[17] These writings, circulated among underground networks in Tokyo from 1922 to 1923, fused Fumiko's Japanese nihilism—rooted in personal experiences of marginalization—with Pak's Korean anarchist resistance to assimilation, prioritizing causal disruption of power over reformist or nationalist paths.^[11] The publications' emphasis on rejecting moral and legal constraints aligned with their mutual view of the state as an illegitimate phantom, influencing a small but radical circle of expatriate intellectuals.^[21] Their ideological synergy extended to practical advocacy, as evidenced in group discussions and manifestos that scorned pacifist socialism and parliamentary illusions, instead endorsing exemplary acts of rebellion to shatter public deference to authority.^[8] This collaboration highlighted a rare cross-ethnic alliance in the era's anarchist milieu, where Fumiko's writings echoed Pak's calls for transcending national boundaries through egoistic revolt, though the brevity of their joint output—limited by surveillance and arrests—reflected the precariousness of such endeavors under colonial policing.^[22]

The Assassination Plot and Treason Trial

Planning the Imperial Attack

In late 1922, Pak Yeol and Kaneko Fumiko conceived a plot to assassinate Crown Prince Hirohito—later Emperor—during his expected wedding procession, intending to hurl bombs at his carriage to expose the imperial family's mortality and dismantle the symbolic foundations of Japanese authority.^[18] Their discussions, rooted in anarchist rejection of hierarchical oppression, initially envisioned broader simultaneous attacks on targets including Emperor Taishō, the Prime Minister, the Diet building, Mitsukoshi department store, police headquarters, and the Imperial Palace, but these were scaled back due to logistical challenges and interpersonal conflicts among potential accomplices such as Nīyama Sadatarō, Choi Gyujong, and Yamamoto Katsuyuki.^[18] To execute the core plan, the pair sought picric acid-based explosives, arranging procurement through contacts in Korea; Pak traveled to Gyeongseong (Seoul) at the end of 1922 to acquire bombs from anarchist ally Kim Han, but the effort failed amid the fallout from the Kim Sang-ok arrest, which disrupted underground networks.^[18] No alternative sourcing succeeded before their arrest, leaving the plot in preparatory stages without assembled devices or finalized execution details, though Kaneko later affirmed in her memoir the deliberate intent to target imperial symbols as an act of personal rebellion against enforced inequality.^[23] Authorities alleged the conspiracy extended to Emperor Taishō as a fallback, based on seized documents and interrogations revealing the couple's notebooks outlining explosive recipes and attack scenarios.^[11]

Arrest, Interrogation, and Conviction

On September 23, 1923, two days after the Great Kantō Earthquake devastated Tokyo and surrounding areas, Pak Yŏl and Kaneko Fumiko were arrested by Japanese police as part of a broader crackdown on suspected radicals and Korean residents amid widespread rumors of uprisings and sabotage.^[19] The earthquake, which killed over 100,000 people, triggered vigilante massacres of thousands of Koreans and pre-emptive detentions of anarchists, including members of the Futei-sha group, under fears of exploiting the chaos for rebellion.^[19] Pak and Kaneko were placed in "protective custody" at a police station, where authorities seized notebooks and materials documenting their discussions of bomb-making and attacks on imperial figures.^[17] During interrogation, which lasted nearly two years, Pak and Kaneko provided detailed confessions admitting to plotting explosives attacks against Emperor Taishō or Crown Prince Hirohito, including during the crown prince's planned wedding, to dismantle Japanese imperialism and ignite global revolution.^[18] Kaneko's memoir, written in prison, described acquiring chemicals for nitroglycerin and dynamite from anarchist contacts, framing the scheme as nihilist direct action against authority rather than mere anti-Japanese sentiment.^[19] Interrogators focused on linking their Futei-sha activities—such as publishing subversive writings—to a coordinated treasonous conspiracy, though evidence primarily consisted of their own statements and rudimentary bomb-making experiments that yielded no functional devices.^[17] Pak maintained ideological defiance, critiquing the proceedings as tools of state repression, while Kaneko emphasized personal autonomy over organized plotting.^[18] Indicted for high treason in July 1925, the pair faced trial starting in February 1926 before the Tokyo High Court, where prosecutors argued their anarchist nihilism posed an existential threat to the imperial system.^[19] On March 25, 1926, both were convicted and sentenced to death by guillotine, with the court citing their confessed intent to "destroy the throne" through bombings as sufficient for lèse-majesté under Japan's Security Maintenance Law precedents. Pak's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment in April 1926 following appeals and international pressure from anarchist networks, reflecting selective clemency for his Korean independence activism amid colonial policy considerations; Kaneko's remained but was later reduced before her death in prison.^[19] The convictions drew criticism from defense advocates for relying heavily on coerced or performative confessions, though the plot's ideological core aligned with Futei-sha's documented advocacy for violent upheaval.^[18]

Imprisonment and Release

Prison Conditions and Experiences

Pak Yŏl's death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment on April 5, 1926, following an imperial decree, after which he was transferred to Utsunomiya Prison in Tochigi Prefecture alongside Kaneko Fumiko.^[19] Conditions there included extreme isolation, with cells often repurposed from storage areas like padlocked grain houses amid stifling heat and poor ventilation, as well as physical punishments such as beatings with sticks and kicks from guards.^[19] Fumiko's death by hanging on July 23, 1926—using a rope she had woven under prison labor assignment—occurred under suspicious circumstances in solitary confinement, highlighting the facility's punitive regime for high-profile dissidents.^[19] Subsequently, Pak Yŏl was relocated to Akita Prison in northern Japan, a facility notorious for its severe climate and use against political prisoners, where he endured much of his remaining sentence—spanning over two decades—in solitary confinement.^[24] ^[25] This isolation, combined with the prison's harsh northern winters, limited access to medical care, and enforced labor, contributed to the physical and psychological toll on inmates convicted of treason.^[19] Despite these adversities, Pak Yŏl maintained ideological resolve, later recounting in post-release accounts his survival through intellectual focus and rejection of despair.^[8] He was released from Akita Prison on October 10, 1945, by U.S. occupation authorities amid Japan's surrender in World War II, marking the end of approximately 22 years of incarceration since his initial detention after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake.^[24] ^[25] The prolonged solitary confinement and systemic brutality reflected the Japanese imperial system's approach to suppressing anarchist and independence activism, prioritizing deterrence over rehabilitation.^[25]

Pardon and Exile Dynamics

Park Yŏl's death sentence, handed down in June 1926 for high treason in the Taishō Emperor bombing plot, was commuted to life imprisonment the following month amid procedural reviews and international pressure on Japanese authorities. He served over 19 years in facilities including Kosuge Prison, enduring harsh conditions that included solitary confinement and limited medical care, with no further commutations or early releases granted by the Japanese government despite occasional petitions from leftist intellectuals.^[26] The effective "pardon" came not through Japanese clemency but via administrative action by U.S. occupation authorities on October 27, 1945, two months after Japan's unconditional surrender in World War II.^[26] This release aligned with occupation policies under Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur to dismantle imperial Japan's repressive legal framework, including the Peace Preservation Law under which Yŏl was convicted, by liberating thousands of political dissidents to facilitate democratization and purge militarist elements.^[26] Unlike traditional pardons tied to imperial prerogative—such as those occasionally granted on new emperors' accessions—Yŏl's freedom stemmed from the nullification of Japanese sovereignty, rendering pre-surrender convictions unenforceable amid the Allied tribunal preparations and the need to stabilize post-war Japan. Exile dynamics for Yŏl, as a Korean national, unfolded against the backdrop of mass repatriation from Japan, where approximately 1.2 million Koreans—many former colonial laborers—returned to the peninsula between September 1945 and 1946 under U.S. and Japanese coordination.^[27] Freed in Tokyo, Yŏl faced practical expulsion from Japan due to his stateless colonial status dissolving with Korea's liberation; Japanese authorities, stripped of authority over Koreans, facilitated departures while occupation forces prioritized repatriating "enemy aliens" to avoid unrest.^[28] He departed for southern Korea shortly after release, navigating the U.S.-Soviet division at the 38th parallel, which complicated his anarchist ideals of unified independence by forcing alignment with emerging ideological factions—initially leftist groups in the south before his coerced relocation north during the 1950 Korean War onset.^[17] This involuntary separation from Japan, where he had operated for decades, underscored causal shifts from imperial repression to post-colonial fragmentation, with no evidence of personal choice overriding geopolitical imperatives.^[26]

Post-War Trajectory

Return to Korea Amid Division

Following his release from Japanese imprisonment on October 27, 1945, by Allied authorities after Japan's surrender in World War II, Pak Yŏl returned to Korea in December 1945 amid the peninsula's emerging division into U.S.-administered southern and Soviet-occupied northern zones along the 38th parallel.^[8]^[29] At age 43, having endured 22 years of incarceration for the 1923 high treason plot, he sought to revive anarchist organizing in a landscape marked by power vacuums, repatriating collaborators, and superpower rivalries that precluded unified self-rule.^[8] In early 1946, Pak—using the alias Yu Lim—participated in the All-Korea Anarchist Congress held on April 23 in Anwi, Kyŏngsang Namdo, where he proposed forming an anarchist political party to counter foreign-imposed trusteeship schemes and foster Korean-led governance.^[29] The congress endorsed his initiative, leading to the establishment of the Independent Labor-Farmer Party, aimed at mobilizing workers and peasants against both emerging Stalinist influences in the north and U.S.-backed conservative elements in the south. Anarchists under Pak's influence critiqued the division as a betrayal of liberation, advocating direct action and federalist structures to achieve unity, independence, and freedom from state monopolies, though their efforts faced suppression from rival leftist and rightist factions.^[29] As tensions escalated toward formal separation—with U.S.-supervised elections in the south on May 10, 1948, establishing the Republic of Korea under Syngman Rhee, and parallel Soviet-backed formation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in the north on September 9—Pak remained active in southern anarchist circles, opposing Rhee's authoritarianism and U.S. military government policies.^[29] His writings and speeches emphasized anarchism's role in preventing superpower domination, but the movement's marginalization limited impact amid Cold War alignments. By June 1950, with the outbreak of the Korean War and North Korean forces advancing southward, Pak relocated to the north, reflecting anarchists' disillusionment with southern repression and tactical necessities in the conflict.^[8]^[29]

Settlement and Death in North Korea

Following the outbreak of the Korean War on June 25, 1950, Pak Yŏl was abducted to North Korea amid the North's advance southward, an event corroborated by accounts from his family and contemporary reports.^[30] He settled in Pyongyang, where limited records indicate he participated in regime-sanctioned efforts toward Korean unification, reflecting the North Korean state's co-optation of independence figures for propaganda purposes despite his anarchist background.^[31] Specific details of his daily activities and influence remain scarce, as North Korean authorities provided scant verifiable information, consistent with the regime's control over historical narratives and aversion to non-orthodox ideologies like anarchism.^[31] Pak held a nominal leadership role in unification advocacy, reportedly serving as chairman of the North Korean Council for Promoting Peaceful Reunification at the time of his death, though the extent of his autonomy or impact under state oversight is undocumented and likely constrained.^[32] His presence was leveraged in official discourse to bolster claims of pan-Korean legitimacy, but no primary evidence exists of substantive anarchist organizing or dissent in the North, where such activities would have been suppressed.^[33] Pak Yŏl died on January 17, 1974, in Pyongyang at the age of 71, with North Korean state media attributing the cause to chronic illness (宿患).^[30] ^[32] The announcement reached South Korea the following day via Pyongyang broadcasts, prompting limited mourning among independence movement sympathizers despite the division; his burial occurred in the Hyŏngjesan District of Pyongyang, per regime reports.^[30] Posthumous evaluations in the South viewed his North Korean phase as tragic exile rather than voluntary alignment, given the abduction context and ideological mismatch with the DPRK's authoritarian communism.^[33]

Ideology and Writings

Core Anarchist and Nihilist Principles

Pak Yŏl's anarchist principles centered on the abolition of the state as the primary mechanism of labor exploitation and social control, advocating instead for direct action to dismantle oppressive structures. He emphasized violent confrontation with imperialism, as exemplified by his involvement in the 1923 plot to assassinate Japanese Emperor Taishō, which aimed to ignite a broader revolutionary upheaval against colonial rule.^[3] This approach rejected gradualist or electoral strategies, prioritizing immediate destruction of exploitative systems—including foreign imperial control and privileged classes—as a prerequisite for reconstruction and self-liberation.^[3] Integrating nihilism into his anarchism, Pak rejected all fixed ideologies, nations, and authoritarian frameworks, viewing them as extensions of coercive power that stifled individual autonomy.^[34] His nihilist outlook, articulated through associations like the Nihilist Party Manifesto of 1926, called for resolute action to "destroy the enemy by one stroke" amid oppression, framing revolution not as ideological conformity but as a radical negation of existing hierarchies to foster egalitarian self-rule.^[3] This positioned his thought against Bolshevik-influenced models, which he critiqued for perpetuating state-centric authority rather than enabling decentralized, voluntary communities free from exploitation.^[3] Pak's individualist strain distinguished his nihilist anarchism from the communist tendencies dominant among Korean anarchists, who often emphasized collective organization and syndicalism.^[34] He and partner Kaneko Fumiko formed a minority faction focused on personal liberation over communal blueprints, opposing nationalism as another form of imposed identity that reinforced statism.^[34] Through groups like the Heuk-Ro-Hwae (Black Workers' Society), he propagated these views via publications such as Korea Revolts, underscoring a vision of an independent Korea built on mutual aid and the eradication of class and imperial domination, without reliance on vanguard parties or transitional states.^[3]

Critiques of Imperialism and Critiques of Anarchism Itself

Pak Yŏl articulated sharp critiques of Japanese imperialism, framing it as an extension of state coercion that suppressed both national autonomy and individual liberty. In the July 1922 issue of Black Wave, which he edited, he detailed the exploitative conditions imposed on Koreans, including economic distress and cultural erasure, positioning imperialism as a barrier to genuine transnational solidarity among the oppressed.^[35] He rejected Japanese Asianist rhetoric, which promoted unity under Tokyo's hegemony, as incompatible with anarchism, arguing that colonization inherently fostered prejudice and domination rather than mutual aid.^[35] In his 1923 article "About Asian Monroe-ism," published in Hutoi senjin, Yŏl condemned Japan's expansionist ambitions—such as incursions into China—as aggressive imperialism masquerading as defensive regionalism, urging instead cooperative resistance across colonized nations.^[35] Yŏl's opposition extended to practical action, as evidenced by his role in the 1923 treason incident, where he and Fumiko Kaneko plotted to bomb the Imperial Palace in Tokyo amid the chaos following the Great Kantō Earthquake on September 1, 1923. This scheme targeted Emperor Taishō as the embodiment of imperial authority, aiming to ignite mass revolt against the state's military and police apparatus, which Yŏl viewed as instruments of perpetual control over colonized subjects.^[35] In Black Newspaper, launched August 1, 1930, and edited by associates in his network, he contributed pieces like "A Message Delivering to the Class in Power of Japan from a Rebellious Korean," which highlighted systemic oppression, including forced labor and land seizures affecting over 80% of Korean peasants by the 1920s.^[35] Yŏl argued that imperialism not only extracted resources—Japan controlling 40% of Korean farmland by 1930—but also perpetuated class hierarchies by allying with local elites, whom he labeled "native, feudal capitalist elements."^[35] While Yŏl remained committed to core anarchist tenets like individual liberation and decentralized society, he implicitly critiqued organizational tendencies within anarchism that prioritized syndicalist methods over immediate, unmediated revolt. Influenced by Japanese anarchists like Ōsugi Sakae, he rejected general strikes as insufficiently disruptive, favoring "direct action" exemplified in his 1922 Black Wave article "An Example of Direct Action," which endorsed sabotage and assassination to shatter legal and imperial constraints without reliance on mass unions.^[35] This shift toward nihilism, shared with Kaneko, positioned traditional anarcho-syndicalism as potentially reformist, diluting revolutionary potential in favor of negotiated gains under state oversight.^[35] Yŏl's writings, such as those in Kokutō (1923), emphasized personal rebellion over collective structures, critiquing any anarchist variant that deferred to nationalism or gradualism, which he saw as capitulating to capitalist imperatives even among independence advocates.^[35] Post-1945, amid Korea's division, Yŏl's trajectory reflected further tensions with anarchism's radical edge. Initially active in southern groups like the Free Society Builders Federation, he prioritized national reconstruction over pure social upheaval, advocating a unified Korean government with anarchist influences but deradicalized toward state-like autonomy.^[35] Abducted to North Korea during the Korean War (1950–1953), his later silence on anarchism—amid suppression of non-communist ideologies—suggests an accommodation to statist realities, though no explicit renunciation survives; this evolution underscores anarchism's challenges in postcolonial contexts, where anti-imperial victory often subordinated anti-statism to developmental priorities.^[35]

Legacy and Reception

Contributions to Korean Independence

Pak Yŏl played a role in the Korean independence movement through his organization of anti-Japanese anarchist networks in Tokyo, linking Korean liberation to direct assaults on imperial authority. After participating in or responding to the March First Independence Movement of 1919, he relocated to Japan and co-founded the Korean Working Students' Group that same year alongside figures such as Chung Tae-Sung and Kim Chun-Hae, focusing on mutual aid for Korean expatriates while cultivating revolutionary opposition to colonial rule.^[3] Yŏl extended these efforts by establishing the Heuk-Ro-Hwae (Black Workers' Society) as a precursor to the Heuk-Woo-Hwae (Black Comrades' Society), collaborating with Japanese anarchists including Ōsugi Sakae and Iwasa Sakutarō to propagate anti-imperialist ideas that explicitly targeted Japan's domination of Korea. In 1922, he co-founded the Futeishya ("Revolt" or Irregulars' Society), a multinational group of Koreans and Japanese that published Korea Revolts, a manifesto calling for uprising against Japanese occupation and emphasizing Korea's subjugation as a core injustice.^[3] His activities culminated in the 1923 High Treason Incident, where Yŏl and associates plotted to bomb and assassinate Emperor Taishō, framing the action as a decisive blow to the monarchical system upholding colonial control over Korea; though thwarted, the conspiracy highlighted anarchist tactics as a radical flank of the independence struggle.^[3] Arrested amid the Great Kantō Earthquake chaos on September 16, 1923, Yŏl received a death sentence—later commuted to life imprisonment—disrupting but not erasing his influence on expatriate resistance networks.^[3] These initiatives, while marginal compared to mainstream nationalist efforts, amplified calls for Korean sovereignty by forging cross-border alliances and exemplifying violent repudiation of Japanese hegemony.^[36]

Controversies, Failures, and Reevaluations

Pak Yŏl's 1923 arrest and subsequent 1925 conviction for high treason stemmed from allegations of plotting to assassinate Emperor Taishō amid the Great Kantō Earthquake's chaos, a case involving the "League of the Indignant" group he led. Historians have reevaluated the trial as emblematic of Japanese colonial authorities' tactics to fabricate threats against Korean radicals, with confessions extracted under torture and scant material evidence of a viable bomb plot or coordinated assault on the imperial palace. Pak and partner Kaneko Fumiko maintained the scheme was ideological posturing rather than actionable intent, a stance echoed in Fumiko's prison memoir denying regicide plans; the proceedings, resulting in 12 death sentences (later commuted for most, including Pak's to life imprisonment), prioritized suppressing pan-Asian anarchist networks over substantive threat assessment.^[8] Fumiko's 1926 suicide by hanging in prison, just before trial, sparked enduring controversy, as autopsy reports indicated bruises inconsistent with self-inflicted wounds, fueling speculation of murder to silence her testimony and discredit the defense. Pak's own courtroom defiance—declaring nihilist rejection of all authority, including the emperor's divinity—intensified perceptions of him as dangerously unrepentant, though it highlighted the regime's intolerance for egoist-anarchist critiques of imperialism. These events underscored failures in sustaining organized resistance, as the group's loose structure and emphasis on individual revolt proved vulnerable to infiltration and dissolution post-arrest, contributing to the broader eclipse of Korean anarchism by nationalist and communist alternatives.^[12] Post-1945, Pak's trajectory revealed ideological inconsistencies and marginalization: released after Japan's surrender on November 10, 1945, he relocated to Soviet-occupied northern Korea in 1948, only to face suppression under the emerging communist state, where anarchist principles clashed irreconcilably with centralized party control. Lacking influence, he lived in relative obscurity until his death on January 17, 1974, without propagating his writings or organizing, marking a personal and doctrinal failure as nihilist individualism yielded to totalitarian conformity. Modern reevaluations, particularly in South Korean scholarship, recast Pak primarily as an anti-colonial icon while downplaying his anarcho-nihilism's impracticality—evident in his later self-critiques of anarchism's organizational deficits—amid debates over whether his extremism alienated potential allies or authentically embodied resistance to hierarchy.^[36]^[6]

Cultural Depictions

Film and Media Portrayals

Anarchist from Colony (박열), a 2017 South Korean biographical period drama directed by Lee Joon-ik, centers on Pak Yŏl's activism as a Korean anarchist in Japanese-occupied Korea and Japan.^[37] The film portrays him, played by Lee Je-hoon, as the founder of the Heukdohwe (Black Umbrella Society) anarchist group, emphasizing his efforts to expose the massacres of Koreans during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake and his alleged plot to assassinate Japanese imperial figures, including Crown Prince Hirohito.^[38] It highlights his partnership with Japanese anarchist Fumiko Kaneko, co-defendant in the 1926–1927 high treason trial, framing Pak as a defiant intellectual challenging colonial oppression through direct action and propaganda.^[9] The depiction underscores Pak's transition from arrest amid post-earthquake pogroms to his courtroom defiance, where he critiques Japanese imperialism and advocates anarchist principles like mutual aid and anti-statism.^[39] Released on June 28, 2017, the film grossed over 1.2 million admissions in South Korea and earned acclaim for its historical dramatization, with a 6.6/10 rating on IMDb from 783 users and praise for blending personal resilience with broader independence struggles.^[37] Critics noted its effective portrayal of Pak's ideological fervor, though some reviews questioned selective emphasis on his heroism over internal anarchist debates.^[40] No major documentaries or other films specifically focused on Pak Yŏl have been produced, though the movie's availability on platforms like Netflix has introduced his story to international audiences since 2020.^[38] South Korean media outlets, such as Korea.net, have referenced the film in commemorating March 1 Independence Movement anniversaries, portraying Pak as a overlooked freedom fighter whose legacy merits reevaluation.^[41]

Influence on Modern Narratives

Pak Yŏl's uncompromising anarchist stance against Japanese imperialism has shaped niche academic and activist narratives in South Korea, portraying him as a symbol of direct-action resistance that prioritized individual liberty and collective self-organization over compromise with authority. Historians of Korean anarchism credit his leadership in early 20th-century groups, such as the Korean Working Students' Group formed in 1919, with exemplifying how radical ideologies fueled anti-colonial militancy, influencing reevaluations of the independence movement's ideological diversity beyond Confucian or nationalist frameworks.^[3] In contemporary scholarship, Pak's writings and actions underscore enduring anarchist themes—popular revolt, mutual aid, and ethical naturalism—that challenge statist interpretations of Korean history, offering models for grassroots alternatives amid modern critiques of centralized power and economic hierarchy. These elements persist in discussions of colonial-era resistance, where Pak's rejection of both imperial and later communist structures highlights causal tensions between libertarian ideals and authoritarian outcomes, as seen in his post-1945 disillusionment in North Korea.^[42]^[43]^[44] His partnership with Japanese anarchist Kaneko Fumiko further informs modern transnational narratives, emphasizing cross-ethnic solidarity against empire, though such portrayals often prioritize anti-imperial heroism over the nihilistic critiques of societal norms embedded in their joint "Futei-sha" collective activities around 1923. This selective focus reflects broader historiographical tendencies to integrate anarchist figures into national liberation stories while downplaying their anti-statist core, ensuring alignment with prevailing developmental narratives.^[3]

References

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The Korean Anarchist Movement
Park Yeol and his wife Kaneko Fumiko, Korean anarchists, veterans of the independence struggle and organisers of the Tokyo “Black Workers Society”, were ...
[2]
Korean Anarchism History - Anarchy Archives
Park Yeol and his wife Kaneko Fumiko, Korean anarchists, veterans of the independence struggle and organisers of the Tokyo "Black Workers Society", were ...
[3]
A History of the Korean Anarchist Movement
Park Yeol, who went to Tokyo after the 3.1 Movement, organised the Korean Working Student's Group with Chung Tae-Sung, Kim Chun-Hae and others in 1919 and ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
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Anarchism in Korea - The Anarchist Library
Park Yeol was a leading figure in the organizations and journal until 1923 ... (1989) Han'guk anakijeum undongsa [A History of the Korean Anarchist Movement].
[5]
[PDF] decolonization, race, and cold war politics in us-japan-korea
The Korean Residents Union in Japan was initially formed in October 1946 under the leadership of a famous Korean ex-anarchist, Pak Yŏl. Since its inception ...
[6]
Park Yeol, Kaneko Fumiko, and Korean Anarchism
Feb 1, 2007 · Park was born in Mungyeong, Gyeongsang-do, in 1902. He attended Seoul Normal High School, which he dropped out of in 1919, due to the suspicion ...
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박열, 불온한 조선의 혁명가 - 네이버블로그
Dec 11, 2023 · 박열은 1902년 3월 12일, 아버지 박지수와 어머니 정선동 사이의 3남 1녀 중 막내로 경상북도 문경군 호서남면 모전리에서 태어났다.
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“Black comrades” against the Japanese occupation
Jan 6, 2017 · Pak Yeol was born in 1902 year in Mungun Kensan Pukkto province. In the 1919 year, due to suspicions of participation in the national liberation ...
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[Herald Interview] Viewing history through an anarchist's eyes
Jun 26, 2017 · The man is Park Yeol, a self-proclaimed Korean anarchist who moved to Japan after the March First Movement of 1919 to further his education ...Missing: radical influences
[10]
Fumiko Kaneko born - WCH | Stories - Working Class History
Nov 28, 2023 · Date. 25 January 1903. Therapy Illustration. Fumiko Kaneko and Park Yeol. Credit ... With her Korean partner Pak Yol, she founded the anarchist ...
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The Prison Memoirs Of A Japanese Woman - Libcom.org
The memoirs of Japanese anarchist and anti-colonial activist Fumiko Kaneko, written while she was in prison, where she died most likely by suicide in 1926.<|separator|>
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The Loneliness of the Female Nihilist - The Awl
Aug 15, 2017 · In her memoir, Fumiko reserves all her passion and fire for describing the circumstances of her introduction to the Korean anarchist Pak Yeol.Missing: early | Show results with:early
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第5回金子文子と朴烈（上野の二人中編） | かみのたね
May 10, 2018 · 不逞社は、アナキズムを紹介することを主目的とする結社で、雑誌を発行したり講演会を開いていた。また、新潟県の発電所建設現場で朝鮮人労働者が虐殺 ...
[14]
関東大震災 - 日本ペンクラブ電子文藝館
Mar 7, 2005 · 朴烈は朝鮮人のアナキストで、妻の金子文子と不逞社を結成し、雑誌『太い鮮人』を発行していた。元来の題名は『不逞鮮人』であったが、不穏当とされて改題 ...
[15]
[PDF] Desire Versus Ego: On How Kaneko Fumiko Transcended Stirnean ...
One of her Korean friends showed her a poem called “Inukoro 犬ころ (Pup) ” by Park Yeol, which entranced her so much that she became determined to meet its ...<|separator|>
[16]
[PDF] Kaneko Fumiko's Universalist Tendency
Something struck a chord with her, and she became determined to meet the poet. After several failed attempts, they met and decided to live together.
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Fumiko Kaneko (1903–1926) - The Anarchist Library
Fumiko Kaneko was a female anarchist philosopher born in Japan in 1903. With her Korean partner Pak Yol, she founded the anarchist collective “Futei-sha” ...
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Because I Wanted To | The Anarchist Library
Jan 1, 2020 · In about 1922 I became acquainted with a Korean, Pak Yeol, who was unknown and propertyless. I decided to live with him and informed my ...
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The Prison Memoirs of a Japanese Woman | The Anarchist Library
Her parents were not legally married, and they did not register her birth in their family register. Ever since the Meiji Restoration, the government had ...
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Resistance to Difference - Intersections
Mar 18, 2008 · Finally, Fumiko's partner, Pak Yeol, was not only the leader of a small group of nihilists and anarchists, but he was Korean rather than ...
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[PDF] Fumiko Kaneko (1903–1926) - PhilArchive
Fumiko Kaneko was a female anarchist philosopher born in Japan in 1903. With her Korean partner Pak Yol, she founded the anarchist collective “Futei-sha” ...Missing: Yŏl background
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[PDF] Anarchist Women Of Imperial Japan: Lives, Subjectivities ...
Mar 7, 2016 · The group was led by a Korean 'nihilist',. Pak Yeol, whose Japanese lover was Kaneko Fumiko. It was because of an admira- tion for western ...
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https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520067988/reflections-on-the-way-to-the-gallows
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5. The Tyranny of Tiny Decisions | The Geography of Injustice
The reappearance of Park Yeol, after more than twenty years in an Akita prison and much of it in solitary confinement, galvanized sections of the Korean ...
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https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781501774027-009/pdf
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Imprisonment - Nomos eLibrary
There was one other prisoner who caught Inoue's attention, a Korean by the name of Park Yeol (Japanese pronunciation, Boku Retsu, 1902–1974). Park was a politi-.
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Sep 14, 2009 · This figure included, in addition to repatriated Koreans, 510,000 refugees from northern Korea, and 700,000 births.[3] Not all Koreans returned.Missing: Yeol | Show results with:Yeol
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Korean Film Companies in U.S. Occupied Japan: Imagining an ...
Sep 21, 2014 · Abstract. This study reveals the history of little-known film companies founded by Koreans in U.S. Occupied Japan (1945-1952).
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The Post-War Korean Anarchist Movement – 2
### Summary of Park Yeol (Pak Yol, Bak Yeol) and His Activities
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부음으로 맞은 망부 24년|납북 박열씨 사망…서울의 미망인 - 중앙일보
Jan 18, 1974 · 【동경=박동순 특파원】6·25때 납북됐던 항일투사 박열(본명 박준식)씨가 17일 상오 1시 숙환으로 별세했다고 18일 평양 발 신보도가 전했다.Missing: 정착 | Show results with:정착
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납북이후 박열의사의 행적 - 朴烈義士記念館 (자료마당 >기념관 일반 ...
박열의사의 북한 생활에 대해서는 거의 알려진 바가 없다. 다만 납북 당시의 상황은 부인 장의숙씨가 쓴 박열선생의 납북진상과 박하산의 투혼의 별은 살아있다에 ...Missing: 정착 | Show results with:정착
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[역사속의 오늘] 독립운동가 박열 사망 - 매일신문
Jan 17, 2008 · 항일 독립운동가 박열이 1974년 1월 17일 북한에서 사망했다. 그의 본명은 박준식. 1902년 경상북도 문경에서 태어나 경성고등보통학교에서 수학했다.Missing: 정착 | Show results with:정착
[33]
[1974년 오늘] 항일투사 박열 사망 - 영남일보
Jan 17, 2019 · 문경 출신 항일투사 박열이 1974년 1월17일 북한에서 사망했다 박열은 1919년 일본에 건너가 무정부주의 운동에 뛰어들었고 1921년 사회주의 비밀결사 ...Missing: 정착 | Show results with:정착
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Anarchism through the Silver Screen - CrimethInc.
Nov 9, 2017 · Even among anarchists, the majority being of a more communist tendancy, Yeol and Fumiko's individual and nihilist anarchism was a minority. In ...
[35]
[PDF] Anarchism in Korea - Libcom.org
I wrote a paper on Korean anarchism for Professor Arif Dirlik in my first semester as a doctoral student at Duke University. It was a very rough one, and I ...
[36]
[PDF] UC Berkeley - eScholarship
Apr 1, 2009 · “Japanese Imperialism in Korea: A Study of Immigra- tion and Foreign ... Pak Yeol, 31–32. Pak Yeong-Man, 158, 160, 198n15. Passports: for ...
[37]
Anarchist from Colony (2017) - IMDb
Rating 6.6/10 (783) Later they tried to frame an independence activist Park Yeol for attempting to assassinate Hirohito to excuse the massacre. ... The acting performances, the ...Missing: Pak imperial plot
[38]
Watch Anarchist from Colony | Netflix
Anarchist Park Yeol fights to reveal the truth about Koreans who were massacred in Japan after the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake. Based on true events.Missing: film | Show results with:film
[39]
Anarchist from Colony - AsianWiki
Based on the life of anarchist and Korean independence activist Park Yeol (February 3, 1902 – January 17, 1974). Filming began January 9, 2017 and finished ...
[40]
Who was the real Park Yeol? + Anarchist from Colony (박열) Film ...
Jan 8, 2018 · Lee Joon-ik's latest film, Anarchist from Colony (2017) is a biopic of the Korean revolutionary and anarchist Park Yeol (Pak Yol).
[41]
Hit film celebrates life of freedom fighter Park Yeol - Korea.net
Mar 10, 2020 · The 2017 historical film "Anarchist from Colony," which depicts the life of independence activist Park Yeol after the movement.
[42]
Anarchism and Culture in Colonial Korea: "Minjung" Revolution ...
This article identifies popular revolt, mutual aid, and ethical naturalism as the three major themes of colonial anarchism that left an enduring legacy.Missing: Yeol | Show results with:Yeol<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
[PDF] Anarchism and Culture in Colonial Korea: Minjung Revolution ...
This article identifies popular revolt, mutual aid, and ethical naturalism as the three major themes of colonial anarchism that left an enduring legacy.Missing: Yeol Yol
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[PDF] Anarchism in Korea - The Anarchist Library
Park Yeol was a leading figure in the organizations and journal until 1923, when he and his Japanese comrade Kaneko Fumiko were arrested for their alleged ...Missing: modern historiography