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September 1945

September 1945 marked the formal termination of World War II, the deadliest conflict in human history, through the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender on 2 September aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay, where Japanese representatives accepted unconditional defeat under terms dictated by the Allied powers.^[1]^[2] This capitulation followed Japan's imperial rescript announcing surrender on 15 August, prompted by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and the collapse of its military position across the Pacific. The event solidified Victory over Japan Day and shifted global focus from total war to occupation, demilitarization, and reconstruction, with General Douglas MacArthur assuming command of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) to oversee Japan's transformation.^[3] The month's developments underscored the causal chain of Allied strategic superiority—encompassing industrial output, naval dominance, and technological innovations like atomic weaponry—that compelled Japan's submission without invasion, averting projected casualties in the millions for an Operation Downfall amphibious assault.^[2] On 6 September, U.S. President Harry Truman approved the Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan, establishing directives for disarmament, war crimes accountability, and economic stabilization under SCAP authority, which prioritized imperial continuity to maintain social order while rooting out militarism.^[4] Concurrently, Allied forces commenced occupation duties, repatriating millions of troops and civilians, while early diplomatic maneuvers, such as the impending Moscow Conference, hinted at emerging U.S.-Soviet frictions over spheres of influence in Europe and Asia.^[2] Notable ancillary events included the indictment preparations for Axis leaders and the dissolution of Japan's military structures, reflecting the Allies' commitment to preventing resurgence of aggressive expansionism through institutional purges and trials.^[5] These actions laid foundational precedents for international law and post-conflict governance, though they also sowed seeds of division, as ideological divergences between Western democracies and communist regimes began manifesting in policy disputes over Germany and Eastern Europe.^[3] Overall, September 1945 encapsulated the pivot from wartime exigencies to peacetime realignments, with empirical outcomes validating the efficacy of unconditional surrender in enforcing lasting behavioral change among defeated powers.

Conclusion of World War II

Formal Surrender of Japan

The formal surrender of Japan transpired on September 2, 1945, at 9:00 a.m. Tokyo time aboard the USS Missouri, anchored in Tokyo Bay.^[6] ^[7] This event formalized Japan's unconditional capitulation following Emperor Hirohito's August 15 radio announcement accepting the Potsdam Declaration's terms.^[8] ^[9] Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu, representing the Japanese civilian government, affixed his signature first to the Instrument of Surrender, followed by General Yoshijiro Umezu, Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff, for the military.^[8] ^[7] General Douglas MacArthur, designated Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, then signed as the Allied representative, declaring the instrument attested to by himself and other chiefs of staff.^[7] ^[10] Admiral Chester W. Nimitz proceeded to sign for the United States, with subsequent signatures from Allied representatives including Admiral Bruce Fraser for the United Kingdom, General Kuzma Derevyanko for the Soviet Union, General Sir Thomas Blamey for Australia, General Philippe Leclerc for France, Admiral Conrad Helfrich for the Netherlands, Lieutenant General Xu Yongchang for China, and Air Vice-Marshal Leonard Isitt for New Zealand.^[7] The document stipulated Japan's complete acceptance of Potsdam terms, immediate cessation of hostilities, disbandment of armed forces, and submission to Allied occupation and authority, thereby concluding hostilities in the Pacific Theater.^[8] ^[9] The ceremony, broadcast globally via radio, featured MacArthur's opening address emphasizing reconciliation and a brief invocation by Commodore William D. Chandler, Chaplain of the Missouri.^[7] Over 250 Allied personnel witnessed the proceedings on the battleship's deck, selected partly due to its namesake connection to President Harry S. Truman's home state.^[6] This signing ratified the armistice, enabling the transition to postwar occupation without further combat, as Japanese forces had largely complied with ceasefire orders since mid-August.^[10]

Global Reactions and V-J Day Observances

![Japanese Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu signs the Instrument of Surrender, officially ending the Second World War][float-right] The formal surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay elicited widespread relief and official observances among Allied nations, confirming the unconditional capitulation announced by Emperor Hirohito on August 15. In the United States, President Harry S. Truman designated September 2 as V-J Day via radio address on September 1, calling for prayer, thanksgiving, and celebration while declaring a national holiday with closures of banks and non-essential services.^[11] Public gatherings occurred in major cities, including Times Square in New York, though festivities were comparatively subdued relative to V-E Day due to lingering bitterness over Japanese war crimes and the Pacific campaign's toll of over 100,000 American lives.^[11] ^[12] In the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms, initial exuberant celebrations on August 15—featuring crowds in Piccadilly Circus and midnight broadcasts by Prime Minister Clement Attlee—transitioned to formal acknowledgments of the September signing, including military parades in London and overseas garrisons such as Nairobi, where 5,000 troops marched.^[13] Allied personnel, including British forces in Burma, reported overwhelming relief at the cessation of hostilities and hopes for repatriation, marking the end of nearly six years of global conflict.^[13] The ceremony, attended by representatives from the United States, China, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, Australia, France, and others, symbolized Allied unity and retribution, with figures like British General Arthur Percival—previously surrendered at Singapore—present as witnesses.^[14] In Japan, the delegation experienced profound humiliation under global scrutiny, evoking comparisons to chastised students, though public sentiment had shifted from August's shock to resigned acceptance amid ongoing devastation from bombings and atomic strikes.^[14] These reactions highlighted a collective exhale from wartime mobilization affecting over 70 million troops worldwide, while foreshadowing reconstruction and accountability efforts.^[9]

Post-War Occupations and Military Transitions

Allied Occupation of Japan

The Allied occupation of Japan commenced immediately following the formal surrender of the Empire of Japan on September 2, 1945, when Japanese representatives signed the Instrument of Surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.^[9] This event concluded hostilities and initiated a period of military administration under the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), with General Douglas MacArthur appointed to lead the effort.^[3] Although MacArthur had arrived in Japan on August 30, 1945, at Atsugi Airfield to oversee initial preparations, the surrender formalized the transition to occupation authority.^[15] In the days following September 2, U.S. forces, comprising the vanguard of the occupation army, began systematic landings at key ports such as Yokohama and establishing control over major cities without significant resistance from Japanese military units, which had been ordered to stand down.^[9] SCAP directives emphasized the preservation of public order, disarmament of Japanese armed forces, and the repatriation of overseas troops, while prohibiting Allied personnel from interfering in Japanese internal affairs beyond enforcing surrender terms.^[3] By mid-September, occupation headquarters were operational in Tokyo, where MacArthur assumed direct oversight of demobilization processes, including the dissolution of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy structures.^[2] The occupation's initial phase in September focused on stabilizing the Japanese government under Emperor Hirohito's symbolic continuity, as SCAP policy retained the existing administrative framework to avoid chaos, pending broader reforms.^[3] U.S. President Harry S. Truman approved the U.S. Initial Post-Surrender Policy on September 6, 1945, which outlined objectives such as eliminating militarism, promoting democratization, and ensuring Japan's capacity for peaceful economic recovery, though implementation emphasized American unilateral control over Allied input.^[3] These measures laid the groundwork for subsequent economic aid and political restructuring, with occupation forces numbering around 200,000 U.S. troops by the end of the month to secure compliance across the home islands.^[16]

Soviet Actions in Asia and Europe

In Asia, Soviet forces solidified control over territories seized from Japan during the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation launched on August 9, 1945. Following Japan's formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri on September 2, Red Army units completed the occupation of northern Korea up to the 38th parallel, an ad hoc division line agreed between the United States and Soviet Union to expedite Japanese disarmament and repatriation.^[17]^[18] Soviet troops, numbering around 1.5 million in the Far East theater, advanced rapidly southward in Korea, reaching positions north of the parallel by late August and maintaining administrative oversight through the provisional Soviet Civil Administration established on August 24.^[19] This occupation facilitated the internment of approximately 600,000 Japanese personnel in the north and laid the groundwork for communist influence, as Soviet authorities later permitted Korean communists to organize provisional committees.^[17] The Soviets also pressed operations in the Kuril Islands and southern Sakhalin Island, with amphibious assaults beginning August 18 on Shumshu Island—the only major opposed landing in the chain—resulting in heavy casualties before Japanese capitulation by August 23.^[20] By early September, Soviet naval infantry and army units had secured the remaining southern Kuril islands, including Kunashir, Iturup, Shikotan, and the Habomai group, despite the armistice, annexing them under the Yalta Secret Protocol's territorial concessions to the USSR.^[21]^[22] In Manchuria, occupation forces dismantled and shipped out vast quantities of Japanese-built heavy industry—estimated at over 80% of the region's machinery—to the Soviet Union as reparations, delaying withdrawal (initially slated for November) and enabling Chinese Communist Party units to infiltrate the area in September, where they acquired surrendered Japanese arms with Soviet acquiescence.^[23]^[24] In Europe, Soviet actions in September 1945 centered on entrenching military governance in the Eastern Zone of occupied Germany and satellite states amid the implementation of Potsdam Conference agreements from August. Red Army units, still numbering over 2 million in Central Europe, oversaw reparations extraction—totaling billions in industrial assets—from their German zone, while suppressing non-communist political groups and facilitating the installation of provisional governments loyal to Moscow in Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.^[25] Soviet authorities also managed the influx of ethnic German expellees from Eastern Europe, with over 1 million arriving in the Soviet zone by autumn, straining resources and prompting forced labor deployments.^[26] These measures reflected Stalin's strategy to buffer the USSR with ideologically aligned regimes, as evidenced by the orchestration of rigged plebiscites and elections, though overt manipulations intensified later in the year.^[27]

Demobilization and Troop Movements

Following Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945, Allied forces accelerated demobilization efforts to repatriate millions of personnel scattered across Europe, Asia, and the Pacific, though occupation duties in defeated nations delayed full-scale releases.^[28] The U.S. Army employed an adjusted points system—factoring service length, combat months, overseas time, and dependent status—to prioritize discharges, enabling an average of 1.2 million soldiers released monthly from September through December 1945.^[29] Operation Magic Carpet, leveraging over 370 Navy vessels including Liberty and Victory ships alongside troop transports, had repatriated 1,417,850 American servicemen from Europe by September's end, with intensified Pacific routes commencing shortly after V-J Day to transport troops from theaters like China-Burma-India.^[28] These movements faced logistical strains, including vessel shortages and redeployments for initial occupation garrisons in Japan and Germany, where select units—such as elements of the U.S. Sixth Army—sailed from the Philippines to Japanese ports starting mid-September.^[30] British demobilization, governed by age-service-release classes, processed 431,309 personnel returns from June 18 to September 30, 1945, with 361,279 fully discharged into civilian life via Class A and B categories, amid public impatience prompting parliamentary scrutiny.^[31] Troops from Mediterranean and European commands were progressively shipped homeward, though commitments to occupy Germany and support Japanese theater wind-downs—coupled with a deliberate phased approach to avert economic disruption—prolonged releases for younger or specialized units.^[32] By late 1945, cumulative British demobilizations reached approximately 750,000, reflecting coordinated rail and sea convoys from bases in Italy, North Africa, and the Middle East.^[33] Soviet demobilization advanced selectively via Supreme Soviet decrees, with a September 25, 1945, order extending releases to soldiers from the next ten birth cohorts (1917–1926) and those with higher technical education, building on June's initial wave for older personnel born 1897–1905.^[34] Red Army movements involved withdrawing forces from Manchuria post-August invasion—repositioning divisions to European garrisons or homefront duties—while retaining substantial contingents in occupied Korea, Sakhalin, and Eastern Europe for consolidation against potential Western frictions, with demobilized veterans receiving stipends, uniforms, and rail priority amid infrastructural bottlenecks.^[35] These repatriations, often by overburdened rail networks, totaled millions by year's end but prioritized ideological reliability, deferring releases for frontline combat units redeployed to border defenses.^[36] Allied processes encountered uniform challenges, including mutinies in Manila and other Pacific outposts by mid-September, where U.S. and Commonwealth troops protested prolonged occupation assignments over immediate homeward sails, underscoring tensions between rapid demobilization demands and strategic imperatives like disarming Japanese forces—over 2.25 million of whom required supervised disbandment in the home islands.^[37] Logistical coordination via inter-Allied shipping pools facilitated cross-theater transfers, yet variable planning—exacerbated by Japan's abrupt capitulation—strained port capacities and fuel supplies, delaying full troop rotations until 1946.^[38]

Accountability for War Crimes

Arrests of Nazi and Japanese Leaders

Following Japan's formal surrender on September 2, 1945, General Douglas MacArthur, as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, issued orders on September 11 for the arrest of approximately 40 suspected Japanese war criminals, primarily high-ranking military and civilian officials from Hideki Tojo's wartime cabinet.^[39]^[40] These initial detentions targeted individuals accused of responsibility for aggressive war planning, atrocities in occupied territories, and violations of international law, marking the start of systematic accountability efforts in the Pacific theater.^[41] Among the arrested was former Prime Minister and General Hideki Tojo, a central architect of Japan's expansionist policies and wartime leadership, who attempted suicide by shooting himself in the chest as U.S. Army officers entered his Tokyo residence to detain him.^[42] Tojo survived the self-inflicted wound after receiving emergency treatment, including a blood transfusion from American military personnel, and later admitted personal responsibility for the war's conduct while in custody.^[42] Other prominent figures detained in this wave included former Prime Minister Koki Hirota, Admiral Osami Nagano, and General Jiro Minaki, reflecting a focus on those in the Imperial General Headquarters and cabinet who had directed military operations across Asia.^[40] These arrests were conducted by Allied occupation forces under MacArthur's authority, with suspects held at Sugamo Prison pending investigations and tribunals.^[39] In contrast, arrests of major Nazi leaders had largely occurred in the months following Germany's unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945, with key figures such as Hermann Göring, Rudolf Hess, and Joachim von Ribbentrop already in Allied custody by summer.^[43] No comparable high-profile detentions of top Nazi officials took place in September 1945, as efforts shifted toward consolidating evidence and preparing indictments for the International Military Tribunal, which were formally issued on October 18.^[43] However, ongoing operations continued to apprehend mid-level Nazi personnel and camp guards implicated in specific atrocities; for instance, the British military court at Lüneburg opened proceedings on September 17 against 45 defendants from Bergen-Belsen and other camps, though their arrests dated to the facilities' liberation in April 1945.^[44] These cases underscored the decentralized nature of post-war justice for Nazi subordinates, distinct from the centralized leadership pursuits in Tokyo.^[45]

Preparations for International Tribunals

Following the London Agreement of August 8, 1945, which annexed the Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) and defined crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity as prosecutable offenses, Allied prosecutors advanced logistical and evidentiary preparations for the Nuremberg trials in September 1945. U.S. Chief Prosecutor Robert H. Jackson coordinated with British, French, and Soviet counterparts, including a key meeting on September 5 in London to harmonize indictment strategies and evidence protocols.^[46] This effort involved screening over 100,000 captured German documents, with approximately 10,000 selected for detailed analysis to substantiate charges against major Nazi leaders.^[47] Staffing and infrastructure setup progressed concurrently, with U.S. teams under Jackson assembling legal experts and relocating personnel toward Nuremberg by late September, anticipating the tribunal's opening.^[48] Internal memos, such as one dated September 14 from U.S. prosecutors Robert G. Storey and Leonard Wheeler Jr. to Jackson, addressed procedural details like witness interrogation and trial venue adaptations at the Nuremberg Palace of Justice.^[49] These steps built on the Charter's framework, emphasizing individual accountability over collective guilt, though Soviet demands for expanded preparatory time delayed the formal indictment until October 18.^[50] In the Pacific, preparations for what became the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) focused on U.S.-led policy formulation under Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur's occupation authority, established post-surrender on September 2. On September 12, the U.S. State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee issued guidance determining policy for apprehending and punishing Japanese war criminals, prioritizing high-level officials responsible for aggression and atrocities while distinguishing them from lower ranks.^[51] This included directives for SCAP investigators to collect evidence of crimes like the mistreatment of prisoners and civilian massacres, aligning with Potsdam Declaration stipulations for purges and trials.^[52] Allied coordination lagged behind Europe, with initial IMTFE planning deferred to MacArthur's discretion; no multinational charter emerged until January 1946, but September efforts laid groundwork through ad hoc commissions probing Imperial Japanese Army and Navy records.^[43] U.S. policy emphasized swift evidence gathering to avoid diluting prosecutions amid occupation stabilization, though debates persisted over Emperor Hirohito's immunity, granted implicitly to ensure governance continuity.^[53] These preparations reflected causal priorities: documenting aggression's chain from policy to execution, rather than retroactive moralizing, with over 50,000 pages of eventual trial records tracing from this phase.^[39]

Individual Sentencings and Trials

The Bergen-Belsen trial, convened by British military authorities, commenced on September 17, 1945, in Lüneburg, Germany, marking the first major war crimes proceeding against Nazi personnel following the European theater's conclusion. Forty-five defendants, primarily staff from the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp and select Auschwitz personnel transferred to Belsen, faced charges under Royal Warrant for violations of the laws and usages of war, including the willful killing of Allied nationals and responsibility for camp conditions leading to thousands of deaths from starvation, disease, and neglect in early 1945.^[44] ^[54] Key figures included camp commandant Josef Kramer, dubbed the "Beast of Belsen," along with female overseers like Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath, accused of direct participation in beatings, shootings, and selections for execution.^[32] ^[54] Proceedings in September focused on establishing the chain of command and evidentiary foundations, with British prosecutor Major Tom Draper outlining the systematic atrocities amid the camp's liberation in April 1945, where over 13,000 unburied corpses were found alongside 60,000 emaciated survivors.^[54] Witnesses, including liberated prisoners and British medical officers, testified to deliberate neglect, such as withholding food and medical aid despite available supplies, resulting in daily death rates exceeding 500 in the liberation aftermath.^[44] The tribunal, presided over by Major-General Beris Berney-Ficklin with two other British officers, emphasized individual accountability over collective guilt, interrogating defendants on specific acts like Kramer ordering executions and Grese's use of a whip on inmates.^[32] ^[54] No sentencings occurred in September, as the trial extended into October and November to accommodate defense arguments and cross-examinations, reflecting the Allies' intent to apply due process akin to common law courts despite the proceedings' military nature.^[44] This trial set precedents for subsequent proceedings by prioritizing survivor testimonies and forensic evidence, such as mass grave documentation, over victors' justice narratives, though critics later noted potential biases in witness selection favoring emotive accounts.^[54] Parallel investigations into Japanese war crimes in September involved arrests but no formal trials or sentencings, with preliminary interrogations of figures like General Tomoyuki Yamashita deferred to later tribunals.^[43]

Early Cold War Indicators

Gouzenko Defection and Soviet Espionage Revelations

On September 5, 1945, Igor Gouzenko, a 26-year-old cipher clerk with the Soviet military intelligence agency GRU at the embassy in Ottawa, Canada, defected to Western authorities, smuggling out 109 documents that exposed an extensive Soviet espionage network operating in North America.^[55] ^[56] These papers detailed a spy ring comprising approximately 27 agents, including Canadian civil servants, scientists, and a member of Parliament, who had been recruited to funnel classified information to Moscow.^[56] Gouzenko's initial attempts to alert Canadian officials, including the Justice Minister and a local newspaper, were rebuffed, leading him to hide with his wife under fear of Soviet reprisal until police intervened the following day.^[57] The documents revealed targeted Soviet efforts to penetrate key Canadian institutions, such as the National Research Council, the Department of External Affairs, and military research facilities, with operations directed by GRU Colonel Nikolai Zabotin, the Soviet military attaché.^[58] Specific intelligence gathered included secrets on radar technology, aviation developments, and high-level political discussions between Allied powers.^[55] Most alarmingly, the files implicated agents in acquiring data on the Anglo-American atomic bomb project, confirming Soviet infiltration of Manhattan Project-related research in Canada, where facilities like the Montreal Laboratory contributed to uranium enrichment and heavy water production.^[55] Named individuals included Fred Rose, a Communist Member of Parliament for Cartier, and scientists like Alan Nunn May, who admitted passing atomic secrets.^[59] In response, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King established the Kellock-Taschereau Royal Commission on September 6, 1945, to investigate the affair under wartime secrecy provisions, resulting in the arrest and trial of 20 suspects by 1946, with convictions for espionage leading to prison sentences for several, including Rose and May.^[60] ^[59] The revelations extended implications to the United States, prompting FBI scrutiny of cross-border networks and corroborating decrypted Venona cables that later identified additional spies like Klaus Fuchs.^[61] Gouzenko's evidence demonstrated Soviet intelligence taskings focused on preparing for potential conflict with the West, including sabotage plans and agent recruitment predating the end of World War II.^[62] This defection marked the first major public disclosure of systematic Soviet penetration of Western democracies during wartime alliance, shattering illusions of unified Allied cooperation and accelerating mutual suspicions that defined early Cold War dynamics.^[63] Gouzenko and his family received lifelong protection, living under assumed identities in Canada until his death in 1982, while the affair underscored the GRU's operational sophistication in exploiting ideological sympathizers within leftist and scientific circles.^[56] Declassified assessments from U.S. intelligence later affirmed the authenticity of Gouzenko's haul, which provided raw message texts aiding code-breaking efforts against Soviet communications.^[61]

Ideological Tensions in Allied Relations

The first session of the Council of Foreign Ministers (CFM), convened in London from September 11 to October 2, 1945, as mandated by the Potsdam Agreement, exposed deepening fissures between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union over post-war arrangements. Chaired by British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin, with U.S. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov, and French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault in attendance, the meeting aimed to draft peace treaties for Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland. However, ideological divergences—rooted in the West's emphasis on democratic governance and market-oriented reconstruction versus the Soviet preference for centralized control and security buffers—led to procedural stalemates and substantive clashes. A primary flashpoint was the governance of Soviet-occupied Eastern European states, where the United States and Britain pressed for verifiable free elections and multi-party systems as pledged at Yalta and Potsdam. Molotov resisted Western demands to broaden representation in Romania and Bulgaria, where Soviet-backed communist coalitions had consolidated power through rigged plebiscites and suppression of opposition; for instance, on September 21, British and American delegates highlighted the lack of genuine pluralism, with Molotov countering that Soviet-aligned regimes ensured "friendly" stability against potential revanchism.^[64] This reflected broader ideological antagonism: the Soviets viewed democratic reforms as threats to their sphere of influence, prioritizing ideological conformity to communism, while the West saw them as essential to preventing totalitarian entrenchment. Byrnes later noted Molotov's insistence on Soviet veto power over internal affairs in these nations, underscoring the incompatibility of liberal internationalism with Stalinist realpolitik.^[65] Disputes over Italian peace terms further illuminated economic and territorial ideological rifts. The Soviets demanded $400 million in reparations from Italy—far exceeding Western proposals—and sought trusteeships over former Italian colonies like Tripolitania (Libya) for naval bases, framing these as compensatory security measures against capitalist encirclement.^[66] In contrast, Byrnes and Bevin advocated lenient terms to foster Italian economic recovery and integration into a democratic Europe, rejecting Soviet claims as expansionist. On September 22, Molotov accused the Western powers of breaching the Potsdam reparations formula by limiting German asset transfers, escalating accusations of bad faith that halted progress on Trieste's status, where Soviet-Yugoslav claims clashed with Italian and Western interests.) These exchanges revealed Soviet prioritization of resource extraction to bolster communist industrialization over mutual prosperity, while the West sought to avoid punitive policies that could destabilize Europe.^[67] The abrupt official termination of U.S. Lend-Lease aid to the Soviet Union in September 1945 compounded these strains, symbolizing the shift from wartime partnership to competitive rivalry. Valued at over $11 billion in deliveries by war's end, the program's end—following earlier halts post-VE Day—prompted Soviet complaints of economic sabotage, as Stalin had relied on it for 10-20% of wartime materiel; U.S. officials justified the cutoff as tied to Japan's surrender on September 2, but it fueled Molotov's narrative of Western unreliability.^[68] No treaties were finalized at London, with the CFM adjourning amid mutual recriminations, prompting Byrnes to cable Truman of the need for firmer resolve against Soviet intransigence. This deadlock marked an early crystallization of ideological tensions, transitioning Allied cooperation into the adversarial dynamics of the emerging Cold War.

Broader Global and Domestic Developments

Attempts at Peace in China

Following Japan's surrender on September 2, 1945, negotiations between the Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under Mao Zedong intensified in Chongqing to avert renewed civil war and establish a framework for national unity. Mao had arrived in the Nationalist capital on August 28, accompanied by U.S. Ambassador Patrick J. Hurley, who acted as mediator; the talks, spanning 43 days overall, focused on ceasefire arrangements, political consultation, and military reorganization amid mutual distrust, as both sides maneuvered to consolidate territorial gains from the Japanese collapse.^[69]^[70] Throughout September, the two leaders held multiple private meetings—totaling nine in the negotiation period—discussing a coalition government and the convocation of a Political Consultative Conference to unify policy on reconstruction. Public gestures underscored the diplomatic facade, including a September toast by Mao and Chiang celebrating victory over Japan, and Mao's hosting of a tea party on September 8 at Guiyuan Garden to express gratitude to foreign allies for wartime support. These events masked underlying tensions, as Nationalist forces, aided by U.S. airlifts, advanced into key areas like Manchuria to accept Japanese surrenders, while CCP troops resisted and expanded control in northern China.^[71]^[72] Military violations persisted despite verbal commitments to halt offensives; for instance, on September 10, Nationalist warlord Yan Xishan coordinated with residual Japanese and puppet forces to attack CCP-held positions in Shanxi, prompting CCP counteractions in campaigns like Shangdang starting that month. Chiang issued orders restraining large-scale operations to facilitate talks, but implementation faltered due to decentralized command and strategic imperatives, with the CCP viewing delays as opportunities to fortify liberated areas. U.S. pressure for a truce grew, yet Ambassador Hurley's mediation yielded no binding agreement by month's end, highlighting the negotiations' fragility rooted in incompatible visions: Nationalists seeking CCP subordination to a centralized army, versus CCP demands for regional autonomy and power-sharing.^[73]^[74] The September phase thus represented a critical interlude of apparent reconciliation efforts, but empirical patterns of troop movements and localized clashes—totaling thousands of engagements post-surrender—revealed both parties' prioritization of military positioning over genuine de-escalation, presaging the Double Tenth Agreement's short-lived truce on October 10.^[69]

Scientific and Technological Milestones

In late September 1945, the United States completed the initial transport of prominent German rocket scientists to American soil as part of postwar efforts to secure advanced technological knowledge. Wernher von Braun, chief developer of the V-2 ballistic missile that had targeted Allied cities during the war, arrived with key team members around September 20 at Fort Strong in Boston Harbor, marking the practical onset of their integration into U.S. programs.^[75] ^[76] This relocation, under the auspices of Operation Paperclip (initially Operation Overcast), involved approximately 1,600 engineers, physicists, and technicians whose expertise in aerodynamics, propulsion, and guidance systems was deemed essential to counter potential Soviet advantages.^[77] The scientists' arrival facilitated immediate access to captured V-2 components and documentation shipped to sites like Fort Bliss, Texas, enabling reverse-engineering and testing that accelerated U.S. missile development. Von Braun's group, numbering about 120 by early 1946, contributed directly to projects that evolved into intercontinental ballistic missiles and, later, the Apollo program's Saturn V launch vehicle.^[76] Despite ethical concerns over the participants' Nazi affiliations—von Braun held SS membership and oversaw forced labor at production sites—the program prioritized strategic imperatives, yielding foundational progress in high-speed rocketry absent from prior U.S. efforts.^[77] This transfer exemplified the rapid capitalization on Axis innovations, bridging wartime weaponry to peacetime supremacy in aerospace engineering. The formal surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, triggered accelerated demobilization of Allied forces, initiating widespread social transitions from wartime mobilization to peacetime readjustment. In the United States, the Army discharged an average of 1.2 million soldiers monthly between September and December, as the points system—factoring service length, combat experience, and family status—prioritized releases, enabling millions to reintegrate into civilian economies and communities.^[29] This influx strained housing and job markets temporarily, with returning veterans displacing wartime workers, including women and minorities, while fostering family reunions that drove a sharp rise in marriages and conceptions, contributing to the initial wave of the post-war baby boom whose effects manifested in elevated birth rates from late 1945 onward.^[78] Culturally, American popular music captured sentiments of longing and resolution, exemplified by Perry Como's "Till the End of Time"—a adaptation of Chopin's Polonaise Op. 53—topping Billboard charts for much of September, evoking themes of enduring love amid homecomings.^[79] Film releases reflected a pivot toward domestic narratives, as seen in "Our Vines Have Tender Grapes" (September 6), a MGM drama portraying Midwestern family life and resilience, which resonated with audiences anticipating suburban normalcy over wartime heroism.^[80] These works underscored a broader cultural emphasis on stability and sentimentality, contrasting the prior era's propaganda-driven output. In occupied Japan, Supreme Commander Douglas MacArthur assumed control in September, launching social reforms under the Supreme Command of Allied Powers (SCAP) to eradicate militarism, including early steps toward gender equality, land redistribution, and education overhaul, which dismantled traditional hierarchies and promoted democratic norms despite resistance from conservative elements.^[3] Globally, the repatriation of displaced persons and prisoners—numbering millions in Europe and Asia—strained social fabrics, with Allied agencies like UNRRA facilitating movements that reshaped demographics and community structures in war-torn regions.^[81] These shifts, rooted in empirical necessities of reconstruction rather than ideological impositions, laid causal foundations for mid-century prosperity but also sowed tensions over resource allocation and cultural identity.

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MacArthur, Douglas - In Japan, August 1945 - June 1950
NH 84346 General of the Army Douglas MacArthur (center) Talks with Allied and Japanese newsmen after his arrival at Atsugi airfield, Japan, on 30 August 1945. ...
[16]
V-J Day: The Surrender of Japan | The National WWII Museum
Japan's ceasefire, Allied landings, POW rescues, and the formal surrender aboard USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, marked the end of World ...
[17]
Korean War and Japan's Recovery - Office of the Historian
During World War II the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to temporarily divide Korea at the 38th parallel in order to oversee the removal of Japanese ...
[18]
American troops arrive in Korea to partition the country - History.com
On August 9, Soviet forces invaded northern Korea. A few days later, Japan surrendered. Keeping to their part of the bargain, U.S. forces entered southern Korea ...
[19]
[PDF] SOVIET AIMS IN KOREA AND THE ORIGINS OF THE KOREAN ...
Soviet officials investigated the exploitation of monazite deposits in North Korea from the beginning of the occupation period in 1945, and samples of the ...
[20]
The Soviet invasion of Manchuria | Imperial War Museums
On the 6 August 1945, the atomic bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima. Three days later the city of Nagasaki was destroyed by a second nuclear bomb.
[21]
80 Years Ago, the Soviets Occupied Japan's Northern Territories
Apr 28, 2025 · The Kuril Islands dispute has kept Japan and Russia from ever formally ending the hostilities between them during World War II. How Putin ...
[22]
The islands in the way of WW2 peace deal between Russia and Japan
Dec 15, 2016 · ... War Two. After Japan's WW2 surrender but before any deal was signed, the Soviet Union invaded the Southern Kuril islands. Known as the ...Missing: invasion | Show results with:invasion
[23]
Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, The Far East: China ...
Withdrawal of Soviet troops from Manchuria, originally scheduled for three months after the defeat of Japan and then for December 3, 1945, was twice delayed at ...<|separator|>
[24]
Invasion of Manchuria | Harry S. Truman
On August 8th, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria and Sakhalin Island. The next day, another American bomber was en route to Japan ...
[25]
Cold Conflict | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
Soviet efforts to claim territory in Europe following Germany's defeat fed into the belief that the USSR intended to expand communism across Europe. By 1947, ...
[26]
The Soviet Role in World War II: Realities and Myths | Davis Center
May 18, 2020 · ... 1945 and the end of the fighting in Asia in September 1945. Although precise numbers of those killed in the six years of warfare from 1939 to ...<|separator|>
[27]
Soviets Take Control of Eastern Europe | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe occurred between 1943 and 1948, following a series of strategic actions rooted in the Soviet leadership's desire to ...<|separator|>
[28]
'Home Alive By '45': Operation Magic Carpet | New Orleans
Oct 2, 2020 · The War Department initially projected that it would demobilize 2 million soldiers in the 12 months following the victory in Europe: 50 percent ...
[29]
The Points Were All That Mattered: The US Army's Demobilization ...
Aug 27, 2020 · Between September and December 1945, the Army discharged an average of 1.2 million soldiers per month.
[30]
Homeward Bound – World War II Ends in the Pacific
Jun 26, 2024 · Some 2.25 million Japanese soldiers and civilians had to be demobilized in the home islands. Millions of chemical munitions had to be disposed.
[31]
DEMOBILISATION (Hansard, 22 October 1945) - API Parliament UK
The total number of men and women returned from the Forces between 18th June and 30th September was 431,309, of whom 361,279 were demobilised in Classes, A and ...
[32]
On This Day: September 1945 | National Army Museum
On 2 September 1945, the Second World War officially ended with the Japanese government's formal surrender aboard the USS 'Missouri' in Tokyo Bay.Missing: II | Show results with:II
[33]
The challenge of getting home after WW2 - The Royal British Legion
Around 4.2 million British servicemen and women were demobilied between June 1945 and December 1946. But many would also see further service in new conflicts in ...
[34]
The Demobilization of the Red Army in Postwar Leningrad, 1945-50
25 September 1945 demobilization was extended to the next ten birth cohorts and soldiers who had completed higher, technical or agricultural education,.
[35]
The Demobilization of the Red Army in Postwar Leningrad, 1945—50
Jan 26, 2010 · Soviet propaganda created an official version of demobilization, which presented veterans as exemplary citizens who returned to civilian life ...Missing: troop | Show results with:troop
[36]
Coming Home | Portal Militärgeschichte
May 18, 2015 · In the summer of 1945 millions of demobilized Red Army soldiers began returning home after four long years of industrialized warfare.
[37]
Why World War II Soldiers Mutinied After V-J Day - History.com
Oct 30, 2018 · Soldiers would be demobilized based on a point system that counted length of service, overseas deployment, combat duty and parenthood.
[38]
Examination of Allied logistical challenges at end of World War II
Three key challenges undermined the Allies demobilization efforts after World War II. First, the Allies struggled with planning variables that harmed their ...
[39]
Tokyo War Crimes Trial | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
... arrests of Japanese suspects, including General Hideki Tojo. Twenty-eight ... Before the initial arrests in September 1945, one week after the official ...
[40]
Roster of 40 Ordered Arrested As War Criminals by MacArthur
The list of persons ordered arrested today in Gen. Douglas MacArthur's round-up of war criminals. View Full Article in Timesmachine
[41]
General and former Prime Minister Hideki Tojo receives blood from ...
After Japan's unconditional surrender, Gen. Douglas MacArthur issued orders for the arrest of the first forty alleged war criminals, including Prime Minister ...
[42]
Hideki Tojo admits war guilt after suicide attempt - UPI Archives
Hideki Tojo is treated after his suicide attempt during his arrest on September 11, 1945 ... TOKYO, Sept. 11 (UP) "I wanted to die by the sword, but the pistol ...
[43]
The Nuremberg Trial and the Tokyo War Crimes Trials (1945–1948)
Nazi leader Adolf Hitler was not indicted because he had committed suicide in April 1945, in the final days before Germany's surrender. Seven Nazi ...
[44]
Bergen-Belsen Trial | Holocaust Encyclopedia
Third, that all defendants were individually responsible, but their crimes took place within a criminal system that could be held against each person. Moreover, ...
[45]
The Nuremberg Trials | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans
The indictment of 24 Nazi government officials and organizations was filed on October 18, 1945 by the four chief prosecutors of the ...
[46]
The Nuremberg Trials: A Chronology - UMKC School of Law
September 5, 1945. Robert Jackson meets ... Robert Jackson appoints Telford Taylor to succeed him as chief prosecutor in the subsequent Nuremberg trials.
[47]
Report on the Nuremberg Trials - Teaching American History
In preparation for the trial over 100,000 captured German documents were screened or examined and about 10,000 were selected for intensive examination as ...
[48]
The Women Prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials | New Orleans
Sep 26, 2025 · By October 1945, Fite and Jackson's team relocated to Nuremberg to prepare for the IMT, which began on November 20.
[49]
The War Crimes Trials at Nuremberg | Harry S. Truman
The War Crimes Trials at Nuremberg. This collection includes documents covering the years 1943 through 1952. Supporting materials include photographs, oral ...
[50]
International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg | Holocaust Encyclopedia
Nov 17, 2020 · It formally opened in Nuremberg, Germany, on November 20, 1945, just six and a half months after Germany surrendered.
[51]
Historical Documents - Office of the Historian
[Washington, September 12, 1945.] The Problem. 1. To determine the policy of the United States in regard to the apprehension and punishment of war criminals in ...
[52]
The Tokyo War Crimes Trials | American Experience - PBS
Despite the lack of consensus, MacArthur lost no time, ordering the arrest of thirty-nine suspects -- most of them members of General Tojo's war cabinet -- on ...
[53]
III. Apprehension and punishment of Japanese war criminals
Records of the proceedings and exhibits of the International Military Tribunal held at Tokyo, May 3, 1946–November 12, 1948, comprise nearly 50,000 ...<|separator|>
[54]
Belsen On Trial, 1945 | Imperial War Museums
Prosecution and defence were conducted by British Army officers, those in the dock were charged with having committed crimes of war and crimes against citizens ...
[55]
[PDF] IGOR GOUZENKO, UNMASKED SPIES - CIA
A close associate said he had been blind for five years. in Ottawa on Sept. 5, 1945, and provided. He defected from the Soviet Embassy the Canadian police ...
[56]
[PDF] THE DOCUMENTS THAT WEREN'T THERE - CIA
Not since September 5, 1945, when Igor Gouzenko, a. 26-year-old code clerk ... After Gouzenko's defection in 1945, he lived under the protection of the ...
[57]
[PDF] The Gouzenko Affair and the Cold War Soviet Spies in Canada
Gouzenko tried to give the documents to the Ottawa Journal and to the Minister of Justice, Louis St. Laurent, but both turned him away. Frustrated and fearful, ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[58]
Gouzenko affair - Louis S. St. Laurent National Historic Site
Apr 18, 2024 · This is where he discovered the existence in Canada of a number of spy rings run by Colonel Zabotin, a Soviet military attaché at the embassy.
[59]
1945-46 Gouzenko Affair - History of Rights
This site has an extensive section on the history of the Gouzenko Affair. In addition, it includes further resources on Gouzenko's defection.Missing: revelations | Show results with:revelations
[60]
[PDF] Library and Archives of Canada Collections As Resources for ... - ERIC
Igor Gouzenko was a Russian cipher clerk working in the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa in. September 1945 when he and his wife decided to defect. They brought with ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[61]
[PDF] The Venona S tory - National Security Agency
While the 1945 defection in Ottawa of GRU code clerk Igor Gouzenko provided message texts that revealed a great deal of espionage, Gouzenko did not produce any.
[62]
Soviet Intent at the Dawn of the Cold War: Igor Gouzenko's ...
Taken together, Gouzenko's material showed a Soviet Union that was preparing for war against the United States and Great Britain even before World war II ended.Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
[63]
(PDF) Soviet Intent at the Dawn of the Cold War: Igor Gouzenko's ...
When Igor Gouzenko defected in September 1945, be brought with him a package of documents, supplemented by what he carried in his memory, that gave a clear ...
[64]
London, September 21, 1945, 4 pm - Office of the Historian
Knowing the opinion of at least three of the powers was it possible for the Council of Foreign Ministers to demonstrate its statesmanship to the world and find ...Missing: tensions | Show results with:tensions
[65]
James F. Byrnes Reports on the Big Three Foreign Ministers ...
The conference discussed WWII peace treaties, conflicts with Bulgaria/Romania, rebuilding Japan, policies with China, atomic energy, and Iran.<|separator|>
[66]
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/002200947801300109
[67]
Editorial Comment: Deadlock at London (October 1945)
When Bevin raised the question of the Dardanelles, Molotov raised the question of control of the Suez Canal. When Byrnes interjected to support Bevin, Molotov ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[68]
Revelations from the Russian Archives > The Soviet Union and the ...
Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union officially ended in September 1945. Joseph Stalin never revealed to his own people the full contributions of Lend-Lease to ...
[69]
The Chinese Revolution of 1949 - Office of the Historian
In 1945, the leaders of the Nationalist and Communist parties, Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong, met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war ...Missing: meetings September
[70]
In Heat of August 1945, Mao and Chiang Met for the Last Time
Nov 4, 2015 · It was to be the last meeting between leaders of the Communists and the Nationalists, the rival factions then contending for control of China.<|separator|>
[71]
The last meeting of Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek
Aug 25, 2021 · Mao Zedong and Chiang Kai-shek held nine private meetings in Chongqing, brokered by an American diplomat, following the conclusion of the Second World War.Missing: September | Show results with:September
[72]
Negotiations early proof of CPC's diplomatic skills - Chinadaily.com.cn
Feb 22, 2021 · The Gui Garden in Chongqing, which hosted the Chongqing Negotiations between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China in 1945. TAN ...
[73]
ON THE CHUNGKING NEGOTIATIONS
In the summary, Chiang Kai-shek had to feign agreement with the "basic policy of peace and national reconstruction" put forward by the Communist Party of China ...
[74]
(1) The Chongqing Negotiations and the Double Tenth Agreement
The Nationalist Government agreed to a peaceful state-building of China and the proposal for the formation of a political consultative conference.
[75]
Wernher von Braun: History's most controversial figure? - Al Jazeera
May 3, 2013 · On Thursday, September 20, 1945, Wernher von Braun arrived at Fort Strong. The small military site on the northern tip of Boston Harbour's ...
[76]
Wernher von Braun - NASA Earth Observatory
May 2, 2001 · He arrived in the U.S. in September 1945 under contract to the U.S. Army. During the following five years, he directed high-altitude firings of ...
[77]
Operation Paperclip | Definition, History, & World War II | Britannica
Sep 6, 2025 · Project Paperclip, U.S. government program that sponsored the post-World War II immigration of German and Austrian scientists and ...
[78]
Postwar American, 1945-1990
The period marked the rise of the middle class. · Returning soldiers set off the baby boom. · Increased higher education expanded training for the corporate ...
[79]
Overview of 1945 on the Billboard Pop Charts - Chartcrush
Dive into the 1945 Pop music scene with the chart-toppers and iconic artists that captivated America ... Perry Como – Till the End of Time (September, 10 wks) ...Missing: music | Show results with:music
[80]
Release Schedule 1945 - The Numbers
Domestic Release Schedule for 1945 ; September 6 · Our Vines Have Tender Grapes (Limited) ; October 1945 ; October 5 · The Dolly Sisters (Limited) ...Missing: films | Show results with:films
[81]
How the legacy of the Second World War shaped the modern world
Millions of people, including refugees, displaced civilians, combat personnel and prisoners of war, needed to be fed, cared for and housed or returned home.