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Perseids

The Perseids is an annual meteor shower produced by Earth passing through the debris trail of comet 109P/Swift-Tuttle, occurring from mid-July to late August and peaking around August 12–13 with rates of 50 to 100 meteors per hour under ideal dark-sky conditions.^[3] These swift meteors, entering Earth's atmosphere at approximately 59 kilometers per second (37 miles per second), often appear bright and leave persistent trains, making the shower one of the most reliable and spectacular of the year, especially during warm summer nights in the Northern Hemisphere.^[4] The shower's radiant—the apparent point of origin in the sky—lies in the constellation Perseus, from which the Perseids derive their name, and it becomes visible after midnight as Perseus rises in the northeast.^[5] Comet Swift-Tuttle, with a nucleus about 26 kilometers (16 miles) in diameter, orbits the Sun every 133 years, shedding dust and particles during its passages that form the stream Earth encounters annually.^[6]^[7] Discovered independently by Lewis Swift and Horace Tuttle in 1862, the comet was linked to the Perseids in 1865 by astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli, confirming its role as the parent body.^[6] Historical records of the Perseids date back over 2,000 years, with the earliest documented observations in Chinese astronomical annals from A.D. 36, describing numerous "stars falling like rain."^[8] The shower has been noted for occasional outbursts, such as in 1993 when rates exceeded 500 meteors per hour due to a filament of denser debris, and it even influenced space operations by delaying a NASA Space Shuttle launch that year to avoid potential meteoroid risks.^[9]^[10] Modern studies, including those by NASA and the European Space Agency, continue to monitor the stream's evolution, revealing its structure through spacecraft data and ground-based cameras, which help predict activity and study cometary composition.^[11]^[12]

Fundamentals

Definition and Overview

The Perseids are an annual meteor shower produced when Earth intersects a stream of comet debris, causing tiny particles to enter the atmosphere at high speeds and incinerate, creating visible streaks of light called meteors.^[13] These meteors are not actual stars falling but rather the glowing trails from meteoroids—space rocks smaller than asteroids—vaporizing due to atmospheric friction at altitudes of about 80 to 120 kilometers.^[14] This shower recurs predictably each year during mid-August, with peak activity typically occurring around August 12–13, and it is primarily observable from the Northern Hemisphere where the constellation from which the meteors appear to radiate is prominently positioned in the night sky.^[15] The radiant point lies in the constellation Perseus.^[15] In contrast to sporadic meteors—random "shooting stars" that occur unpredictably throughout the year—the Perseids form a concentrated, reliable display from a specific debris trail, often featuring swift, bright meteors and occasional fireballs, with intensities reaching a zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) of up to 100 under dark, moonless skies.^[16]^[17]^[18] This makes the Perseids one of the most reliable and spectacular annual celestial events, drawing observers worldwide for its consistent high activity.^[15]

Radiant and Visibility

The radiant of the Perseids meteor shower is positioned in the constellation Perseus, near the bright star Mirfak (Alpha Persei), at equatorial coordinates of right ascension 48° and declination +58°. This location serves as the apparent origin point for the shower's meteors during its annual mid-August activity.^[19] Meteors from the Perseids appear to streak outward in all directions from this radiant due to an optical illusion caused by perspective; in reality, the meteoroids travel on nearly parallel paths through space, but their trajectories converge visually from Earth's viewpoint, much like parallel railroad tracks seeming to meet at a distant point. This effect allows observers to identify shower meteors by tracing their paths back to the radiant area.^[20] Visibility of the Perseids is optimal in the Northern Hemisphere, where the radiant's high northern declination enables it to rise to significant elevations above the horizon, maximizing the observable sky area. In contrast, observers in the Southern Hemisphere experience limited visibility because the radiant remains low in the northern sky, reducing the number of detectable meteors. Latitude plays a key role in this pattern, with higher northern latitudes offering better elevation and thus higher detection rates. Additionally, moonlight from a bright phase can wash out fainter meteors, while light pollution from urban areas further diminishes contrast and overall counts, emphasizing the need for dark-sky sites to achieve peak observation rates.^[16]^[21]^[22]^[23]

Scientific Properties

Meteor Characteristics

Perseid meteors enter Earth's atmosphere at a typical velocity of 59 km/s, which contributes to their swift and often persistent trails.^[15] These meteors exhibit a wide range of brightness, from faint streaks barely visible to the naked eye to brilliant fireballs that can rival the full moon in intensity, with many observable Perseids reaching magnitudes of +2 or brighter under dark skies.^[15]^[24] The colors of Perseid meteors are predominantly white or yellow, resulting from the ionization of sodium in the meteoroid material, though occasional green hues arise from magnesium ionization, and rarer red tones can appear due to atmospheric interactions.^[25] Perseid meteoroids are generally small particles, ranging from 1 to 10 mm in diameter, composed primarily of silicates and organic compounds derived from cometary dust.^[26]^[27] To quantify shower intensity, astronomers use the Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR), a standardized metric representing the number of meteors a single observer would see per hour under ideal conditions: a clear, moonless sky with the radiant directly overhead and a limiting magnitude of +6.5.^[28]^[29]

Activity Period and Peak

The Perseids meteor shower is active from July 17 to August 24 each year, during which meteors can be detected throughout the period, though rates are low at the beginning and end.^[16]^[30] The shower reaches its peak on August 12–13, when Earth passes through the densest region of the meteoroid stream debris, resulting in the highest observed rates of up to 100 zenithal hourly rates under ideal conditions.^[15]^[16] The intensity of the Perseids follows a characteristic profile, with a gradual increase in meteor rates starting from early July as Earth approaches the stream's core, building to a sharp maximum around the peak dates before a relatively rapid decline through late August.^[30]^[31] This asymmetric pattern arises from the uneven distribution of meteoroids within the stream, where denser concentrations near the peak lead to heightened activity over a few nights.^[16] Annual variations in the timing and strength of the Perseid peak, including shifts of 1–2 days, are primarily influenced by gravitational perturbations from planets such as Jupiter, which subtly alter the meteoroid orbits over time.^[32] Additionally, the stream's filament structure—narrow, ribbon-like concentrations of dust trails—contributes to fluctuations in intensity, occasionally producing secondary peaks or enhanced activity in certain years as Earth encounters these substructures.^[33]^[34]

Origins and Formation

Parent Body

The parent body of the Perseid meteor shower is the Halley-type periodic comet 109P/Swift-Tuttle.^[6] This comet was independently discovered in July 1862: first by American astronomer Lewis A. Swift on July 16 using an 11.4-cm refractor telescope from Marathon, New York, and then by Horace Parnell Tuttle on July 19 from the Harvard College Observatory in Massachusetts.^[6]^[35] At the time of discovery, it appeared as a faint, diffuse object in the constellation Camelopardalis, initially classified as a nebula before being recognized as cometary.^[35] 109P/Swift-Tuttle orbits the Sun in a moderately inclined, elliptical path with a period of 133 years and a perihelion distance of 0.96 AU, placing it in a 1:11 resonance with Jupiter.^[6] It last reached perihelion on December 12, 1992, when it became observable to the naked eye at about 5th magnitude under dark skies, and its next apparition is expected in 2126.^[6]^[36]^[37] The comet's nucleus measures approximately 26 km in diameter, making it one of the largest known cometary nuclei and roughly 2.5 times wider than the asteroid that caused the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.^[6]^[38] As 109P/Swift-Tuttle nears perihelion, solar heating vaporizes water ice and other volatiles on its nucleus surface through sublimation, expelling entrained dust particles and small rocky fragments into space at speeds of several meters per second relative to the nucleus.^[6] This process forms the comet's temporary coma and tails while gradually building a persistent stream of debris along its orbital path, the source material for the annual Perseids.^[6]

Meteoroid Stream Mechanics

The Perseid meteoroid stream originates from the repeated ejection of dust and particulate debris from the nucleus of comet 109P/Swift-Tuttle during its perihelion passages, a process driven by solar heating that sublimates volatile ices and expels embedded grains. These ejections primarily occur near the comet's closest solar approach every 133 years, with particles released at low velocities relative to the nucleus, on the order of 1-10 m/s, forming an initial narrow dust trail trailing the comet along its orbit. Over multiple orbital revolutions spanning centuries, differential ejection dynamics and gravitational influences create a broader leading dust swarm ahead of the comet, resulting in a complex, elongated stream that encircles the Sun and intersects Earth's path annually.^[6] Earth's orbit intersects the Perseid stream due to the alignment of the stream's nodal points with Earth's orbital plane, facilitated by the stream's high inclination of approximately 113.5° relative to the ecliptic.^[39] This geometric configuration ensures a predictable annual encounter as Earth crosses the stream's descending node in mid-August, where the relative velocity between Earth and the meteoroids reaches about 59 km/s, leading to atmospheric entry and visible meteors. While the primary intersection is geometric, mean-motion resonances with Jupiter (such as 1:11) further shape the stream by concentrating meteoroids into stable orbital configurations, enhancing the reliability of these yearly passages. The stream possesses a broad filamentary structure, characterized by a diffuse background component spanning widths of roughly 0.1-0.3 AU, interspersed with narrower, higher-density filaments or branches typically 0.01-0.05 AU across. These filaments arise from clustered ejections during specific perihelion returns and are preserved by resonant trapping, creating localized denser nodes that can trigger outburst events when Earth passes directly through them. For instance, the prominent 1993 outburst, which increased meteor rates by a factor of 3-5 over normal levels, resulted from Earth's encounter with a dense filament derived from material ejected during the comet's 1862 perihelion passage, subsequently perturbed into alignment by Jupiter's gravity.^[40] Over time, the Perseid stream undergoes gradual dispersion primarily due to non-gravitational forces like Poynting-Robertson drag and gravitational perturbations from planets, especially Jupiter, which cause meteoroids to diverge in semi-major axis and inclination by up to 0.01-0.05 AU per century for larger particles. This spreading broadens the stream and reduces overall density in older components, with simulations indicating that material from ejections older than 2000 years contributes minimally to current activity. Nonetheless, the stream remains dynamically active and is replenished by fresh debris from each comet perihelion, such as the 1992 return, ensuring sustained annual encounters with Earth.^[41]

Observation Practices

Optimal Conditions

To achieve optimal visibility during the Perseid meteor shower, observers must prioritize dark skies free from artificial and natural light sources. New moon phases provide the darkest conditions, allowing even faint meteors to be discerned, while full or gibbous moons can drastically reduce sightings by illuminating the sky and overwhelming dim trails. For instance, in 2022, a nearly full moon near the peak date significantly hampered observations across much of the Northern Hemisphere. Similarly, in 2025, a waning gibbous moon reduced visibility during the peak on August 12-13.^[42]^[43] Selecting the right location further enhances the experience by minimizing light pollution and optimizing the viewing geometry. Remote dark-sky sites, such as national parks or rural areas certified by organizations like the International Dark-Sky Association, are essential, as urban glow can obscure many visible meteors. Northern latitudes, particularly above 40°N, are preferable because the radiant in the constellation Perseus culminates higher in the sky—reaching up to 60° elevation before dawn—enabling longer observation windows and fewer low-altitude meteors lost to atmospheric extinction.^[44]^[45] Favorable weather plays a critical role in unobstructed viewing, with clear, dry nights offering the best prospects. Low humidity and minimal haze are vital to maintain high contrast between meteors and the background sky, while any cloud cover—even partial—can eliminate opportunities during the brief peak period around August 12-13. Forecasts from meteorological services should be consulted to target nights with stable high-pressure systems ensuring transparency.^[46]^[47]^[48] Annual variations in activity necessitate consulting predictive models for planning. The International Meteor Organization (IMO) analyzes orbital data and historical observations to forecast the Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR), a standardized metric representing the expected number of meteors per hour under ideal conditions; for the Perseids, this typically ranges from 80 to 150, with peaks influenced by filamentary streams in the meteoroid complex. These IMO predictions, updated yearly, account for factors like Earth's trajectory through the stream, guiding expectations for enhanced or subdued displays.^[43]^[49]

Viewing Techniques

To effectively observe the Perseids, begin with proper preparation to maximize visibility. Allow 20-30 minutes for your eyes to undergo dark adaptation, during which the pupils dilate and retinal sensitivity increases, enabling detection of fainter meteors.^[50] For comfort and a broad field of view, lie down on a blanket or reclining chair, positioning yourself to scan large portions of the sky without neck strain.^[51] This setup is particularly useful since the Perseids' radiant lies in the constellation Perseus, allowing meteors to appear across a wide area once it rises higher.^[15] Optimal timing enhances the chances of spotting more Perseids. Focus observations after midnight, when the radiant ascends higher in the northern sky, increasing the number of visible meteors as Earth faces more of the stream.^[52] Limit sessions to 1-2 hours to prevent eye fatigue and maintain alertness, taking short breaks if needed to refresh your night vision.^[52] No specialized equipment is required for basic viewing, as the naked eye is sufficient to detect the brighter Perseid meteors streaking across the sky.^[24] Binoculars can aid in spotting fainter specimens or identifying constellations for orientation, though they narrow the field of view and are best used sparingly.^[53] For enthusiasts interested in documentation, meteor cameras or all-sky setups equipped with wide-angle lenses and time-lapse capabilities allow recording of trails for later analysis.^[54] Prioritize safety and courteous practices during observations. Avoid using flashlights, car headlights, or any bright lights, as they can ruin dark adaptation for yourself and nearby observers; use red-filtered lights if illumination is necessary.^[52] If you witness a fireball—a exceptionally bright Perseid reaching magnitude -3 or greater—report details such as time, direction, duration, and color to networks like the American Meteor Society to contribute to scientific data collection.^[55]

Historical and Cultural Context

Early Records

The earliest documented observations of the Perseids meteor shower appear in ancient Chinese astronomical records from the Han Dynasty. In 36 AD, court astronomers noted an event described as "stars falling like rain" in the night sky during the summer months, marking one of the first specific references to what is now recognized as the Perseid shower.^[56] These records, preserved in historical texts such as the Hou Hanshu, highlight the systematic monitoring of celestial phenomena by Chinese scholars, though the exact timing and frequency were not precisely quantified at the time.^[57] Medieval Arabic astronomers also chronicled annual meteor activity in August, consistent with the Perseids, as compiled in various chronicles from the 10th century onward. A catalogue of these observations identifies multiple instances of intense meteor displays during this period, often noted for their regularity and association with the constellation Perseus, where the shower's radiant is located.^[58] Scholars like those in the Islamic Golden Age contributed to early understandings of recurring celestial events, recording them amid broader astronomical studies, though interpretations frequently blended scientific notation with astrological significance.^[59] Pre-telescopic observations of the Perseids were hampered by the absence of accurate timekeeping and instrumentation, leading to imprecise dating and sporadic documentation. Many accounts from these eras tied the showers to religious omens or divine portents rather than natural phenomena, complicating efforts to discern patterns until systematic European astronomy emerged in the 19th century.^[60] In 1835, Belgian astronomer Adolphe Quetelet systematically analyzed reports and confirmed the Perseids as an annual meteor shower, emphasizing its predictable peak in mid-August and origin near the constellation Perseus.^[61] This marked a pivotal shift toward scientific study of meteor streams. By the 1860s, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli established the connection between the Perseids and Comet Swift-Tuttle, observed during its 1862 apparition, providing the first mechanistic explanation for the shower's recurrence.^[6]

Mythological and Cultural Associations

In Greek mythology, the Perseids meteor shower derives its name from the constellation Perseus, representing the hero Perseus, son of Zeus and the mortal Danaë. According to legend, the shower commemorates the moment when Zeus visited Danaë in the form of a golden rain to conceive Perseus, symbolizing divine intervention and the hero's extraordinary birth. This association links the celestial display to themes of heroism and godly favor in ancient Greek lore.^[31]^[19] The timing of the Perseids' peak in mid-August aligns with Japan's Tanabata festival, also known as the Star Festival, which celebrates the annual reunion of the celestial lovers Orihime (represented by Vega) and Hikoboshi (Altair) across the Milky Way, envisioned in folklore as a bridge of magpies or stars facilitating their meeting. In some modern observances of Tanabata, particularly in regions where the festival falls in early August per the Gregorian calendar, the Perseid meteors enhance the romantic and astronomical atmosphere, viewed as sparkling elements of the lovers' nocturnal encounter. This integration reflects broader Japanese traditions tying seasonal sky events to poetic tales of longing and unity.^[62]^[63] Among some Native American tribes, meteors in general, including those during annual showers like the Perseids, have been interpreted in folklore as spirit messengers or ancestors traveling between the earthly realm and the heavens, conveying guidance or omens to the living. These interpretations vary by cultural group but often emphasize the meteors' transient streaks as signs of spiritual communication, embedding them in oral traditions about the cosmos and human destiny.^[64] In medieval Europe, the Perseids acquired a Christian association as the "tears of St. Lawrence," referring to the martyrdom of the deacon Saint Lawrence on August 10, 258 AD, when he was reportedly roasted on a gridiron. The meteor shower's intensity around this date led to the poetic notion of the falling stars as the saint's burning tears or fiery remnants of his suffering, a tradition documented in ecclesiastical writings and popular piety that blended astronomy with religious commemoration. This linkage persisted in European folklore, transforming the natural phenomenon into a symbol of pious endurance and divine sympathy.^[65]^[66]

Modern Cultural References

The Perseid meteor shower has inspired numerous literary works in the 20th and 21st centuries, often symbolizing ephemerality, wonder, and the sublime beauty of the cosmos. In Annie Dillard's Pulitzer Prize-winning "Pilgrim at Tinker Creek" (1974), the author reflects on the Perseids as a poignant reminder of missed opportunities and cosmic transience, writing, "In the great meteor shower of August, the Perseid, I wail all day for the shooting stars I miss. They're out there showering down, committing hara-kiri in a flame of fatal attraction."^[67] This passage captures the shower's allure as a metaphor for human longing amid nature's fleeting spectacles. Similarly, contemporary fiction like Steven Konkoly's "The Perseid Collapse" series (starting 2013) incorporates the meteor shower into a post-apocalyptic narrative, where the event triggers societal chaos, blending astronomical realism with thriller elements to highlight humanity's vulnerability to celestial phenomena.^[68] In film and television, the Perseids feature prominently in both documentary and fictional contexts, fostering public fascination with astronomy. The BBC's long-running series "The Sky at Night" has dedicated multiple episodes to the shower, such as coverage of the 2017 peak that explained its origins and viewing tips, presented by experts like Professor Lucie Green to educate global audiences on meteor dynamics. In science fiction, the Canadian-American series "Andromeda" (2000–2005) portrays "Perseids" as an intelligent alien species, with episodes like "Harper 2.0" (Season 1, Episode 14) involving a dying Perseid transferring knowledge to a human engineer, using the name to evoke the shower's mythical and scientific resonance in a space opera setting.^[69] Public engagement with the Perseids has grown through organized events and media, particularly following the 1992 close approach of parent comet Swift-Tuttle, which heightened awareness and led to widespread coverage predicting enhanced meteor activity.^[70] Astronomy clubs worldwide, such as the Astronomical Society of the Pacific and local groups like the Davis Astronomy Club, host annual Perseid viewing parties with telescope setups and educational talks, drawing thousands to dark-sky sites for communal stargazing.^[71] In recent decades, social media has amplified this interest, with hashtags like #Perseids trending annually and platforms hosting photography contests—such as the Smithsonian Magazine Photo Contest, which features user-submitted Perseid images to showcase artistic interpretations of the event.^[72] Space agencies further enhance contemporary outreach, with NASA streaming live Perseid coverage and providing viewing guides via social media, as seen in their annual broadcasts, including 2024 and 2025 from dark-sky locations that engaged millions in real-time observation and science education.^[73]^[22]

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Telescopic meteor observing - Society for Popular Astronomy
The major item of equipment needed is a small telescope or a pair of binoculars (7x50s or 10x50s are ideal) which should be firmly mounted on a tripod or ...
[52]
Observing Meteor Showers | SpringerLink
There are many ways to observe meteor showers, ranging from simple naked-eye counts to videotaping the activity through intensified cameras.Missing: safety | Show results with:safety
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Report a Fireball - American Meteor Society
Report bright, fast sightings (fireballs) using an interactive form, but not if it lasts over 30 seconds, is recurring, or is not a bright shooting star. Do ...Fireball reports · Try the simplified version · Fireball or Contrail? · Statistics
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The Legend and Science Behind the Epic Meteor Shower - Space
Aug 11, 2016 · But the earliest record of Perseid meteor activity goes back more than two centuries before the martyrdom of St. Lawrence: Chinese records from ...
[55]
Before They Were Perseids, We Had Weird Explanations For Meteor ...
Jul 21, 2023 · ... Chinese record seeming to note the Perseids in 36 AD. The comet C/1882 R1 as seen from the ...
[56]
A Catalogue of Meteor Showers in Mediaeval Arab Chronicles
The present Arabic term to denote meteor showers (shuhub) was oniy rarely used in medieval times. 4 REMARKS ON CALENDAR CONVERSION AND ThE TIME OF NIGHT In the ...
[57]
Some Comments on the Identification of Medieval Meteor Showers ...
From No. 3 MEDIEVAL ARAB METEOR SHOWERS 333 the rate which is given by Rada and Stephenson it can be seen that this refers to a normal Perseid maximum (the ...
[58]
Analysis of meteoritic activity in the Vth–XVth centuries using an ...
Nov 15, 2018 · An exhaustive review of the written sources from Medieval Europe (V-XV centuries) has been made searching for new records of meteors and meteor showers.
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Quetelet and the Discovery of the First Meteor Showers - NASA ADS
Quetelet '3 contribution Starting from November 1835, Quetelet tried to observe the Leonids each year whenever possible. In 1836, Quetelet was already very ...
[60]
The Next Full Moon is a Supermoon; the Sturgeon Moon
Aug 1, 2023 · Under ideal conditions the Perseids (007 PER) can produce about 100 visible meteors ... The Japanese Tanabata or Star Festival is related, but is ...Missing: folklore | Show results with:folklore
[61]
Want To Start Your Tanabata Festival Right? Here's How To Watch ...
Jun 30, 2022 · According to folklore, Tanabata is the celebration of the day when the two star-crossed lovers, Orihime and Hikoboshi, can reunite, per MCAS ...
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[PDF] Every Falling Star
In some Native American traditions, meteors are considered spirits or ancestors communicating from the heavens. Ancient Greeks and Romans often regarded meteor.
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Why Perseid Meteors Are Called the 'Tears of Saint Lawrence'
Aug 10, 2018 · The burning tears of St. Lawrence are seen in the sky on the night of the 10th of August; this day being the anniversary of his martyrdom.
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The Tears of St. Lawrence - Cosmic Pursuits
Aug 10, 2018 · In medieval Europe, this meteor display became known as the fiery “Tears of St. Lawrence”. We now call them the Perseid meteor shower, the ...
[65]
THE PERSEID COLLAPSE: A Post-Apocalyptic Survival Thriller ...
The Alex Fletcher Books: The Jakarta Pandemic, Book One The Perseid Collapse, Book Two Event Horizon, Book Three Point of Crisis, Book Four Dispatches, Book ...
[66]
"Andromeda" Harper 2.0 (TV Episode 2001) - IMDb
Rating 7.1/10 (304) After Harper's attacked by a dying Perseid, he gains a level of intelligence much greater than usual. A bounty hunter arrives for the dead Perseid.
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COMET REAPPEARS AFTER 130 YEARS - The New York Times
Sep 30, 1992 · The Perseid meteor shower is among the most spectacular. Swift-Tuttle will reach its closest point to the Sun on Dec. 12, only 17 days later ...
[68]
Astronomy Club - Explorit Science Center
Davis Astronomy Club and Explorit Science Center invite everyone to the free public viewing of the annual Perseid Meteor Shower on the evening of Tuesday, ...
[69]
Perseids Meteor Shower - Smithsonian Photo Contest
21st Annual Smithsonian Magazine Photo Contest Natural World. Perseids Meteor Shower. The Perseids meteor shower is an annual occurrence in August each year.