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Plerixafor

Plerixafor, marketed under the brand name Mozobil, is a small-molecule hematopoietic stem cell mobilizer approved for use in combination with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) to enhance the mobilization of peripheral blood stem cells to facilitate their collection by leukapheresis in patients with multiple myeloma (MM) or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) who are undergoing autologous stem cell transplantation.^[1] It functions as a selective antagonist of the CXCR4 chemokine receptor, reversibly inhibiting the interaction between CXCR4 and its ligand, stromal cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α), which disrupts the homing and retention of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) within the bone marrow niche, leading to their rapid release into the peripheral circulation.^[2] Originally developed in the early 2000s as an antiretroviral agent (AMD3100) targeting HIV entry via CXCR4, its stem cell-mobilizing properties were serendipitously identified during phase I trials, prompting a pivot in research focus.^[3] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted accelerated approval to plerixafor in December 2008 based on pivotal phase III clinical trials demonstrating superior efficacy over G-CSF alone in achieving adequate CD34+ cell yields for transplantation.^[4] In these double-blind, placebo-controlled studies involving patients with MM (n=302) and NHL (n=298), plerixafor plus G-CSF enabled 71.6% of MM patients to collect ≥6 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg within ≤2 apheresis sessions (vs. 34.3% with placebo plus G-CSF) and 59% of NHL patients to collect ≥5 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg within ≤4 apheresis sessions (vs. 20%), with more patients in the plerixafor groups proceeding to successful engraftment post-transplant.^[4] Administered subcutaneously at a dose of 0.24 mg/kg (up to 40 mg maximum) approximately 11 hours prior to apheresis following 4–5 days of G-CSF priming, plerixafor exhibits linear pharmacokinetics with a half-life of about 5 hours and is primarily cleared renally, necessitating dose adjustments in patients with moderate to severe renal impairment.^[1] Plerixafor is particularly valuable for poor mobilizers—such as heavily pretreated patients or those over 65 years old—who fail to achieve sufficient stem cell yields with G-CSF alone, with compassionate-use data showing success rates exceeding 50% in this subgroup.^[5] Common adverse effects include gastrointestinal disturbances (e.g., diarrhea, nausea in ≥25% of patients), injection-site reactions, fatigue, and headache, though these are generally mild to moderate and self-limiting, with no evidence of increased myelodysplastic syndrome or secondary malignancies in long-term follow-up.^[1] Contraindicated in individuals with hypersensitivity to the drug, plerixafor carries warnings for potential risks such as splenic rupture, hyperleukocytosis, and embryo-fetal toxicity, underscoring the need for close monitoring during therapy.^[1] Ongoing research explores its utility in allogeneic transplantation, other hematologic disorders like Hodgkin's lymphoma, and non-malignant conditions such as sickle cell disease, highlighting its expanding role in regenerative medicine.^[3]

Medical uses

Stem cell mobilization in transplantation

Plerixafor was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in December 2008 for use in combination with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) to mobilize CD34+ hematopoietic stem cells to the peripheral blood for collection and subsequent autologous transplantation in patients with multiple myeloma or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.^[6] This approval was based on two pivotal phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials demonstrating superior mobilization efficacy compared to G-CSF alone.^[3] Plerixafor acts by reversibly blocking the CXCR4 receptor on hematopoietic stem cells, thereby disrupting the binding of stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and promoting the rapid release of CD34+ cells from the bone marrow into the bloodstream.^[6] It is administered subcutaneously at a dose of 0.24 mg/kg of actual body weight (maximum 40 mg per day), typically 11 hours prior to the start of apheresis, following 4 days of G-CSF priming (10 mcg/kg daily).^[6] This regimen may be repeated for up to 4 consecutive days to optimize collection.^[6] In clinical trials, the addition of plerixafor to G-CSF increased the median fold change in circulating CD34+ cells by approximately 2- to 3-fold compared to G-CSF alone, with median peripheral blood CD34+ counts reaching 60-80 cells/μL versus 20-30 cells/μL.^[7] For the multiple myeloma trial (NCT00103662), 72% of patients achieved collection of at least 6 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg in ≤2 apheresis sessions with plerixafor plus G-CSF, compared to 34% with placebo plus G-CSF.^[7] A similar phase III trial in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma showed 59% success in collecting ≥5 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg in ≤4 apheresis sessions with plerixafor plus G-CSF, compared to 20% with placebo plus G-CSF.^[8] This enhanced mobilization has proven particularly beneficial for poor mobilizers, who constitute 15-20% of patients failing to meet collection targets with G-CSF monotherapy, enabling successful apheresis in the majority through rescue or preemptive use.^[9] As of 2025, updated protocols incorporating plerixafor with salvage chemotherapy have shown promise in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), a subtype of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, by improving CD34+ cell yields and reducing collection failures prior to autologous transplantation. For instance, a study reported that adding plerixafor to regimens like R-DHAP or R-ICE increased successful collections from 60% to over 85% in relapsed/refractory DLBCL patients.^[10]

Other approved indications

Plerixafor has limited approvals for uses beyond its primary role in stem cell mobilization for autologous transplantation in multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. In the European Union, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) authorized its use in 2009 in combination with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) to enhance mobilization of hematopoietic stem cells in patients with lymphoma and multiple myeloma whose cells mobilize poorly with G-CSF alone.^[11] In pediatric patients (aged 1 to less than 18 years), it is approved in the EU for use with G-CSF to mobilize stem cells in lymphoma and solid malignant tumors, either preemptively when circulating stem cell counts are expected to be insufficient or in patients who previously failed to collect sufficient cells.^[11] As of 2025, plerixafor receives guideline support as an adjunct in combination with chemotherapy and G-CSF for poor mobilizers with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) to improve stem cell yields for autologous transplantation. A multicenter phase II study demonstrated that adding plerixafor to R-DHAP chemotherapy and G-CSF achieved the minimum CD34+ target cell count of 6 × 10^6/kg in 81% of patients, with 66% requiring only one apheresis session. This approach is particularly beneficial in enhancing mobilization success prior to therapies like CAR-T cell treatment or autologous stem cell transplantation in this setting.^[12] Plerixafor has no broad approvals for solid tumors or non-hematologic uses as of 2025, with applications confined to niche enhancements in autologous hematopoietic stem cell collection. Patient selection is typically reserved for individuals with prior exposure to chemotherapy regimens that compromise bone marrow reserve and lead to poor mobilization with G-CSF alone.^[13]

Contraindications and precautions

Pregnancy and breastfeeding

Plerixafor is contraindicated in pregnancy due to evidence of embryo-fetal toxicity from animal reproduction studies, with limited human data available. In rats and rabbits, administration during organogenesis resulted in post-implantation loss, decreased fetal body weights, and malformations primarily affecting the vascular and skeletal systems, observed at doses approximately 10 times the recommended human dose on a mg/m² basis.^[13] Although no adequate and well-controlled studies exist in pregnant women, the potential for fetal harm warrants avoidance unless the clinical benefit justifies the risk.^[13] The European Medicines Agency similarly advises against use during pregnancy except when clinically necessary, citing teratogenic effects in animal models including increased resorptions, retarded skeletal development, and fetal abnormalities.^[11] Prior to initiating plerixafor therapy, pregnancy status should be verified in females of reproductive potential, and effective contraception is recommended during treatment and for at least one week following the final dose to prevent unintended exposure.^[13] This guidance aligns with recommendations from the American Society for Transplantation and Cellular Therapy (ASTCT, formerly ASBMT) and the EMA, which emphasize avoidance in reproductive-age females unless benefits outweigh potential risks, with no significant changes from post-marketing surveillance as of 2025.^[13]^[11] Regarding lactation, it is unknown whether plerixafor is excreted in human breast milk, but animal studies indicate presence in milk, posing potential risks to nursing infants due to possible serious adverse reactions.^[13] Breastfeeding should therefore be discontinued during plerixafor treatment and for at least one week after the final dose, as advised by the FDA; the EMA recommends discontinuation during therapy due to the inability to exclude risks to the suckling child.^[13]^[11]

Other contraindications

Plerixafor is contraindicated in patients with a known history of hypersensitivity to the drug itself or any of its excipients, as serious hypersensitivity reactions, including anaphylactic shock, have been reported.^[13] These reactions may manifest as hypotension, urticaria, cough, or dyspnea, necessitating immediate discontinuation and appropriate medical intervention if they occur.^[13] In patients with moderate (CrCl 31–50 mL/min) or severe (CrCl <31 mL/min) renal impairment, the dose should be reduced to 0.16 mg/kg (maximum 27 mg daily), with close monitoring for excessive leukocytosis to prevent complications.^[13] For end-stage renal disease (CrCl <15 mL/min) or patients on dialysis, use with caution as data are limited; no specific dosing recommendation is available per EMA for CrCl <20 mL/min.^[13]^[11] Pharmacokinetic data indicate prolonged exposure in such patients, increasing the risk of adverse effects without adjusted dosing.^[13] Plerixafor is not recommended for use in patients with leukemia, as it may mobilize leukemic cells into the peripheral blood, potentially contaminating the apheresis product and worsening disease prognosis.^[13] This precaution is specific to patients with leukemia. Plerixafor is approved for use in non-leukemic hematologic malignancies, such as multiple myeloma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma, in transplantation settings.^[13] Caution is advised in patients with underlying splenic disorders, as rare cases of splenic enlargement and rupture have been associated with plerixafor administration, often presenting with left upper abdominal or shoulder pain.^[13] Prompt evaluation, including imaging if symptoms arise, is essential to rule out rupture.^[13] As of 2025, no new contraindications have emerged from recent clinical trials, maintaining the established profile focused on hypersensitivity and leukemia avoidance, with ongoing emphasis on renal and splenic precautions.^[13]^[14]

Adverse effects

Common and mild effects

Plerixafor, when administered in combination with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) for hematopoietic stem cell mobilization, is associated with several common and mild adverse effects, primarily gastrointestinal disturbances, injection site reactions, and general symptoms. These effects are typically transient, self-limiting, and do not require discontinuation of therapy.^[13] Gastrointestinal effects are among the most frequent, affecting a substantial proportion of patients in clinical trials. Diarrhea occurs in approximately 37% of patients, nausea in 34%, vomiting in 10%, and flatulence in 7%. These symptoms are generally mild to moderate, often resolving within 24 hours without specific intervention, and are attributed to the drug's impact on chemokine receptor signaling.^[13] Injection site reactions, reported in 34% of patients, manifest as local erythema, pain, or swelling following subcutaneous administration. These reactions are localized, self-limiting, and usually resolve spontaneously within a few days, with no evidence of long-term sequelae.^[13] General mild effects include fatigue (27%), headache (22%), and arthralgia (13%), which occur in 10-30% of patients during mobilization and apheresis procedures. These symptoms are not dose-limiting and do not lead to persistent issues post-treatment. In controlled clinical trials involving patients with multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, adverse effects with an incidence greater than 10% when plerixafor was combined with G-CSF included diarrhea, nausea, injection site reactions, fatigue, headache, vomiting, arthralgia, and dizziness.^[13] Management of these common effects focuses on supportive care, such as hydration and symptomatic relief for gastrointestinal symptoms, with no routine premedication required. Mild injection site reactions may occasionally be treated with topical measures or antihistamines if needed, but most resolve without intervention.^[13]

Serious and rare effects

Serious adverse effects of plerixafor are infrequent but can be life-threatening, often occurring in conjunction with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) administration or underlying patient conditions. Cardiovascular events, including hypotension and tachycardia, have been reported in less than 5% of patients, primarily as part of hypersensitivity reactions or vasovagal responses. Rare cases of myocardial infarction have been observed in approximately 1% of oncology patients (7 out of 679) following stem cell mobilization with plerixafor and G-CSF, particularly in those with pre-existing cardiovascular risk factors.^[13]^[11] Hematologic effects include leukocytosis, with white blood cell counts increasing by up to 50% or more, and hyperleukocytosis (WBC ≥100,000/mcL) occurring in about 7% of patients during clinical trials. Plerixafor may also mobilize tumor cells in patients with malignancies, potentially leading to their reinfusion during transplantation, though the clinical impact remains uncertain. Splenic rupture, a rare post-marketing event reported in less than 0.1% of cases, necessitates prompt evaluation for left upper quadrant pain or referred shoulder discomfort.^[13]^[13]^[13] Allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis and angioedema, occur in less than 1% of patients and require immediate discontinuation of the drug and supportive care, including monitoring for at least 30 minutes post-injection due to the risk of life-threatening hypotension and shock.^[13]^[13] Most serious effects are attributed to the underlying disease, concurrent G-CSF use, or patient comorbidities rather than plerixafor alone.^[13]

Drug interactions

Pharmacokinetic considerations

Plerixafor demonstrates negligible interaction with cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes, as it is not metabolized via these pathways and shows no significant induction or inhibition of major isoforms, including CYP3A4, CYP1A2, CYP2B6, and CYP2C9.^[13] This profile substantially lowers the risk of metabolic drug-drug interactions compared to agents reliant on hepatic cytochrome-mediated clearance.^[15] The drug's elimination is predominantly renal, with approximately 70% excreted unchanged in the urine within 24 hours, highlighting the importance of renal function in its pharmacokinetics.^[13] Co-administration with nephrotoxic drugs, such as aminoglycosides or cisplatin, warrants caution, as these may reduce creatinine clearance and thereby extend plerixafor exposure by impairing renal excretion.^[15] Dose adjustments are recommended for patients with moderate to severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance ≤50 mL/min), further emphasizing the need to monitor renal status during combination therapy.^[13] Plerixafor is not subject to hepatic metabolism, which eliminates potential interactions with hepatically cleared pharmaceuticals that might otherwise compete for metabolic enzymes or transporters.^[13] Its low plasma protein binding, ranging from 37% to 58% across concentrations, further mitigates risks of displacement from binding sites when used alongside highly bound agents like warfarin.^[15]

Clinical interactions

Plerixafor exhibits synergistic effects with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in mobilizing hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) to the peripheral blood, leading to higher CD34+ cell yields compared to G-CSF alone, without requiring dose adjustments to either agent. This combination is standard in protocols for patients with multiple myeloma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma prior to autologous stem cell transplantation, though it carries an increased risk of transient leukocytosis due to elevated neutrophil, lymphocyte, and monocyte counts.^[16]^[17]^[18] In transplant settings, plerixafor may enhance HSC release when used alongside immunosuppressants, potentially improving engraftment in autologous procedures; however, in off-label allogeneic uses, close monitoring for graft-versus-host disease is advised due to altered immune cell dynamics. No significant clinical interactions have been observed with chemotherapy agents, as plerixafor is typically administered sequentially following chemotherapy-based mobilization regimens, allowing safe integration without overlap-related complications.^[19]^[16] Rare reports suggest enhanced gastrointestinal effects, such as nausea and diarrhea, when plerixafor is combined with opioids, likely due to overlapping mechanisms affecting gut motility. Theoretical concerns exist regarding immune modulation when plerixafor, a CXCR4 antagonist, is co-administered with other CXCR4 agonists, potentially altering chemokine signaling and HSC trafficking.^[20]^[21]

Pharmacology

Mechanism of action

Plerixafor acts as a selective antagonist of the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), a G protein-coupled receptor expressed on hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and progenitor cells. By reversibly binding to CXCR4 with high affinity, plerixafor prevents the interaction between the receptor and its primary ligand, stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1, also known as CXCL12), which is produced in the bone marrow niche. This blockade disrupts the SDF-1/CXCR4 signaling axis that normally retains HSCs in the bone marrow through chemotaxis and adhesion mechanisms.^[22]^[23] The antagonism leads to rapid mobilization of CD34+ HSCs and progenitor cells into the peripheral circulation, typically within hours of administration, by interrupting homing and retention signals in the bone marrow microenvironment. This process also mobilizes endothelial progenitor cells, contributing to enhanced vascular repair potential in certain contexts. The mobilization is dose-dependent and synergistic with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), significantly increasing circulating CD34+ cell counts compared to G-CSF alone.^[22]^[3] Plerixafor's binding to CXCR4 may be enhanced by metal ions such as zinc in vitro, which can improve receptor affinity through coordination with the bicyclam structure. It exhibits an IC₅₀ of approximately 50 nM for CXCR4 inhibition and high selectivity, showing no agonistic effects or significant binding to other chemokine receptors such as CCR5, CXCR1-3, or CXCR7, with IC₅₀ values exceeding 100 μM for these off-targets.^[24]^[22]^[25] Although originally discovered for its ability to inhibit HIV-1 entry by blocking CXCR4-mediated viral fusion (particularly for X4-tropic strains), this effect is not clinically relevant at therapeutic doses used for stem cell mobilization due to factors such as short half-life and potential adverse effects observed in antiviral trials.^[26]^[25] This mechanism also underpins its approval for treating WHIM syndrome.^[27]

Pharmacokinetics

Plerixafor is administered subcutaneously and exhibits rapid absorption, with peak plasma concentrations (C_max) occurring approximately 30 to 60 minutes after dosing.^[13] The pharmacokinetics demonstrate linear kinetics over the dose range of 0.04 to 0.24 mg/kg, and the drug follows a two-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimination.^[13] Following absorption, plerixafor distributes primarily into the extravascular space, with an apparent volume of distribution of 0.3 L/kg.^[13] Plasma protein binding is moderate, up to 58%.^[13] Metabolism of plerixafor is minimal, as evidenced by in vitro studies using human liver microsomes and hepatocytes, which showed no significant biotransformation or inhibitory effects on major cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP1A2, 2A6, 2B6, 2C8, 2C9, 2C19, 2D6, 2E1, 3A4/5).^[13] No major metabolites have been identified, and the drug does not induce CYP1A2, CYP2B6, or CYP3A4 in human hepatocytes.^[13] Elimination occurs primarily via renal excretion, with approximately 70% of the administered dose recovered unchanged in the urine within 24 hours in individuals with normal renal function.^[13] The terminal half-life ranges from 3 to 5 hours, and total plasma clearance is approximately 4.4 L/h (about 73 mL/min).^[13] In patients with renal impairment, clearance is reduced and correlates with creatinine clearance (CrCl); for those with CrCl of 15-50 mL/min, the dose should be reduced to 0.16 mg/kg (not exceeding 27 mg/day) to maintain exposure similar to patients with normal renal function.^[13] Pharmacokinetic profiles of plerixafor remain consistent across diverse patient populations, including those with non-Hodgkin lymphoma (such as DLBCL) and multiple myeloma, as well as healthy volunteers, with no clinically significant differences based on age, gender, or race.^[13]^[28]

Chemistry

Chemical structure and properties

Plerixafor, also known as AMD3100, has the IUPAC name 1,1'-[1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)]bis[1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane] and the molecular formula C28H54N8, with a molecular weight of 502.79 g/mol.^[29]^[13] It is a symmetric bicyclam derivative, consisting of two cyclam (1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane) macrocyclic polyamine rings connected by a 1,4-xylylene bridge, and it exerts its activity as a zinc(II) complex.^[29]^[25] As a physical entity, plerixafor appears as a white to off-white crystalline solid.^[30] It exhibits high solubility in water, exceeding 50 mg/mL across a pH range of 1 to 10, reflecting its polyamine nature.^[30] The compound's basicity is indicated by pKa values ranging from 8.5 to 11.5 for its secondary and tertiary amine groups, with additional lower pKa values below 2.4.^[29]^[25] Plerixafor has no stereoisomers of clinical relevance due to its achiral, symmetric structure.^[29] The commercial formulation of plerixafor is provided as a sterile, clear, colorless to pale-yellow injectable solution containing 24 mg of plerixafor (equivalent to 20 mg/mL of the base) in 1.2 mL single-dose vials, with each milliliter also including 5.9 mg of sodium chloride as an isotonicity agent and water for injection, adjusted to a pH of 6.0–7.5.^[13]^[30] For stability, the drug substance and product are suitable for storage at controlled room temperature (25°C or 77°F), with excursions permitted between 15°C and 30°C (59°F and 86°F); the assigned shelf life for the formulated product is 36 months under these conditions.^[13]^[30]

Synthesis

The synthesis of plerixafor, chemically known as 1,1'-[1,4-phenylenebis(methylene)]bis(1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane), was first reported in 1987 as part of studies on dimetallic coordination complexes.^[31] The original method involved protecting three of the four nitrogen atoms in cyclam (1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane) with tosyl groups using p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in the presence of a base such as triethylamine in dichloromethane at 20–45°C. This tris-tosyl-protected cyclam was then subjected to nucleophilic substitution with 1,4-bis(bromomethyl)benzene (α,α'-dibromo-p-xylene) in a polar aprotic solvent like DMF or acetonitrile, facilitated by potassium carbonate at 50–85°C for 18–48 hours, to form the linked bis-macrocycle intermediate.^[32]^[33] Deprotection of the tosyl groups followed via treatment with a mixture of 48% hydrobromic acid and glacial acetic acid at reflux (100–115°C) for 20–48 hours, yielding plerixafor as the octahydrobromide salt after basification and extraction.^[32]^[33] The overall yield for these key steps—protection, substitution, and deprotection—was approximately 60%, though early laboratory-scale processes often achieved lower totals due to purification challenges.^[33] The high basicity of the cyclam nitrogens necessitated careful pH control during basification to prevent side products from over-alkylation or incomplete deprotection.^[34] For industrial-scale production, the process was optimized by Genzyme (following acquisition of AnorMED in 2007) to improve scalability and purity, with the substitution step conducted in DMF at elevated temperatures and deprotection sometimes adapted using high-pressure hydrogenation over palladium catalysts to cleave tosyl groups more selectively and avoid corrosive HBr.^[33] Purification typically involved extraction of the free base into toluene or dichloromethane, followed by crystallization of the octahydrochloride salt from methanol-acetone mixtures, achieving >99% HPLC purity without column chromatography.^[33] The synthesis is covered by patents from AnorMED and Genzyme (e.g., US5583131, which expired on December 10, 2013), with other related patents expiring later; following these expirations, generic versions of plerixafor have been approved and utilize similar synthetic processes, with the first generic entering the U.S. market in 2023.^[32]^[35] No major methodological changes have been reported post-regulatory approval of Mozobil in 2008.

Development and history

Discovery and early research

Plerixafor, originally designated as AMD3100, emerged from research at the Rega Institute for Medical Research at KU Leuven in Belgium during the early 1990s. The compound's development began with the serendipitous isolation of an impurity, JM1657, in commercial cyclam preparations, which demonstrated anti-HIV activity in 1992. This led to the synthesis of optimized bicyclam analogs, culminating in AMD3100 by 1994, initially explored for its potential as a metal chelator in redox studies but quickly recognized for its antiviral potential against T-tropic HIV strains.^[36]^[37] In the mid-1990s, studies by Dominique Schols and colleagues at KU Leuven revealed that AMD3100 potently inhibits CXCR4-mediated HIV-1 entry and membrane fusion in vitro, with effective concentrations in the 1-10 nM range and a selectivity index exceeding 100,000. Funded in part by NIH grants for HIV research, this work advanced AMD3100 into phase I and II clinical trials by the late 1990s, where it showed modest antiviral effects but development for HIV was halted in 2001 following observation of cardiac adverse effects in a phase II trial, compounded by its poor oral bioavailability.^[38]^[39] During these HIV-focused investigations, researchers observed an unanticipated rapid increase in peripheral white blood cell counts, including CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, following AMD3100 administration in early clinical and preclinical settings. This prompted repurposing efforts in the early 2000s, with animal model studies confirming AMD3100's ability to mobilize stem cells from the bone marrow. In mouse models, subcutaneous doses of 5-20 mg/kg induced dose-dependent release of CD34+ cells within hours, mediated by blockade of the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis, without initial evidence of direct anti-cancer activity.^[40]^[41] AMD3100 was licensed to AnorMED Inc. in 1997 for antiviral development, shifting focus to stem cell mobilization after the HIV trials. In 2006, Genzyme Corporation acquired AnorMED, accelerating preclinical validation of plerixafor's mobilizing effects observed in prior monkey and mouse studies. The acquisition was completed in late 2006; Genzyme was later acquired by Sanofi in 2011, continuing plerixafor's development.^[42]^[43]

Regulatory approvals and milestones

Plerixafor's clinical development advanced through two pivotal phase III trials conducted between 2005 and 2007, evaluating its efficacy in combination with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) for hematopoietic stem cell mobilization. In the multiple myeloma trial (NCT00103662), plerixafor plus G-CSF enabled 71.6% of patients to achieve the target collection of at least 6 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg in ≤2 apheresis sessions, compared to 34.4% with placebo plus G-CSF, demonstrating superior mobilization.^[44] Similarly, the non-Hodgkin lymphoma trial (NCT00103610, AMD3100-3101) showed that 59% of patients receiving plerixafor plus G-CSF met the target of at least 5 × 10^6 CD34+ cells/kg in ≤4 apheresis sessions, versus 20% in the placebo group, confirming its effectiveness in this population.^[45] These results supported the new drug application, leading to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval on December 15, 2008, for use with G-CSF to mobilize autologous hematopoietic stem cells in patients with multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma prior to transplantation.^[46] Following FDA approval, plerixafor received orphan drug designation in the United States for stem cell mobilization, granting market exclusivity and development incentives.^[47] Internationally, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) authorized Mozobil (plerixafor) on July 31, 2009, for the same indications in combination with G-CSF.^[48] Health Canada approved it on December 8, 2011, further expanding access for eligible patients.^[49] Plerixafor also obtained orphan drug status in the European Union, recognizing its role in addressing unmet needs in rare conditions involving stem cell transplantation.^[48] Post-approval milestones included the entry of generic versions following patent expiration, with the FDA approving the first abbreviated new drug application for plerixafor injection by Teva Pharmaceuticals on July 24, 2023, enhancing affordability and availability. In 2021, a phase II trial (NCT04552743) initiated evaluation of plerixafor combined with MGTA-145, a CXCR2 agonist, for improved stem cell mobilization without G-CSF, which was completed, demonstrating promising rapid and reliable collection in multiple myeloma patients.^[50] By 2025, the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) guidelines incorporated plerixafor for poor mobilizers in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), reflecting its established utility in challenging cases, though no new indications have received regulatory approval.^[51] Expanded access continues through clinical trials exploring its potential in other mobilization scenarios. Development faced early setbacks from initial focus on HIV treatment, where phase I/II trials in the late 1990s and early 2000s demonstrated limited antiviral efficacy due to insufficient CXCR4 blockade in vivo, delaying pivot to stem cell applications by approximately 10 years until preclinical data emerged around 2002.^[26]

Society and culture

Legal and economic aspects

Plerixafor is classified as a prescription-only medication in the United States, Canada, and the European Union, requiring a physician's authorization for use due to its role in hematopoietic stem cell mobilization.^[52]^[29] It is not designated as a controlled substance under schedules in these jurisdictions, as it lacks significant potential for misuse beyond its approved therapeutic applications in oncology.^[52] The drug received orphan drug designation from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2003 for enhancing progenitor cell yields in patients with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and multiple myeloma prior to autologous stem cell transplantation.^[47] This status granted seven years of market exclusivity from its approval in December 2008, extending through 2015, along with tax credits for clinical trial costs to offset development expenses for rare disease treatments.^[29] Pediatric exclusivity extensions were not applicable, given the drug's primary indications in adult populations.^[47] Economically, plerixafor remains costly, with a wholesale acquisition cost of approximately $9,300 per dose in the U.S. as of 2024.^[53] The introduction of generic versions following FDA approvals in 2023 has helped reduce costs compared to the branded product.^[54] Globally, the plerixafor market is projected to reach $885 million by the end of 2025, driven by increasing demand in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.^[55] Access to plerixafor is supported under Medicare Part B in the U.S. for FDA-approved indications, covering outpatient administration when used in combination with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor for stem cell mobilization.^[56] However, significant disparities persist in low-income regions, where limited transplantation infrastructure and high out-of-pocket costs hinder availability, particularly in parts of Asia and low- to middle-income countries.^[57]^[58] As of 2025, generic competition in the European Union has further lowered prices, with multiple manufacturers offering equivalents that enhance market penetration without ongoing legal disputes over patents or approvals.^[59] Additional generic approvals, such as by Gland Pharma in May 2024 and Hetero Labs in June 2025, have expanded availability in the U.S.^[60]^[35] No major legal challenges related to plerixafor's regulatory status or intellectual property are currently active.^[61]

Brand names and availability

Plerixafor is primarily marketed under the brand name Mozobil by Genzyme, a subsidiary of Sanofi.^[48] It is formulated as a 24 mg/1.2 mL solution for subcutaneous injection in a pre-filled syringe. Generic versions of plerixafor became available in the United States in 2023, including Plerixafor Injection by Fresenius Kabi and Meitheal Pharmaceuticals, offered in similar 24 mg/1.2 mL subcutaneous formulations.^[62]^[63] Internationally, plerixafor is available under the generic name Plerixafor Accord in the European Union, approved for subcutaneous use in combination with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor for stem cell mobilization. Generic formulations are also marketed in Canada by manufacturers such as Fresenius Kabi Canada Ltd. and JAMP Pharma Corporation, and in India under brand names including Mozifor by Hetero Drugs Ltd. and Celrixafor by Celon Laboratories.^[64]^[65]^[66] Plerixafor is widely distributed in developed countries, where it is routinely supplied to oncology and hematopoietic stem cell transplant centers.^[35] In contrast, availability remains limited in low-resource settings, particularly those without established transplant programs, due to infrastructure and supply chain constraints.^[67] As of 2025, more than 10 generic manufacturers produce plerixafor globally, with the drug administered exclusively via subcutaneous injection and no oral formulation available.^[68]^[59]^[35]

Research directions

Oncology and anti-cancer applications

Plerixafor, functioning as a CXCR4 antagonist, disrupts the CXCR4/SDF-1 axis within the tumor microenvironment, thereby impeding tumor cell adhesion, invasion, and metastatic dissemination in preclinical models. In preclinical studies using mouse models, this inhibition has demonstrated reduced metastatic spread in breast cancer, particularly when combined with agents like combretastatin A4, which enhanced anti-tumor and anti-metastatic effects.^[69] Similarly, in glioblastoma models, plerixafor modulation of the CXCR4 pathway has altered microglia reactivity and limited tumor progression and dissemination.^[70] Beyond its approved role in stem cell mobilization, plerixafor has been investigated in combination therapies for hematologic malignancies. A phase I/II trial combining plerixafor with bortezomib in patients with relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma targeted microenvironment interactions to enhance chemosensitization, resulting in increased apoptosis and an overall response rate of 48.5%.^[71] In solid tumors, plerixafor has shown preliminary promise in early-phase trials. Despite these findings, plerixafor's direct anti-cancer applications face significant hurdles, with no successful phase III trials establishing it as monotherapy or standard adjunct therapy due to limited efficacy in advanced settings and dose-dependent toxicity, including gastrointestinal effects and potential cardiac risks at higher doses.^[72] As of 2025, research continues to explore adjunctive roles for plerixafor in multiple myeloma post-transplant strategies, though it remains investigational and not integrated into routine care.

Neurological and other therapeutic areas

Plerixafor, as a CXCR4 antagonist, has been explored in preclinical and early clinical investigations for neurological applications, primarily through its influence on the CXCR4/CXCL12 axis, which regulates neuroinflammation, immune cell trafficking, and potential remyelination processes. In multiple sclerosis (MS), plerixafor facilitates hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) mobilization for autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT), offering a non-myeloablative alternative to traditional chemotherapy or granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) regimens without significant toxicity.^[73] However, its use in MS requires caution, as disruption of the CXCR4/SDF-1 interaction may impair protective mechanisms against autoimmunity observed in experimental models, with limited published clinical data specific to MS patients as of 2025.^[73] Beyond MS, the CXCR4/CXCL12 pathway's role in modulating microglial activation and neuropathic pain has prompted preclinical interest in plerixafor for conditions like opioid-induced hyperalgesia, though direct studies remain limited to animal models demonstrating microglia modulation.^[74] No neurological indications have received regulatory approval, and most evidence derives from foundational research on the axis rather than plerixafor-specific trials. In stem cell research, plerixafor enhances mobilization of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) when combined with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), promoting endogenous recruitment for tissue repair applications such as fracture healing. In a rat model of femoral osteotomy, VEGF pretreatment followed by plerixafor (AMD3100) increased circulating MSCs, leading to improved bone volume, trabecular thickness, and radiographic union scores compared to controls, with reduced variability in healing outcomes.^[75] However, a phase IIa randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 26 patients with diabetic ischemic wounds found that a single dose of plerixafor (0.24 mg/kg subcutaneously) successfully mobilized hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs) but failed to accelerate wound healing, with only 38.5% complete closure at 6 months versus 69.2% in placebo (P=0.115), and larger residual wound sizes in the plerixafor arm.^[76] Plerixafor's historical exploration in immune modulation includes early investigations for HIV, where it was identified as an anti-HIV agent due to blockade of CXCR4-mediated viral entry, but clinical development was halted owing to limited oral bioavailability and short half-life, rendering it ineffective for chronic antiviral therapy.^[77] Emerging applications in non-malignant immune conditions focus on autoimmune diseases, where plerixafor supports HSC mobilization for AHSCT in refractory cases like systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), potentially enabling immune reset through depletion of autoreactive cells, though evidence remains confined to broader rheumatic disease protocols. Recent developments, including a 2024 American Society of Hematology (ASH) abstract, highlight plerixafor's role in enhancing bone marrow transplant outcomes when added to G-CSF, achieving target CD34+ cell yields (4-6 × 10^6/kg) in pediatric patients with refractory malignancies in 1-4 apheresis days, with minimal adverse effects like nausea, suggesting broader utility in transplant optimization beyond oncology.^[78] As of 2025, no neurologic approvals exist, and investigational progress emphasizes non-cancer stem cell and immune applications. Limitations of plerixafor in these areas include off-target central nervous system (CNS) effects observed in preclinical studies, such as dose-dependent sedation, tremors, ataxia, and convulsions in rats, dogs, and rabbits, attributed to blood-brain barrier penetration and binding to adrenergic and dopamine receptors, with variable suppression or stimulation across species.^[22] Additionally, increased neurological symptoms linked to leukemic CNS infiltration have been noted in mouse models, underscoring risks in neuroinflammatory contexts.^[77] Overall, data remain predominantly preclinical or early-phase, with challenges in translating mobilization benefits to functional therapeutic gains in non-oncologic settings. As of November 2025, ongoing trials continue to evaluate plerixafor in expanded indications, including combination therapies for autoimmune disorders and tissue repair, but no new approvals have been granted beyond stem cell mobilization.

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