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Prostatic venous plexus

The prostatic venous plexus, also known as Santorini's plexus, is a network of valveless veins that surrounds the anterolateral aspect of the prostate gland in males, forming a rich anastomosis anterior to the urinary bladder and posterior to the pubic symphysis.^[1] This plexus lies partly embedded within the prostate's fascial sheath and partly between the sheath and the prostatic capsule, encircling the urethra at the base of the gland.^[2] It primarily drains deoxygenated blood from the prostate itself, as well as tributaries including the deep dorsal vein of the penis, prostatic veins, and anterior vesical rami, before converging to empty into the vesical venous plexus and ultimately the internal iliac veins.^[3] The structure of the prostatic venous plexus is highly interconnected, consisting of small venules that form a circumferential ring around the prostate, with lateral extensions communicating with the pudendal, obturator, and vesical venous plexuses.^[4] This valveless design allows bidirectional flow, which is crucial for its physiological role in venous return from the lower urogenital tract but also predisposes it to retrograde propagation under conditions of increased intra-abdominal pressure, such as during urination or straining.^[1] Posteriorly, the plexus connects to the internal vertebral venous plexus via Batson's paravertebral venous system, providing an alternative drainage pathway that bypasses the inferior vena cava.^[3] Clinically, the prostatic venous plexus holds significant importance in urology and oncology due to its role in the hematogenous spread of prostate cancer; tumor cells can travel through its connections to Batson's plexus, leading to metastases in the vertebral column, pelvis, and other skeletal sites, often manifesting as low back pain or pathological fractures.^[2] During surgical procedures like radical prostatectomy, careful ligation of the dorsal venous complex—a prominent component of the plexus—is essential to minimize bleeding, as it carries substantial blood volume and lies in close proximity to the neurovascular bundles critical for erectile function.^[4] Its anatomical relations also influence imaging techniques, such as MRI or CT venography, used to assess prostatic pathology and vascular integrity.^[1]

Anatomy

Structure and composition

The prostatic venous plexus is defined as a valveless network of small interconnecting venules that forms a dense vascular plexus surrounding the prostate gland.^[1] It is also known by its alternative name, Santorini's plexus.^[1] The composition of the plexus primarily consists of thin-walled venules characterized by extensive anastomoses, creating a highly interconnected structure.^[5] These venules are situated between the prostate's true capsule, a thin fibromuscular layer directly enveloping the glandular tissue, and the false capsule, which corresponds to Denonvilliers' fascia formed by the visceral layer of the pelvic fascia.^[6] Histologically, the venules feature a simple endothelial lining typical of venous structures, with an absence of valves that permits potential bidirectional flow within the network.^[1] The vascular density is particularly high at the base and along the sides of the prostate, where the plexus forms a prominent circle of anastomosing channels encircling the prostatic urethra.^[5]^[7]

Location and relations

The prostatic venous plexus, also known as Santorini's plexus, is a network of veins that primarily surrounds the anterolateral and basal aspects of the prostate gland, extending from the bladder neck superiorly to the apex inferiorly.^[1] It lies partly embedded within the fascial sheath of the prostate and partly between this sheath and the prostatic capsule itself.^[8] This positioning encircles the prostatic urethra laterally while forming a highly anastomotic circle of venules at the base of the gland.^[5] In relation to adjacent structures, the plexus lies between the prostate capsule and the surrounding periprostatic fascia, anterior to the prostate gland and separated posteriorly from the rectum by Denonvilliers' fascia.^[2] Anteriorly, it lies behind the pubic symphysis and the arcuate pubic ligament, separated by retropubic fat in the space of Retzius.^[2] Laterally, it is adjacent to the urethra and overlies the levator ani muscles of the pelvic floor, covered by endopelvic fascia.^[3] Inferiorly, at the prostatic apex, it is contiguous with the dorsal venous complex of the penis.^[1] On cross-sectional imaging, the prostatic venous plexus is often visible as a hypodense network of vessels surrounding the prostate on computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), particularly in axial and coronal views, aiding in the assessment of pelvic vascular anatomy.^[1] Developmentally, the plexus forms in conjunction with the embryological descent and differentiation of the prostate from endodermal outgrowths of the urogenital sinus during the third month of gestation.^[2]

Tributaries and drainage

The prostatic venous plexus receives venous blood primarily from deep veins draining the prostate parenchyma itself, as well as from veins originating in the seminal vesicles.^[9] These tributaries are supplemented by the inferior vesical veins, which convey blood from the bladder neck, and pudendal veins arising from perineal structures.^[2] Additional inputs include the deep dorsal vein of the penis, which drains the distal two-thirds of the penis, along with anterior vesical rami and prostatic rami.^[1] The collected blood from the plexus converges into vesical and prostatic venous trunks, which then empty bilaterally into the internal iliac veins.^[1] ^[9] Minor anastomotic connections exist with the middle rectal veins and obturator veins, facilitating communication within the broader pelvic venous network.^[10] As a valveless system, the prostatic venous plexus operates under low pressure, which permits bidirectional flow and potential retrograde movement of blood, particularly during episodes of elevated intra-abdominal pressure such as Valsalva maneuvers.^[1] ^[11]

Function

Role in venous drainage

The prostatic venous plexus serves as the primary network for collecting deoxygenated blood from the prostate acini, stroma, and adjacent glandular tissues, including the seminal vesicles and proximal urethra. This function ensures the removal of metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide from these structures, maintaining efficient local circulation within the male pelvic region.^[9]^[2] Drainage occurs passively through a valveless venous network, driven by pressure gradients generated from arterial inflow via the prostatic arteries, which originate from the internal pudendal and inferior vesical arteries. Anastomoses within the plexus and with surrounding pelvic veins prevent blood stasis, promoting steady flow toward larger efferent vessels. Ultimately, the plexus drains into the internal iliac veins, integrating into the broader pelvic venous system.^[4]^[9] By connecting with the vesicoprostatic venous system, the plexus contributes to pelvic circulation, facilitating the return of venous blood to the heart while indirectly supporting prostate oxygenation and nutrient delivery through balanced inflow-outflow dynamics. Regulatory mechanisms involve smooth muscle tone in the prostatic capsule and venous walls, which modulates vessel compliance and flow resistance. Hormonal factors, particularly androgens, influence vascular permeability in the prostate, potentially altering drainage efficiency via effects on endothelial function and growth factor expression like vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).^[2]^[12]^[13] Impaired drainage within the prostatic venous plexus can result in venous congestion, leading to localized accumulation of blood and potential disruption of prostatic homeostasis.^[4]

Connections to other venous systems

The prostatic venous plexus anastomoses with Batson's vertebral venous plexus primarily through veins that pass via pelvic foramina, particularly those in the sacrum. This direct communication enables potential retrograde flow from the pelvic region toward the spine, as demonstrated in early injection studies revealing continuity between the prostatic network and the paravertebral system.^[14]^[15] Indirect connections extend the plexus's integration into broader venous networks. Pathways through the obturator canal, via the obturator vein, link pelvic veins including the prostatic plexus to the external iliac vein, facilitating cross-communication between internal and external iliac systems. Additionally, connections to the inferior vena cava occur indirectly through the ascending lumbar veins, which interconnect the pelvic venous drainage with lumbar and vertebral plexuses.^[16]^[10] The valveless design of these anastomoses permits bidirectional flow, allowing alternative drainage routes during obstruction of primary pelvic veins. Embryologically, the connections originate from shared venous primordia in the cardinal vein system, which gives rise to both the pelvic and vertebral venous networks during development. These links are present in nearly all individuals, with variability observed in the size and prominence of the Batson plexus communications.^[17]^[9]^[18]

Clinical significance

Role in prostate cancer metastasis

The prostatic venous plexus plays a critical role in the dissemination of prostate adenocarcinoma cells, serving as a primary conduit for hematogenous metastasis due to its valveless nature, which allows tumor emboli to flow freely into interconnected venous networks. Tumor cells originating from the prostate gland invade the surrounding venous plexus, facilitating retrograde spread through the Batson vertebral venous plexus—a paravertebral network that connects pelvic veins directly to the vertebral column, skull, and other axial structures—thereby bypassing the pulmonary capillary filter that typically traps emboli from systemic veins. This pathway enables early hematogenous seeding to osseous sites without initial pulmonary involvement. The concept of this metastatic route was first elucidated by Oscar V. Batson in 1940, who demonstrated through cadaveric injections that the valveless vertebral veins provide an alternative pathway for pelvic tumor spread, explaining the predilection for vertebral and intracranial metastases in prostate cancer. In advanced prostate cancer, bone metastases occur in approximately 70-90% of cases with distant spread, with the prostatic venous plexus implicated as the dominant route for this dissemination, accounting for the majority of skeletal involvement. Common metastatic sites include the lumbar spine, pelvis, and ribs, reflecting the anatomical distribution of red marrow and the plexus's connections; for instance, the spine is affected in over 50% of bone metastatic cases, followed closely by the pelvis and ribs. This pattern underscores the plexus's role in directing tumor cells to axial skeletal regions via the Batson anastomoses with the vertebral venous system. Diagnosis of metastasis via the prostatic venous plexus often correlates with elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels, where values exceeding 20 ng/mL prompt bone scintigraphy to detect osseous involvement, revealing hotspots in vertebral and pelvic sites indicative of plexus-mediated spread. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) further demonstrates plexus invasion in locally advanced disease, identifying extracapsular extension into periprostatic veins as a sign of potential hematogenous dissemination, with T2-weighted sequences highlighting venous filling defects or tumor thrombus.^[19] Early vertebral metastasis facilitated by the plexus significantly worsens prognosis in prostate cancer, with median overall survival after spinal metastasis diagnosis ranging from 21-24 months, compared to longer survival in non-osseous metastatic patterns. This spread influences disease staging, where venous invasion beyond the prostatic capsule contributes to classification as T3b (extracapsular extension) or higher, escalating to M1b for confirmed distant bone involvement and prompting aggressive systemic therapy.^[20]^[21]

Surgical and procedural implications

The dorsal venous complex, a key component of the prostatic venous plexus, represents a primary source of intraoperative hemorrhage during radical prostatectomy, with estimated blood loss often ranging from 500 to 1000 mL in procedures without optimized control techniques.^[22] This bleeding arises from the rich vascularity of the complex, which is traumatized during apical dissection, potentially complicating visualization and prolonging operative time.^[23] Surgical techniques to mitigate this risk emphasize early or selective ligation of Santorini's plexus (synonymous with the dorsal venous complex) at the prostatic apex, particularly in robotic-assisted radical prostatectomy, to achieve hemostasis and preserve continence.^[24] Adjunctive measures, such as the application of hemostatic agents like fibrin sealants or energy devices including bipolar cautery and ultrasonic scalpels, further control venous flow and can reduce blood loss.^[25] In transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), disruption of the prostatic venous plexus can lead to significant venous bleeding, manifesting as postoperative hematuria that requires bladder irrigation in 1-15% of cases.^[26] For palliative management of bleeding from prostatic tumors, prostatic artery embolization targets the vascular supply interconnected with the venous plexus, effectively controlling intractable hematuria and improving quality of life in advanced prostate cancer patients.^[27] Incomplete hemostasis of the plexus contributes to postoperative complications, including pelvic hematoma formation, which occurs in 1-2% of radical prostatectomy cases and may necessitate intervention if symptomatic.^[28] Additionally, pelvic venous stasis following surgery can rarely precipitate venous thromboembolism, with an incidence of 1-3% after radical prostatectomy, underscoring the need for prophylactic anticoagulation.^[29] Intraoperative imaging, such as transrectal ultrasound, can enhance visualization during minimally invasive prostatectomies, improving precision in dissection.^[30]

References

[1]
Prostatic venous plexus | Radiology Reference Article
Jul 2, 2020 · The prostatic venous plexus (also known as Santorini's plexus) is a network of veins around the anterolateral aspect of the prostate and anterior to the ...
[2]
Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis, Prostate - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Veins around the prostate form the prostatic plexus which drains into internal iliac veins. The prostate drains to the internal iliac lymph nodes and the sacral ...
[3]
The Prostate Gland - Structure - Vasculature - TeachMeAnatomy
Venous drainage of the prostate is via the prostatic venous plexus, draining into the internal iliac veins. However, the prostatic venous plexus also connects ...
[4]
Prostate Anatomy - Medscape Reference
Feb 24, 2025 · The common trunk of the dorsal venous complex and the lateral venous plexuses are covered by the anterior prostatic fascia and the endopelvic ...Overview · Transition Zone · Vascular Supply
[5]
Prostatic Venous Plexus | Complete Anatomy - Elsevier
The prostatic venous plexus forms a highly anastomotic circle of venules at the base of the prostate gland. Here it encircles the urethra and the prostate ...
[6]
[PDF] The Prostate - Doctor 2018
2. Outer false capsule (prostatic sheath): it is a condensed visceral pelvic fascia. Between the two capsules, lies the prostatic venous plexus.
[7]
Prostatic venous plexus – Knowledge and References
The prostatic venous plexus is a network of veins located on the sides and base of the prostate, between the fibrous capsule of the prostate and the prostatic ...
[8]
Prostatic venous plexus - e-Anatomy - IMAIOS
The prostatic veins form a well-marked prostatic venous plexus which lies partly in the fascial sheath of the prostate and partly between the sheath and the ...
[9]
Prostatic venous plexus: Anatomy, tributaries, drainage - Kenhub
The prostatic venous plexus is a network of small veins that surrounds and drains the prostate gland of the male pelvis.Missing: valveless | Show results with:valveless
[10]
Veins of the Abdomen and Pelvis | Radiology Key
Jul 1, 2016 · This vein arises from the rectal venous plexus, receiving tributaries from the bladder, prostate, and seminal vesicle.
[11]
Prostatic carcinoma metastatic to the paranasal sinuses: A case report
' Nelson et al suggested that the Valsalva maneuver may cause a retrograde flow through a thin valveless low-pressure system that communicates with the venous ...
[12]
Effects of Androgen Deprivation on Prostatic Morphology and ...
Feb 1, 2001 · CONCLUSION: Androgen deprivation decreases tumor volume and vascular permeability and impairs detection of prostate cancers. ... Hormonal ...
[13]
Direct Regulation of Prostate Blood Flow by Vascular Endothelial ...
These reports support the hypothesis that androgen activity on the prostate may involve primary androgenic regulation of prostate blood flow. We also confirmed ...
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[PDF] Batson-Vertebral-Venous-System-1940.pdf
The connections and the collateral circulations of this vein are identical with those of the prostatic plexus of veins with which it connects. Valves in the ...
[15]
Batson venous plexus | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
Aug 12, 2025 · Batson venous plexus, also known as Batson veins, are a network of paravertebral veins with no valves that connect thoracic vessels and deep pelvic veins.
[16]
Venous Anatomy of the Abdomen and Pelvis - Clinical Gate
Feb 13, 2015 · The lumbar veins are interconnected via longitudinal veins called the ascending lumbar veins, which allow for communication between the common ...
[17]
Neuroanatomy, Spinal Cord Veins - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jul 24, 2023 · The vertebral venous plexus, also called the Batson plexus refers to veins located extradurally within the spinal canal (internal plexus) ...
[18]
History of the vertebral venous plexus and the significant ... - PubMed
In 1940, Oscar V. Batson reported the true functionality of the VVP by proving the continuity of the prostatic venous plexus with the VVP and proposed this ...<|separator|>
[19]
Nuclear Medicine Applications in Prostate Cancer - StatPearls - NCBI
May 30, 2023 · [15] Nuclear medicine bone scans typically require PSA levels of 20 ng/mL or more before reliably detecting metastatic bone lesions.[16] New ...
[20]
MRI of Periprostatic Venous Plexus in Staging of Early Prostatic ...
Our study was designed to determine the usefulness of this MRI sign in separating stage B from stage C carcinoma of the prostate. Although the natural history ...
[21]
Predictors of survival in patients with prostate cancer and spinal ...
The median overall survival after diagnosis of spinal metastasis was 24 months (95% CI 21-28 months). The estimated 1-year overall survival was 73% (95% CI 67%- ...
[22]
Where Prostate Cancer Spreads In the Body Affects Survival Time
Mar 7, 2016 · Most patients, nearly 73 percent, had bone metastases, and their overall median survival was just over 21 months.
[23]
blood loss after ligation of dorsal venous complex - PubMed
Estimated intraoperative blood loss was significantly different between the groups: group 1--mean loss 1,262 ml. and group 2--mean loss 1,020 ml. (p less than ...
[24]
The progress of dorsal vascular complex control strategy in radical ...
Feb 26, 2023 · Radical prostatectomy has undergone a development from open to laparoscopic surgery to a surgical robotic approach.
[25]
Management with Santorini's Plexus Should Be Personalized during ...
May 10, 2022 · The aim of this study is to compare the results of laparoscopic prostatectomy in terms of management with Dorsal Venosus Complex (DVC)/Santorini's plexus.
[26]
Delayed versus standard ligature of the dorsal venous complex ...
As bleeding is a major perioperative complication in radical prostatectomy and the primary source of bleeding comes from the dorsal vein complex, control of the ...
[27]
Non-Surgical Bleeding and Transurethral Resection of the Prostate ...
Jul 12, 2024 · TURP syndrome results from the leakage of irrigation fluid into the intravascular space through the prostatic venous plexus after prostate ...
[28]
Prostatic artery embolization (PAE) for prostatic origin bleeding ... - NIH
Jun 12, 2019 · PAE is useful for controlling significant prostatic bleeding in patients with prostate cancer and improves quality of life.Missing: plexus | Show results with:plexus
[29]
Transarterial embolization for pelvic hematoma following ... - NIH
Jun 16, 2015 · Severe post-operative hemorrhage following radical prostatectomy has been reported in 0.5 to 1.6% of cases, according to a range of definitions ...
[30]
Incidence, risk profile and morphological pattern of venous ...
Conclusion: Venous thromboembolism is common after radical prostatectomy. A significant proportion develops after day 8, suggesting that prolonged heparin ...
[31]
Latest Advancements and Future Directions in Prostate Cancer ...
Sep 18, 2025 · Nowadays, intraoperative imaging-guided surgery has developed, aiming for a more precise, effective and patient-centered surgical approach [62].