Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Protamine

Protamines are a diverse family of small, arginine-rich nuclear proteins synthesized in the late stages of spermatogenesis in many animals and plants, where they replace histones to condense and protect sperm DNA into a compact, genetically inactive state essential for fertilization.^[1] These proteins typically consist of 50 to 110 amino acids, with approximately two-thirds being arginine residues that confer a strong positive charge, enabling tight binding to negatively charged DNA; mammalian protamines, such as human P1 (approximately 50 amino acids) and mature P2 (approximately 57 amino acids), feature cysteine residues that form disulfide bridges for structural stabilization.^[1]^[2] In sperm, protamines coil DNA into toroidal structures, reducing nuclear volume by up to 20-fold compared to somatic nuclei and facilitating hydrodynamic sperm shape, with binding affinities of 10-15 base pairs per protamine molecule.^[1]^[2] Evolutionarily, protamines derive from sperm-specific histone variants and exhibit species-specific diversity, with vertebrates possessing 1 to 15 genes often clustered on a single chromosome, such as human chromosome 16p13.2.^[1] Medically, protamine sulfate—a polycationic, low-molecular-weight derivative isolated from salmon sperm or produced recombinantly—serves as the primary antidote to reverse the anticoagulant effects of unfractionated heparin, forming an inactive salt complex that neutralizes heparin's activity within 5 minutes of intravenous administration.^[3] Approved by the FDA for use in scenarios like post-cardiopulmonary bypass surgery, dialysis, or vascular procedures, it is dosed at 1-1.5 mg per 100 units of heparin and infused over 10-15 minutes to minimize risks.^[3] Historically introduced in the early 20th century to prolong insulin action in formulations like neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin, protamine's clinical utility has expanded in cardiac surgery since the advent of heparin-based anticoagulation in the 1950s, though it provides only partial reversal of low-molecular-weight heparins.^[3] Adverse effects include anaphylaxis (incidence 0.06%-10.6%, higher in patients with prior exposure via fish allergies, vasectomy, or NPH insulin use), hypotension, bradycardia, and potential anticoagulation from excess dosing; contraindications encompass hypersensitivity histories and prior protamine-containing therapies.^[3] Ongoing research explores protamine's structural dynamics, revealing disordered conformations ranging from hairpin loops to extended coils that enhance DNA compaction, particularly in mammalian species where disulfide bonds play a key role.^[2]

Biological Function

Role in Spermatogenesis

During late spermatogenesis, specifically in the haploid phase of spermiogenesis, somatic histones are progressively replaced by protamines in elongating spermatids to enable extreme DNA packaging in the sperm nucleus.^[4] This transition begins after meiosis, around postnatal day 28 in mice, and involves intermediate replacement by transition proteins (Tnp1 and Tnp2) before full protamine incorporation, ensuring orderly chromatin remodeling without disrupting genome integrity.^[5] The process is tightly regulated by epigenetic modifications, including histone hyperacetylation and phase-separated condensates that facilitate histone eviction. Recent studies have identified additional regulators, including the phase-separated protein CCER1, palmitoyltransferase ZDHHC19, and Fam170a, which coordinate histone eviction and protamine incorporation during spermiogenesis.^[4]^[6]^[7] The mechanism of protamine incorporation entails the targeted elimination of histones via ubiquitination, where E3 ubiquitin ligases like RNF8 tag histone H2A and H2B for proteasomal degradation, destabilizing nucleosomes and allowing protamine access to DNA.^[8] As protamines bind, nuclear condensation occurs through their arginine-rich domains interacting with DNA phosphates, followed by oxidation of cysteine residues to form intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds that cross-link protamine molecules and lock the compact structure.^[9] This stepwise replacement, occurring in post-meiotic spermatids, also involves the removal of residual histones and non-coding RNAs, effectively erasing most epigenetic marks from the paternal genome.^[5] The functional outcomes of this transition include a 6- to 7-fold reduction in nuclear volume, achieving DNA compaction far exceeding that in somatic cells and protecting the genome from mechanical damage and oxidative stress during epididymal transit and fertilization.^[5] This hypercondensation stabilizes the haploid genome, silences transcription, and facilitates sperm motility by streamlining the nucleus. Studies on protamine knockout mouse models demonstrate impaired fertility. For Prm1 knockouts, heterozygotes exhibit subfertility while homozygotes are sterile; for Prm2 knockouts, heterozygotes are fertile but homozygotes are sterile. Homozygotes for both show abnormal sperm morphology, including enlarged heads, disrupted chromatin, and increased DNA damage due to incomplete histone replacement.^[10]

Chromatin Condensation in Sperm

In mature sperm, protamines facilitate the highly compact organization of DNA into toroidal structures, known as DNA-protamine toroids, which represent the fundamental units of sperm chromatin architecture. Each toroid packages approximately 50–60 kilobases (kb) of DNA in a doughnut-shaped complex, with human sperm containing around 50,000–60,000 such toroids to accommodate the entire ~3 billion base pair genome. This arrangement achieves a chromatin density 6-20 times greater than that of histone-based nucleosomes in somatic cells, enabling the sperm nucleus to occupy a volume reduction of over 80% compared to earlier spermatid stages.^[11]^[12]^[13] The binding of protamines to DNA occurs primarily through electrostatic interactions, where the highly positive arginine residues in protamine molecules neutralize the negative phosphate backbone of DNA, allowing the DNA to coil tightly into these toroidal loops. This initial association is further stabilized by the formation of disulfide cross-links between cysteine residues in adjacent protamine molecules, particularly in protamine 2 (P2), which enhances the structural integrity of the toroids and resists unfolding under physiological conditions. These cross-links form progressively during spermiogenesis and maturation in the epididymis, contributing to the overall rigidity of the sperm chromatin fiber.^[14]^[15]^[16] The condensed protamine-DNA toroids provide key biological advantages, including the hydrodynamic shaping of the sperm head to optimize motility and propulsion through the female reproductive tract. This packaging also confers resistance to mechanical stress during transit and protects the DNA from nuclease degradation, ensuring genomic integrity until fertilization. Additionally, the stable toroid structure prevents premature DNA unpacking in the sperm, which could otherwise lead to errors in transmission to the oocyte. In humans, the ideal ratio of protamine 1 (P1) to P2 is approximately 1:1, as deviations—such as P2 deficiency—disrupt toroid formation and chromatin stability, correlating with increased DNA fragmentation and subfertility or infertility in affected males.^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]

Molecular Properties

Amino Acid Sequence

Protamine proteins are small, basic polypeptides typically comprising 50 to 110 amino acids, with an exceptionally high arginine content ranging from 50% to 80% of their total residues, which imparts a strong positive charge essential for electrostatic interactions with DNA.^[15] They are notably low in lysine and other basic amino acids, with many species' protamines containing no lysine residues at all, further emphasizing arginine's dominance in their composition.^[21] In humans, protamine 1 (PRM1), encoded by the PRM1 gene, consists of 51 amino acids and features a characteristic arginine-rich core sequence, such as CRRCCRCRSCRRCRRCRCRCRCRCRCRCRCRRC, flanked by regions with serine, cysteine, and other residues that contribute to its functionality.^[22] The full sequence of human PRM1 is MARYRCCRSQSRSRYYRQRQRSRRRRRRSCQTRRRAMRCCRPRYRPRCRRH, containing 23 arginine residues (approximately 45%) and multiple cysteines for potential cross-linking.^[22] Protamine 2 (PRM2), encoded by the PRM2 gene, is synthesized as a 102-amino-acid precursor that undergoes proteolytic processing during spermatogenesis to yield mature forms of approximately 50-60 amino acids, such as HP2 (54 amino acids). The precursor contains 13 cysteines and lower arginine content (~20%), while the mature forms exhibit higher arginine richness (e.g., ~59% or 32 residues in HP2) and 5 cysteines, forming distinct cysteine-rich domains with sequences like multiple CGC and CRC motifs interspersed with arginine clusters that enable intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds for stabilizing chromatin packaging.^[23]^[24]^[15] Post-translational modifications play a critical role in protamine maturation, particularly phosphorylation at serine residues shortly after synthesis, which occurs prior to DNA binding and may regulate the protein's solubility and initial association with chromatin.^[25] During later stages of spermatogenesis, dephosphorylation of these serine sites is essential for protamines to effectively bind and condense DNA, as the removal of phosphate groups enhances their affinity for negatively charged DNA phosphates.^[26] Specific sites, such as serine 56 in murine PRM2 (conserved in humans), are key targets for this dephosphorylation process.^[26] Protamine sequences demonstrate evolutionary conservation across vertebrates, with approximately 60-80% identity in key arginine clusters that form the DNA-binding motifs, reflecting their fundamental role in sperm chromatin organization despite variations in overall length and cysteine content among species.^[1] This conservation underscores the selective pressure on arginine-rich regions for maintaining DNA compaction efficiency.^[27]

Three-Dimensional Structure

Protamine molecules are characterized by a lack of stable secondary structures such as alpha-helices, primarily adopting extended beta-strands and random coils, which arise from their high positive charge density that prevents compact folding.^[28] This intrinsically disordered conformation allows flexibility in binding to DNA, with the arginine-rich composition enabling strong electrostatic interactions.^[15] In their tertiary structure, mammalian protamines feature intramolecular disulfide bridges formed by cysteine residues, typically numbering 3-5 per protamine 2 molecule, which provide stability to the otherwise flexible chains.^[2] These bridges cross-link the protein, creating looped domains that enhance resistance to denaturation during sperm transit. Additionally, phosphorylation at serine and threonine sites modulates protamine flexibility, potentially regulating DNA binding affinity during chromatin assembly.^[25] When complexed with DNA, protamines organize the nucleic acid into compact toroidal solenoids through electrostatic salt bridges between arginine guanidinium groups and DNA phosphate backbones.^[29] Each protamine binds approximately 10-11 base pairs of DNA, facilitating the wrapping of roughly 10 DNA turns into a single toroid with an outer diameter of about 100 nm, resulting in highly condensed structures that pack the sperm genome efficiently.^[15] Post-fertilization, protamine-DNA complexes dissociate in the egg cytoplasm via reduction of the stabilizing disulfide bridges by glutathione, which breaks the cross-links and allows chromatin decondensation for subsequent histone replacement and embryonic genome activation.^[30] This thiol-mediated reduction is essential for unlocking the paternal genome, preventing developmental arrest.^[16]

Species Variations

In Mammals

In mammals, protamines primarily consist of two isoforms, PRM1 and PRM2, which are arginine-rich basic proteins essential for sperm chromatin condensation.^[31] In humans, the PRM1 and PRM2 genes are located in a tandem cluster on chromosome 16p13.13 and are expressed postmeiotically in round spermatids during spermatogenesis. PRM1 is considered essential across all mammals for proper protamine incorporation into chromatin, while PRM2 expression is more variable and depends on species-specific gene functionality.^[32] Species variations in protamine isoforms reflect evolutionary differences in gene retention and function. Both PRM1 and PRM2 are present and functional in primates and most rodents, where they contribute to sperm nuclear packaging in roughly equal proportions in humans (PRM1:PRM2 ≈ 1:1) or with PRM2 predominance in mice (≈ 1:2).^[10] In contrast, PRM2 is absent or non-functional in several ungulate species, such as cattle (bull) and pigs (boar), due to mutations in the coding or promoter regions, leaving PRM1 as the sole protamine isoform.^[33] These variations highlight PRM2's restricted distribution, appearing only in primates, select rodents, and a few other placental mammals like horses.^[31] The ratio of PRM1 to PRM2 significantly influences sperm chromatin compaction and overall fertility. An optimal balance ensures tight DNA packaging and stability, but deviations—such as reduced PRM2 levels—can lead to incomplete histone-to-protamine exchange, increased DNA fragmentation, and impaired sperm motility.^[34] In humans, variants in PRM2 are linked to infertility, often correlating with abnormal protamine ratios and subfertility.^[35] Protamine genes in mammals feature testis-specific promoters that drive haploid expression in spermatids. This regulation is primarily controlled by the cAMP-responsive element modulator (CREM) transcription factor, which binds to CRE sites in the promoter regions to activate transcription during late spermatogenesis.^[36] CREM ensures coordinated expression of PRM1 and PRM2, with mRNAs stored in translationally repressed ribonucleoprotein particles until elongation stages.^[37]

In Fish and Other Vertebrates

In fish, particularly teleost species, protamines are notably shorter than those in higher vertebrates, typically comprising 20 to 40 amino acids, and exhibit exceptionally high arginine content, often reaching 70-80%. These proteins facilitate the tight packaging of sperm DNA required for external fertilization, a reproductive mode universal among teleosts. For instance, salmine, the predominant protamine in salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) sperm, consists of 31-32 amino acids with about 67% arginine residues arranged in clusters that enhance DNA binding affinity.^[38] Unlike the multiple isoforms common in some mammals, fish protamines generally feature a single major isoform per species, streamlining their synthesis during late spermatogenesis.^[15] In other non-mammalian vertebrates, such as birds and reptiles, protamine structures show variations with intermediate lengths, often 40-70 amino acids, reflecting transitional adaptations between the compact forms in fish and more complex ones in mammals. These intermediate protamines support diverse reproductive strategies, including internal fertilization in some reptiles, while maintaining high arginine enrichment for chromatin stability. The distribution of protamines across these groups underscores their role in sperm function tailored to environmental demands, with teleost fish representing the most streamlined examples due to the exigencies of external fertilization in aquatic settings.^[39]^[40] Evolutionarily, the ancestral protamine gene in vertebrates is thought to have been a single copy, similar to that preserved in fish, with gene duplications emerging later in mammalian lineages to enable greater diversity. Fish protamines distinctly lack cysteine residues, relying exclusively on electrostatic interactions between their arginine-rich domains and DNA phosphate backbones for condensation, without the disulfide bridges that stabilize mammalian variants. This simplicity aligns with the ancestral state, optimizing for rapid, reversible packaging in externally fertilizing species.^[1]^[15] For pharmaceutical applications, protamine sulfate is commercially sourced primarily from the sperm (milt) of salmon and herring, species valued for their abundant, accessible supplies and consistent biochemical profiles. Extraction from these teleost sources yields a purified mixture suitable for heparin neutralization, leveraging the natural arginine content for clinical efficacy.^[41]^[42]

Medical Applications

In Insulin Therapy

Protamine plays a key role in prolonging the action of insulin for diabetes management by forming stable complexes that delay subcutaneous absorption. In formulations like neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin, protamine binds to insulin hexamers in the presence of zinc, resulting in the formation of microcrystalline precipitates at neutral pH (approximately 7.2-7.4). These insoluble complexes dissolve slowly after injection, providing an intermediate duration of action that mimics more physiological insulin profiles compared to regular insulin.^[43]^[44] The use of protamine in insulin therapy originated with the development of protamine insulin in 1936 by Hans Christian Hagedorn and colleagues, who combined insulin with protamine sulfate derived from salmon sperm to extend its effects. This was refined into protamine zinc insulin (PZI) and later NPH insulin in 1946, with protamine concentrations typically ranging from 0.2 to 1.5 mg per 100 units of insulin in early formulations. Modern NPH insulins, such as Humulin N, contain about 0.5 mg of protamine per 100 units, maintaining the original principle while using recombinant human insulin.^[45]^[3]^[46] Pharmacokinetically, NPH insulin exhibits an onset of 1-3 hours, a peak effect at 4-12 hours, and a duration of 12-18 hours, effectively extending insulin's half-life beyond that of short-acting forms and allowing once- or twice-daily dosing to reduce injection frequency. This intermediate-acting profile helps control basal insulin needs, often combined with short-acting insulins for mealtime coverage.^[47]^[48] While protamine enables stable, neutral-pH formulations suitable for storage and administration, its origin from fish proteins introduces potential immunogenicity, with risks of hypersensitivity reactions in patients allergic to fish or those developing anti-protamine antibodies over time. Despite this, NPH remains widely used due to its efficacy and cost-effectiveness in resource-limited settings.^[3]^[49]

Heparin Neutralization

Protamine serves as a critical reversal agent for unfractionated heparin anticoagulation, particularly in surgical procedures such as cardiac surgery involving cardiopulmonary bypass and in emergency treatments for heparin overdose. Recent evidence as of 2025 supports its use in percutaneous interventions like transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) and carotid artery stenting to reduce bleeding complications without increasing thrombotic risk.^[50]^[51] The binding mechanism relies on electrostatic interactions, where protamine's positively charged arginine-rich structure forms stable, inactive complexes with heparin's negatively charged sulfate groups, thereby dissociating the heparin-antithrombin III complex and halting its inhibitory effects on thrombin and factor Xa.^[52] This neutralization occurs in a stoichiometric ratio of approximately 1 mg of protamine to 100 units of heparin, ensuring precise titration to avoid excess protamine, which can paradoxically promote bleeding through platelet inhibition.^[3] Clinical protocols for protamine administration emphasize intravenous delivery to achieve rapid onset, with dosing calculated at 1-1.5 mg per 100 units of heparin based on the estimated circulating heparin level, often determined via activated clotting time (ACT) measurements.^[52] Infusion occurs slowly over 10-15 minutes, typically through a peripheral line following a test dose in sensitive patients, to mitigate risks like hypotension during high-volume procedures such as post-bypass reversal in cardiac surgery.^[3] In overdose scenarios, initial dosing follows the same ratio, with adjustments made if residual heparin activity persists, particularly for low-molecular-weight heparins where efficacy may vary due to longer half-lives.^[52] Efficacy is evidenced by swift restoration of hemostasis, with anticoagulation reversal typically complete within 5 minutes of administration, as confirmed by normalization of ACT or thromboelastography parameters.^[3] This rapid action is essential in perioperative settings to prevent excessive bleeding, though monitoring via arterial lines or pulmonary artery catheters is recommended to track coagulation dynamics and potential hemodynamic changes.^[3] Pharmaceutical protamine sulfate, sourced from the sperm of salmon (family Salmonidae), is formulated as a sterile 10 mg/mL solution for intravenous injection, ensuring compatibility with standard hospital protocols for acute anticoagulation management.^[53]

Clinical Considerations

Adverse Effects

Protamine administration is associated with a range of adverse effects, primarily encountered during its use for heparin neutralization in cardiac surgery and other procedures. These reactions can vary from mild hypersensitivity to severe, life-threatening events, with an overall incidence of adverse reactions reported up to 1 in 10 patients, though severe cases are less common.^[52] Allergic reactions, particularly type I hypersensitivity manifesting as anaphylaxis, occur in approximately 0.1-0.2% of general patients, with higher rates of 0.6-2% observed in diabetics using protamine-containing insulins like NPH due to prior sensitization. These IgE-mediated responses are triggered by antibodies formed from previous exposure to protamine, often in fish-derived formulations (sourced from salmon sperm), leading to systemic symptoms such as urticaria, bronchospasm, and cardiovascular collapse.^[54]^[3] Hemodynamic effects are among the most immediate risks, including profound hypotension from vasodilation, pulmonary hypertension with increases in pulmonary vascular resistance up to tenfold, and bradycardia. These arise from mechanisms such as thromboxane A2 release, complement activation (via C3a and C5a anaphylatoxins), and nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation, rather than significant histamine release at clinical doses.^[54]^[52]^[3] Other notable risks include thrombocytopenia, affecting platelet function and aggregation with an incidence of about 9.6% in post-cardiac surgery patients due to protamine-heparin complex antibodies, and non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema linked to severe pulmonary hypertension. Contraindications encompass known fish protein allergy, prior protamine reactions, and use in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes involving protamine formulations, as these heighten sensitization risk.^[54]^[52]^[3] Management strategies focus on prevention and mitigation, including premedication with antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine) and corticosteroids (e.g., hydrocortisone) in high-risk patients, alongside slow intravenous infusion over 10-15 minutes to minimize peak concentrations and reaction severity. For acute events, epinephrine, fluid resuscitation, and vasopressors are employed, with monitoring for heparin rebound necessitating prolonged low-dose protamine infusion in select cases.^[52]^[3]^[54]

Research and Future Uses

Ongoing research explores protamine's applications beyond established medical uses, focusing on its cationic properties for enhancing gene delivery and therapeutic interventions. In gene therapy, protamine serves as a DNA-binding agent in viral vectors, notably adeno-associated virus (AAV) systems, to improve transfection efficiency. Addition of protamine sulfate at concentrations up to 5 μg/ml enhances recombinant AAV transduction in cell lines like HepG2 by neutralizing negative charges on cell surfaces and virus particles, thereby increasing transgene expression. This mechanism leverages protamine's ability to reverse zeta potentials, facilitating better vector-cell interactions and broader applicability in targeted gene delivery.^[55] Investigations into protamine's role in obesity and lipid metabolism highlight its inhibitory effects on pancreatic lipase, which reduces fat absorption in preclinical models. In high-fat diet-fed rats, protamine supplementation significantly lowered body weight gain and fat accumulation by blocking dietary lipid digestion. Similarly, protamine combined with chitosan oligosaccharides suppressed pancreatic lipase activity, resulting in decreased serum triglycerides and cholesterol levels, as well as reduced hepatic lipid deposition. Protamine demonstrated anti-obesity potential in mice by promoting PPARγ1 expression in adipocytes and PPARα in the liver, thereby improving lipid metabolism. A protamine-derived peptide, Arg-Pro-Arg (RPR), also exhibited anti-obesity effects through mechanisms such as increased fecal cholesterol and bile acid excretion. As of 2025, the adverse effect profile of protamine remains consistent with established data, while emerging research indicates potential protective roles, such as against vancomycin-induced kidney injury.^[56]^[57]^[58]^[59] In fertility research, protamine-to-DNA ratios provide a key diagnostic tool for evaluating male infertility through semen analysis. Deficiencies or imbalances in protamine 1 (PRM1) and protamine 2 (PRM2) correlate with elevated sperm DNA fragmentation and impaired fertility outcomes across multiple studies. Variations in protamine content among individual sperm cells are linked to reduced viability and increased DNA damage, offering prognostic value in clinical assessments. Genetic analyses reveal that polymorphisms in PRM1 and PRM2 genes elevate infertility risk, with certain haplotypes conferring protection against subfertility.^[60]^[61]^[35] Protamine's utility in biomaterials centers on its self-assembly into nanoparticles for advanced drug delivery systems, particularly with heparin or small interfering RNA (siRNA). These nanoparticles shield nucleic acids from nuclease degradation while enabling efficient cellular uptake and high transfection rates. Antibody-conjugated protamine-siRNA complexes target specific cell types, such as in cancer therapy, by silencing otherwise undruggable genes through precise intracellular delivery. Heparin-protamine assemblies in layer-by-layer nanoparticles further support co-delivery of siRNA and chemotherapeutics, enhancing endosomal escape and sustained gene knockdown in target tissues.^[62]^[63]^[64]

History

Discovery

Protamine was first isolated in 1874 by Swiss biochemist Friedrich Miescher from the sperm cells of salmon (Salmo salar), where he extracted it as a basic protein associated with nuclein, the substance he had previously identified in cell nuclei. Miescher named the protein "protamine" due to its proteinaceous nature and its ability to form salts with acidic nuclein, observing that it constituted a major component of mature sperm heads. This discovery marked the initial recognition of protamines as specialized nuclear proteins unique to sperm, distinguishing them from typical histones found in somatic cells.^[65]^[66] In the 1880s, German biochemist Albrecht Kossel extended Miescher's work by isolating similar protamine-like substances from the sperm nuclei of other fish species and confirming their highly basic character through chemical analysis. Kossel's studies, particularly around 1884–1896, demonstrated that protamines are exceptionally rich in arginine, comprising up to 67% of their amino acid content, which explained their strong affinity for DNA. By the early 1900s, researchers had proposed that protamines play a critical role in packaging and stabilizing DNA within sperm nuclei, facilitating the compact structure necessary for sperm function during fertilization.^[67]^[68] Biochemical characterization advanced significantly in the mid-20th century, with the amino acid composition of salmine—the protamine from salmon—elucidated in the 1950s by Japanese researchers including Toshio Ando, revealing its predominantly arginine-rich sequence. The full amino acid sequence of salmine was determined in 1969, confirming it as a short peptide of approximately 30–33 residues with minimal variation. Concurrently, in the 1960s, electron microscopy studies visualized the dynamic replacement of histones by protamines during spermatogenesis, highlighting how this transition compacts chromatin into a highly ordered, transcriptionally inert state in maturing sperm.^[69]^[70] A key milestone came in the 1970s with the molecular cloning of protamine genes from rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) by Gordon Dixon's group, using cDNA libraries to isolate multiple sequence variants of protamine mRNA. These efforts, starting around 1979, established the genetic basis of protamine expression and firmly linked their synthesis to the haploid phase of spermatogenesis, where they are transcribed post-meiosis to support sperm chromatin remodeling. This work laid the foundation for understanding protamines' evolutionary conservation and specificity to male germ cells.^[71]^[72]

Key Developments

In the 1920s and 1930s, Danish physician and chemist Hans Christian Hagedorn conducted pioneering trials to extend the duration of insulin action by combining it with protamine, leading to the development of the first intermediate-acting insulin formulation, protamine insulinate, in 1936.^[73] This innovation addressed the limitations of short-acting insulin by forming a stable complex that slowed absorption, marking protamine's transition from a biochemical research tool to a pharmaceutical agent for diabetes management.^[74] Building on these efforts, neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin was introduced in the United States in the late 1940s, receiving FDA approval in 1950, which facilitated its widespread clinical adoption for basal insulin therapy.^[75] During the 1960s, protamine gained prominence in surgical settings, particularly for reversing heparin anticoagulation during cardiopulmonary bypass procedures, which became routine following advancements in open-heart surgery.^[76] Its use allowed safe termination of extracorporeal circulation by neutralizing heparin's effects, reducing bleeding risks in complex cardiac operations.^[77] By the 1980s, efforts to standardize protamine dosing emerged through the integration of activated clotting time (ACT) monitoring, enabling more precise calculations based on heparin levels and patient response, which minimized over- or under-dosing and improved outcomes in cardiac surgery.^[78] The molecular characterization of protamine advanced in the 1990s with the mapping of the human PRM1 and PRM2 genes to chromosome 16p13.13 via in situ hybridization, providing insights into their genomic organization and expression during spermatogenesis.^[79] In the 2000s, studies linked protamine gene variants and expression imbalances to male infertility, with research demonstrating that disruptions in protamine ratios contribute to sperm DNA damage and reduced fertility, as evidenced by associations in clinical cohorts.^[17] From the 2010s onward, protamine has been explored in nanomedicine for its cationic properties, forming nanoparticles that enhance drug and nucleic acid delivery, including as a component in ternary complexes for gene therapy vectors.^[49] Recent applications in the 2020s extend to CRISPR/Cas9 systems, where protamine condenses and protects guide RNA and Cas9 components in lipid nanoparticles, improving targeted genome editing efficiency in preclinical models for genetic disorders and cancer.^[80] As of 2025, research has explored protamine's ectopic expression in somatic cells to condense chromatin and its sequence-dependent role in determining species-specific nuclear shapes in sperm.^[81]^[82]

References

[1]
The protamine family of sperm nuclear proteins - PMC
The protamines are a diverse family of small arginine-rich proteins that are synthesized in the late-stage spermatids of many animals and plants and bind to DNA ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[2]
Exploring Structures and Dynamics of Protamine Molecules through ...
Nov 8, 2022 · Protamines are arginine-rich proteins that condense DNA in sperm. Despite their importance in reproduction, information on protamine structure ...
[3]
Protamine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Protamine is a medication used to reverse and neutralize the anticoagulant effects of heparin. Protamine is the specific antagonist that neutralizes heparin- ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[4]
Phase-separated CCER1 coordinates the histone-to-protamine ...
Dec 11, 2023 · In contrast to somatic differentiation, the histone-to-protamine (HTP) transition during spermatogenesis is essential for the entire genome to ...
[5]
Essential Role of Histone Replacement and Modifications in Male ...
During the histone-to-protamine transition, the histone variants and specific histone modifications play essential roles by modulating the chromatin compaction ...H1 Variants · H2a Variants · Acetylation · Transition Proteins
[6]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12533564/
[7]
Role of Disulfide Bonds on DNA Packaging Forces in Bull Sperm ...
The covalent sulfur-sulfur (S-S) bonds stabilize the sperm DNA and are thought crucial to condense the mammalian sperm nucleus into its fully mature state.
[8]
Protamines: lessons learned from mouse models in
Jul 26, 2022 · In brief Protamines package and shield the paternal DNA in the sperm nucleus and have been studied in many mouse models over decades.
[9]
Deciphering the structure of DNA toroids - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · ... About 60 kb of DNA can be stored in a single toroid and sperm cells can have up to 50,000 toroids (17). Interestingly, other positively ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Spatiotemporal dynamics of protamine–DNA condensation revealed ...
Mar 24, 2025 · Protamines (PRMs) play a crucial role in sperm chromatin condensation, replacing histones to form nucleo–PRM structures, specifically PRM–DNA ...
[11]
Epigenetic regulation of the histone-to-protamine transition during ...
May 1, 2016 · This histone-to-protamine transition process represents an excellent model for the investigation of how epigenetic regulators interact with each ...
[12]
The Art of Packaging the Sperm Genome: Molecular and Structural ...
Ultimately, protamine-DNA binding forms toroidal structures of sperm chromatin, making sperm chromatin distinct from that of both oocytes and somatic cells.
[13]
The protamine family of sperm nuclear proteins - Genome Biology
Sep 26, 2007 · Protamine P2 is also post-translationally modified through the production of inter-protamine disulfide bonds. Which protamine P2 cysteine ...
[14]
Unlocking sperm chromatin at fertilization requires a dedicated egg ...
Nov 23, 2016 · Intermolecular disulfide crosslinks notably participate in the stabilization of sperm chromatin by connecting adjacent chromatin fibres. It is ...
[15]
Protamines and male infertility | Human Reproduction Update
Generation of a condensed paternal genome with a more compact and hydrodynamic nucleus. The spermatozoa with the most hydrodynamic nucleus would move faster, ...
[16]
Histone H2B.8 compacts flowering plant sperm through chromatin ...
Nov 2, 2022 · Here we show that a histone variant, H2B.8, mediates sperm chromatin and nuclear condensation in Arabidopsis thaliana.
[17]
Sperm chromatin condensation: epigenetic mechanisms to ... - J-Stage
Both PRM1 and PRM2 are highly enriched for cysteine and arginine, the former of which generates intra- and inter-protamine disulfide bonds and zinc bridges, ...
[18]
Protamine 1 to protamine 2 ratio correlates with dynamic aspects of ...
Under normal conditions, fertile and healthy human sperm express P1 and P2 in almost identical amounts (1).
[19]
A comparison of DNA compaction by arginine and lysine peptides
Bovine protamine has 26 arginines out of 50 total amino acids again with no lysines (28). Humans have two protamines; P1 that has 50 amino acids with 24 ...
[20]
Sperm protamine P1 - T3DB
Name, Sperm protamine P1. Synonyms. Cysteine-rich protamine. Gene Name, PRM1. Organism, Human. Amino acid sequence, >lcl|BSEQ0013453|Sperm protamine P1 ...<|separator|>
[21]
PRM2 - Protamine-2 - Homo sapiens (Human) | UniProtKB | UniProt
P04554-1. This isoform has been chosen as the canonical sequence. All positional information in this entry refers to it. This is also the sequence that ...
[22]
Protamine Characterization by Top-Down Proteomics - MDPI
However, the peculiar physicochemical properties of protamines (high arginine content with P1 containing 24 Arg residues out of 51 and HP2 32 Arg residues ...2.3. Protamine... · 3. Results And Discussion · 3.3. Protamine Proteoform...<|separator|>
[23]
Effect of phosphorylation of protamine-like cationic peptide on the ...
Protamines are heavily phosphorylated early after synthesis and before binding to DNA, but they are greatly dephosphorylated during sperm maturation. So, ...
[24]
Dephosphorylation of protamine 2 at serine 56 is crucial for murine ...
Mar 26, 2019 · Protamines are also posttranslationally modified by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, which prompted our investigation of the underlying ...
[25]
Entropy based analysis of vertebrate sperm protamines sequences
Apr 3, 2020 · Protamine sequences from UniProt's databases were pulled down and sorted into homologous groups. Multiple sequence alignments were then ...
[26]
Exploring Structures and Dynamics of Protamine Molecules through ...
Nov 8, 2022 · Cysteine residues in mammalian protamines undergo oxidation resulting in the formation of intramolecular and intermolecular disulfide bonds. ( ...
[27]
Sperm chromatin structure: Insights from in vitro to in situ experiments
Sperm chromatin is highly condensed by protamines (PRMs) after histone–protamine replacement, and the majority of the sperm genome forms a nucleo-protamine ...Sperm Chromatin Structure... · Nucleo-Protamine Structure · In Vitro Reconstitution Of...Missing: reduction | Show results with:reduction
[28]
Proposed mechanism for sperm chromatin condensation ...
Feb 11, 2003 · It has been proposed that glutathione, which is present in the egg cytoplasm, provides the reducing equivalents for the reduction of the ...
[29]
Entry - *182890 - SPERM PROTAMINE P2; PRM2 - (OMIM.ORG)
The nucleotide sequence deduced from the cDNA agreed completely with the published amino acid sequence for protamine-2. ... Sequence of human protamine 2 cDNA.
[30]
Loss of Prm1 leads to defective chromatin protamination, impaired ...
Jun 20, 2022 · Our results reveal that PRM1 is required for proper PRM2 processing to produce mature PRM2, which, together with PRM1, is able to hypercondense DNA.
[31]
The lack of protamine 2 (P2) in boar and bull spermatozoa is due to ...
The lack of protamine 2 (P2) in boar and bull spermatozoa is due to mutations within the P2 gene. · W M Maier · G Nussbaum · L Domenjoud · U Klemm · W Engel.Missing: PRM2 absent stallion
[32]
Comparative study of sperm protamine gene expression and ...
In mammals, the ratio between Protamine 1 (PRM1) and Protamine 2 (PRM2) plays a pivotal role in male fertility, with imbalances linked to infertility in ...
[33]
Polymorphisms in Protamine 1 and Protamine 2 predict the risk of ...
Oct 16, 2015 · Several studies have investigated the association between polymorphisms in protamine 1 and 2 genes and male infertility risk, with inconsistent results to date.
[34]
Altered protamine expression and diminished spermatogenesis
The cAMP response element (CRE) is found in the promoter region of the protamine genes and it serves as a binding site for the transcriptional activator CREM ...
[35]
Coordinate expression of the PRM1, PRM2, and TNP2 multigene ...
The expression of the PRM1, PRM2, and TNP2 genes facilitates the compaction and condensation of the genetic material within the developing spermatid.
[36]
Secondary structure of protamine in sperm nuclei: an infrared ...
Mar 24, 2011 · Typical protamines are of simple composition and very arginine-rich, usually in the range 60-80%. They are characterized by a number of ...<|separator|>
[37]
(PDF) Protamines of Reptiles - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · We have characterized for the first time the complete primary structure of the main protamine components of the sperm from four reptiles: ...
[38]
Protamines of reptiles - PubMed - NIH
Sep 20, 1996 · We have characterized for the first time the complete primary structure of the main protamine components of the sperm from four reptiles: ...Missing: length birds
[39]
Protamines of Reptiles - ScienceDirect.com
The analysis in Fig. 9C shows that protamines from reptiles, particularly crocodilians, are closely related to those from birds and mammals, as will be ...
[40]
On the Evolution of Protamines in Bony Fish - PubMed
Fish protamines are highly specialized molecules which are responsible for chromatin condensation during the last stages of spermatogenesis (spermiogenesis).Missing: external fertilization
[41]
Formation of Protamine and Zn–Insulin Assembly - ACS Publications
Nov 4, 2022 · The insulin–protamine interaction is at the core of the mode of action in many insulin formulations (Zn + insulin + protamine) and to treat ...
[42]
Structural characterization of insulin NPH formulations - ScienceDirect
The protracted action profile of NPH formulations is gained from crystallizing insulin with zinc in the presence of the basic poly-arginine peptide protamine.
[43]
Landmark article Jan 18, 1936: Protamine insulinate. By ... - PubMed
Landmark article Jan 18, 1936: Protamine insulinate. By H.C. Hagedorn, B.N. Jensen, N.B. Krarup, and I. Wodstrup ; Publication types. Biography; Historical ...
[44]
US3868358A - Protamine-insulin product - Google Patents
The protamine is present in an amount from about 0.2 to about 1.5 mg. of protamine for each 100 units of insulin. The insulin salt and protamine form an ...
[45]
NPH Insulin - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 12, 2023 · NPH (Neutral Protamine Hagedorn) insulin is an insoluble intermediate-acting insulin preparation first created in 1946. The name refers to N for ...
[46]
https://patents.google.com/patent/US3868358A/en
[47]
Use of Protamine in Nanopharmaceuticals—A Review - PMC
An increasing patient risk factor for anaphylaxis comprise diabetes mellitus treatment with protamine-containing insulin and allergic responses to fish proteins ...
[48]
Protamine and Heparin Interactions: A Narrative Review - PMC
Jul 4, 2024 · Of note, 1 mg of protamine sulfate will neutralize approximately 100 anti-Xa units of an LMWH (i.e. 60 mg of protamine to neutralize 6000 IU of ...
[49]
Protamine sulfate: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action - DrugBank
Sep 30, 2015 · Protamine sulfate is a blood factor used when the reversal of the anticoagulant effect of heparin is necessary and for the treatment of heparin ...Missing: protocol efficacy
[50]
What’s fishy about protamine? Clinical use, adverse reactions, and potential alternatives
### Summary of Adverse Reactions to Protamine
[51]
Protamine sulfate enhances the transduction efficiency of ... - PubMed
Protamine sulfate, up to 5 microg/ml, enhanced the rAAV transduction efficiency in HepG2 cells. The enhancement was correlated with zeta potential of the cells ...
[52]
Effect of protamine in obesity induced by high-fat diets in rats
Our study demonstrates that protamine reduce weight gain and body fat accumulation through the inhibition of dietary fat absorption.<|separator|>
[53]
Modulation of lipid metabolism by mixtures of protamine and ...
Mar 21, 2012 · Protamine and COS mixtures could effectively interrupt the digestion and absorption of dietary lipids in the body by inhibiting pancreatic lipase activity.Results · Serum Lipids Concentrations · Lipid Accumulation In Liver...Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[54]
Anti-Obesity and Hypocholesterolemic Actions of Protamine-Derived ...
Jul 22, 2021 · We report the discovery of a novel anti-obesity and hypocholesterolemic peptide, RPR (Arg-Pro-Arg), derived from protamine in mice fed a high-fat diet for 50 ...Missing: 2023 | Show results with:2023
[55]
The impact of sperm protamine deficiency and sperm DNA damage ...
May 27, 2016 · The effect of the protamine ratio on male fertility was analyzed in nine studies demonstrating a significantly higher value of the protamine ...Missing: semen | Show results with:semen
[56]
Protamine Levels Vary Between Individual Sperm Cells of Infertile ...
Jan 2, 2013 · Mouse knockout models clearly demonstrate that sperm protamine haploinsufficiency directly impairs spermatogenesis and subsequent embryo ...
[57]
Protamine-Based Strategies for RNA Transfection - PMC - NIH
Protamine is a natural cationic peptide mixture mostly known as a drug for the neutralization of heparin and as a compound in formulations of slow-release ...
[58]
Targeted siRNA nanocarrier: a platform technology for cancer ...
Feb 26, 2022 · These antibody-protamine-siRNA nanocarriers provide a novel platform technology to specifically target different cell types and yet undruggable targets in ...
[59]
Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Polymeric Nanoparticles with Heparin ...
A single nanoparticle platform has been developed through the modular and controlled layer-by-layer process to codeliver siRNA that knocks down a drug- ...
[60]
[PDF] Friedrich Miescher and the discovery of DNA
Miescher showed that proteins. (and lipids) were the main components ... The complete account of these analyses was published in 1874. (Miescher, 1874a,b,c).
[61]
(PDF) Friedrich Miescher's Discovery in the Historiography of Genetics
Aug 4, 2020 · Protamine, first extracted in 1874 by Friedrich Miescher from salmon sperm, is a strongly basic peptide [3, 17]. It is already established ...
[62]
Protamine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Approximately 67% of the amino acid composition in protamine is arginine, which contributes to its strong alkalinity. Protamine is routinely used in human ...
[63]
PROTAMINES, NUCLEOPROTAMINES, AND NUCLEI - jstor
This was done by Albrecht Kossel in 1894. He found that similar substances ... since arginine is the only basic amino acid in these protamines.
[64]
A NEW METHOD FOR FRACTIONATION OF PROTAMINES AND ...
A NEW METHOD FOR FRACTIONATION OF PROTAMINES AND THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCES OF SALMINE AND THREE COMPONENTS OF IRIDINE. T. Ando,. T. Ando.
[65]
A new method for fractionation of protamines and the amino acid ...
A new method for fractionation of protamines and the amino acid sequences of salmine and three components of iridine.
[66]
Molecular cloning of three major sequence species from Rainbow ...
Double stranded cDNA molecules complementary to purified Rainbow trout protamine mRNA have been cloned in the bacterial plasmid pBR322. In order to circumvent ...
[67]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/protamine
[68]
Structural principles of insulin formulation and analog design
In 1936, Hagedorn formulated the first intermediate-acting insulin formulation, designated protamine insulinate [70,71]. Protamine is a basic protein with ...
[69]
History of insulin - PMC - NIH
Jul 16, 2012 · In the 1930s, H.C. Hagedorn, a chemist in Denmark, prolonged the action of insulin by adding protamine (5). In Toronto, Scott and Fisher ...Missing: 1920s | Show results with:1920s
[70]
Drug Approval Package: Insulin Aspart [rDNA Origin] Protamine ...
Aug 29, 2002 · Approval Date: 11/1/2001. Approval Letter(s) (PDF). Printed Labeling (PDF). Medical Review(s) Part 1 (PDF) Part 2 (PDF). Chemistry Review(s) ...
[71]
Evolution of Cardiopulmonary Bypass | Circulation
Jun 2, 2009 · Heparin and protamine were readily available, and there were several pumps being used in the dairy and food industry that could be adapted. The ...
[72]
A Brief History of Cardiopulmonary Bypass - Eugene A Hessel, 2014
The discovery of heparin and protamine made clinical CPB possible. Heparin was discovered in 1916 and isolated from canine liver cells by McLean, a medical ...
[73]
Rate of protamine administration: its effect on heparin reversal and ...
Both rates of protamine administration resulted in clinically acceptable clotting, return of the activated coagulation time to normal, and zero heparin ...Missing: standardization 1980s
[74]
Chromosomal localization of the human protamine genes, PRM1 ...
A chromosomal localization of the genes coding for human protamines has been achieved by in situ hybridization. Two cDNA probes of 423 bp and 397 bp containing ...Missing: PRM | Show results with:PRM
[75]
Lipid-Nanoparticle-Based Delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 Genome ...
In this review, we discuss recent advances in LNP-based delivery that have established the technology as a safe nonviral delivery platform for CRISPR gene- ...