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Pterygoid hamulus

The pterygoid hamulus is a small, curved, hook-like bony process that projects from the inferior extremity of the medial pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone in the skull base.^[1]^[2] It measures approximately 0.9 cm in length and 0.3 cm in width on average, with a mean curvature angle of 47.8°, and exhibits variations in size from 0.5 to 1.64 cm.^[1] Anatomically, the pterygoid hamulus features a slender extension that curves outward and laterally from the posterior border of the medial pterygoid plate, forming a groove along its medial aspect for the passage of the tensor veli palatini muscle tendon.^[2] This structure includes indistinct parts such as a base, body, neck, and head, and is accompanied by a small bursa that facilitates smooth tendon gliding.^[1] It serves as a key attachment site for the pterygomandibular raphe, which anchors the buccinator and superior pharyngeal constrictor muscles, and lies in close relation to the lateral pterygoid and medial pterygoid muscles.^[2]^[3] Functionally, the pterygoid hamulus guides the tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle, enabling it to tense the palatine aponeurosis of the soft palate and thereby separate the oral and nasal cavities during swallowing, chewing, and phonation.^[2] It also contributes to equalizing middle ear pressure via the Eustachian tube and supports the upper pharyngeal sphincter for coordinated deglutition.^[1]^[3] Clinically, abnormalities in the pterygoid hamulus, such as elongation (approximately 1% prevalence) or fractures (occurring in about 2.3% of cases), can lead to conditions like pterygoid hamulus syndrome, characterized by orofacial pain, dysphagia, and middle ear disorders, and may contribute to obstructive sleep apnea with predisposing factors in approximately 13% of cases.^[1]

Anatomy

Structure and location

The pterygoid hamulus is a curved, hook-like bony process that projects from the inferomedial aspect of the medial pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone.^[4] It features a slender structure subdivided into a base, corpus (body), sulcus (groove), and caput (head), with the hook-like tip directed posterolaterally.^[5] This process is typically 5-8 mm in length, with reported averages around 7.2 mm, a sagittal breadth of 1.4 mm, and a transverse breadth of 2.3 mm.^[5] It is situated within the infratemporal fossa at the skull base, posterior to the maxilla and medial to the mandible, while lying superior to the soft palate; the hamulus also contributes to the posterior border of the adjacent pterygopalatine fossa.^[2]^[3] Key surrounding structures include the tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle, which loops around the sulcus of the hamulus, as well as the nearby levator veli palatini muscle and the pharyngeal wall.^[4] It maintains close relations to the greater palatine nerve, which emerges inferiorly via the greater palatine foramen, and lies adjacent to the pterygomaxillary fissure, a vertical cleft connecting the pterygopalatine and infratemporal fossae.^[6]^[7] The pterygoid hamulus receives its blood supply from periosteal branches of the maxillary artery, including contributions from the greater palatine and ascending palatine arteries in the regional vasculature.^[8] Sensory innervation to the periosteum and surrounding tissues derives from branches of the trigeminal nerve, primarily the maxillary (V2) and mandibular (V3) divisions.^[9]

Embryological development

The pterygoid hamulus originates from the cartilaginous precursor of the sphenoid bone during the 6th to 8th weeks of embryogenesis, emerging as part of the medial pterygoid plate within neural crest-derived mesenchymal condensations that form the pterygoid processes.^[10] These early structures arise from chondrogenic mesenchyme associated with the developing sphenoid, establishing the foundational hook-like projection that will characterize the hamulus.^[10] Chondrification of the pterygoid hamulus becomes evident by the 9th week of gestation, with a distinct nucleus appearing in embryos measuring approximately 30 mm in greatest length, coinciding with the initial differentiation of adjacent muscles such as the tensor veli palatini.^[11] Ossification commences around the 12th to 14th weeks through endochondral mechanisms, involving independent centers in the medial pterygoid plate that expand and refine between 15 and 34 weeks, incorporating both endochondral and intramembranous processes to complete the bony structure by birth.^[10] This fetal maturation integrates the hamulus with the surrounding sphenoid body, while minor postnatal remodeling occurs to adapt to emerging functional demands.^[10] The development of the pterygoid hamulus is influenced by its integration with the evolving palate and derivatives of the pharyngeal arches, particularly the first branchial arch, which contributes mesenchymal components to the tensor veli palatini muscle and related soft tissues that interact with the hamulus.^[12] These interactions ensure proper spatial alignment during craniofacial morphogenesis. Fusion of the hamulus with the sphenoid body typically completes by ages 2 to 3 years, though genetic or environmental factors in early childhood may lead to variations in elongation or asymmetry through differential growth influences.^[10]^[13]

Anatomical variations

The pterygoid hamulus exhibits several anatomical variations in size, shape, and orientation, which can influence its identification in clinical imaging. Common deviations include elongation, where the length exceeds 10 mm, with prevalence estimates varying by population and measurement method; for instance, one study of dry skulls classified 64.3% of cases as elongated when using a threshold of greater than 10 mm, though symptomatic elongation associated with clinical syndromes is rarer at approximately 1%. Other shape variations encompass slender, thick, or flattened hook forms, with the slender type predominating in CBCT analyses of Iranian women at 57-61%. Rare anomalies, such as bifid or absent hamuli, occur in less than 1% of cases based on limited reports across anatomical surveys.^[4]^[14]^[15] Morphometric studies reveal an average length of approximately 6.3-7.2 mm in CBCT assessments of adult populations, with ranges spanning 3-12 mm or wider (up to 16.4 mm in dry skull analyses); width averages 1.6-2.1 mm, and curvature angles typically measure 22-48° depending on the plane (coronal or sagittal) and reference point relative to the pterygoid process. Gender differences are evident, with males exhibiting slightly longer hamuli (e.g., 7.1 mm vs. 6.3 mm in females) and potentially wider dimensions, though not always statistically significant for width. These metrics highlight the hamulus's variability, with length increasing modestly with age in some cohorts.^[16]^[17]^[4] Assessment of these variations primarily employs cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) for precise 3D measurements of height, length, width, and angulation, offering superior resolution over traditional radiographs; software tools like OnDemand 3D enable multiplanar reconstructions to quantify parameters relative to the medial pterygoid plate. Dry skull examinations using digital calipers provide complementary data but may overestimate lengths compared to in vivo CBCT due to dehydration effects.^[17]^[16]^[4] Population-based CBCT studies demonstrate inter-ethnic differences, with elongated forms appearing more prevalent in certain groups; for example, analyses in Asian-Indian cohorts report mean lengths of 6.3-7.2 mm with notable gender dimorphism, while European (Hellenic) dry skull samples show higher averages around 9 mm and broader ranges. Iranian populations exhibit predominantly slender morphologies without significant age-related changes in young adults. These findings underscore genetic and developmental influences on variation.^[16]^[4]^[17] Such variations impact radiographic visibility, as elongated or asymmetrically oriented hamuli may appear more prominent or obscured on panoramic views, necessitating CBCT for accurate differentiation from baseline anatomy without implying pathology.^[4]^[17]

Function

Muscular attachments and biomechanics

The tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle forms the primary muscular attachment to the pterygoid hamulus, converging into a thin tendon that hooks medially around this hook-like bony process before inserting into the palatine aponeurosis of the soft palate.^[8]^[18] This arrangement enables a pulley-like action, where the hamulus redirects the tendon's force vector from a superolateral to a more horizontal direction, facilitating efficient tensioning of the soft palate without requiring excessive muscle length changes.^[8]^[19] In secondary relations, the pterygoid hamulus lies in close proximity to the origin of the medial pterygoid muscle on the medial pterygoid plate of the sphenoid bone, sharing the infratemporal fossa and contributing to regional stability during jaw movements.^[8]^[18] Additionally, the hamulus serves as the superior attachment point for the pterygomandibular raphe, a fibrous band that anchors the buccinator muscle anteriorly and the superior pharyngeal constrictor posteriorly, with indirect connections to the mylohyoid muscle via the raphe's mandibular insertion.^[20]^[2] Biomechanically, the pterygoid hamulus functions as a fulcrum for smooth gliding of the tensor veli palatini tendon, transmitting contractile forces that generate an upward and lateral pull on the soft palate to tense its aponeurosis during activities like swallowing.^[8]^[18] Finite element models of related Eustachian tube dynamics estimate tensor veli palatini forces ranging from 20 N to over 100 N, highlighting the hamulus's role in efficient force vector control influenced by adjacent structures like the medial pterygoid muscle and Ostmann's fat pad.^[21] Muscle coordination around the hamulus involves synergistic action between the tensor veli palatini and medial pterygoid muscles, both innervated by the mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3 via the nerve to medial pterygoid), which helps stabilize the region and prevent bony displacement under tension.^[18] This innervation ensures precise motor control, integrating the hamulus into broader pterygoid plate mechanics for balanced force distribution.^[18]

Role in palatal and pharyngeal movements

The pterygoid hamulus serves as a pivotal pulley for the tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle, enabling coordinated elevation and tensioning of the soft palate during essential oropharyngeal functions. This structure facilitates the separation of the oral and nasal cavities, ensuring efficient airflow and bolus transit in daily activities. By anchoring the muscle's tendon, the hamulus contributes to the biomechanical precision required for swallowing, speech production, and respiratory equalization, with disruptions in its alignment potentially impairing these processes.^[4] In swallowing, the pterygoid hamulus directs the tensor veli palatini's action to tense and elevate the soft palate, forming a seal against the posterior pharyngeal wall to prevent nasal regurgitation of food or liquid. This elevation occurs in the oral preparatory and pharyngeal phases, where the muscle's contraction around the hamulus pulls the palatal aponeurosis upward, synergizing with surrounding musculature to propel the bolus safely into the esophagus. Studies on oropharyngeal dynamics highlight this mechanism as critical for avoiding aspiration and maintaining deglutitive efficiency in mammals.^[22] During speech, the hamulus-supported tensor veli palatini tenses the soft palate to achieve velopharyngeal closure, essential for producing non-nasal consonants by directing airflow exclusively through the oral cavity. This closure prevents nasal emission of sound, with the muscle's pulley action over the hamulus providing the necessary tension to approximate the velum against the pharyngeal walls. Inadequate function here can result in hypernasal resonance, underscoring the hamulus's role in phonetic precision, as evidenced in analyses of velopharyngeal mechanics.^[23]^[24] In respiration, the pterygoid hamulus facilitates the tensor veli palatini's dilation of the Eustachian tube during swallowing or yawning, equalizing middle ear pressure to support unobstructed breathing and prevent barotrauma. This intermittent opening maintains pharyngeal patency and ventilates the middle ear, integrating palatal positioning with respiratory demands. Research on upper airway physiology confirms this linkage, noting the hamulus's contribution to overall ventilatory stability.^[18]^[25] The pterygoid hamulus integrates with the levator veli palatini for balanced soft palate elevation, where the tensor provides lateral tension and the levator medial lift, optimizing palatopharyngeal coordination across functions. This synergy evolved in mammals from reptilian pterygoid structures, adapting the hamulus as a specialized pulley to enhance deglutition efficiency and support advanced oropharyngeal behaviors like suckling and vocalization.^[26]^[27]

Clinical significance

Associated pathologies

Pterygoid hamulus bursitis (PHB), also known as pterygoid hamulus syndrome, is a rare inflammatory condition affecting the bursa surrounding the tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle near the pterygoid hamulus, leading to localized inflammation and irritation.^[28] Common symptoms include chronic orofacial pain, burning sensation, swelling, and erythema in the palatal and pharyngeal regions, often radiating to the ipsilateral face, ear, or temporal area, along with trismus and dysphagia.^[28] The etiology typically involves trauma, overuse from repetitive movements, or mechanical irritation due to anatomical variations such as elongation of the hamulus itself.^[29] This condition is infrequently diagnosed, with approximately 40 cases reported in the literature since the 1980s, and it is often misattributed to temporomandibular disorders or neuralgias. Elongation of the pterygoid hamulus, defined as a length exceeding 10 mm, can manifest as a symptomatic syndrome causing tendon irritation and secondary bursitis, particularly when the structure impinges on surrounding soft tissues.^[4] Affected individuals may experience sharp, localized pain in the hamular notch radiating to the pharynx, soft palate, ear, or head, accompanied by discomfort during swallowing or yawning.^[29] Diagnosis relies on clinical palpation revealing tenderness and confirmatory imaging such as cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) to measure elongation.^[29] The condition affects approximately 1% of the population, with a higher prevalence of longer hamuli in males compared to females.^[30] Fractures of the pterygoid hamulus are exceedingly rare and typically result from high-impact trauma or iatrogenic injury during dental or maxillofacial procedures, leading to acute localized pain, swelling, and restricted jaw mobility.^[31] Ossification anomalies, such as hyperostosis or irregular bony overgrowth, may contribute to chronic irritation but are infrequently documented as primary pathologies.^[4] Age-related changes in the pterygoid hamulus include progressive shortening and potential resorption, with mean lengths decreasing from about 14.4 mm in individuals aged 20-30 years to 7.3 mm in those over 50 years, possibly influenced by systemic factors like osteoporosis that affect sphenoid bone density.^[30] This resorption is more pronounced in older adults and may exacerbate symptoms in comorbid conditions, though direct causal links remain understudied. Males generally exhibit longer hamuli across age groups, suggesting gender-specific prevalence in elongation-related pathologies.^[30] Recent research from 2024 highlights PHB as an underrecognized contributor to atypical trigeminal neuralgia-like presentations, emphasizing its role in unexplained orofacial pain through morphological analysis of the hamulus via CBCT.^[14] A 2025 study underscores conservative management approaches as first-line treatment, providing temporary symptom relief through non-surgical interventions like anti-inflammatory therapy and lifestyle modifications, while advocating for early imaging to differentiate it from other craniofacial disorders; surgical resection is recommended for refractory cases, achieving sustained relief in over 90% of patients.^[32]

Relevance to procedures and imaging

Cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) provides precise three-dimensional visualization of the pterygoid hamulus, enabling detailed assessment of its morphology with voxel resolutions typically around 0.4 mm, which supports accurate measurements of length, width, and inclinations in coronal and sagittal planes.^[33] This modality is essential for preoperative planning in maxillofacial procedures, as it highlights anatomical variations that could influence surgical approaches.00112-0/fulltext) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is valuable for evaluating soft tissue relations around the pterygoid hamulus, such as bursal inflammation or involvement of adjacent structures like the tensor veli palatini muscle, offering superior contrast for these elements compared to CT-based techniques.^[34] In surgical contexts, the pterygoid hamulus serves as a key landmark during Le Fort I osteotomy and pterygomaxillary separation, guiding the osteotome to ensure complete maxillary mobilization while minimizing damage to the pterygoid plates.^[35] It is also relevant in palatoplasty, where intentional or inadvertent fracture of the hamulus may occur to relieve tension on the tensor veli palatini tendon, though outcomes depend on surgical technique.^[31] Risks include iatrogenic fracture of the hamulus or associated tendon damage, with pterygoid plate fractures reported in up to 23% of cases among patients with cleft lip/palate during Le Fort I procedures, often linked to thinner regional bone structures.^[35] Interventional procedures targeting the pterygoid hamulus include injections into the tensor veli palatini muscle or surrounding bursa for managing pterygoid hamulus bursitis or Eustachian tube dysfunction, where the hamulus acts as an anatomical guide for needle placement.^[36] These injections, often using ultrasound for real-time guidance to enhance precision and reduce risks, aim to alleviate pain and inflammation by delivering corticosteroids or anesthetics directly to the site.^[37] In cases of patulous Eustachian tube, pterygoid hamulotomy combined with tendon transposition or transection yields functional improvement in approximately 70% of treated ears, as assessed by sonotubometry over long-term follow-up.^[38] In dental applications, the pterygoid hamulus is considered during pterygoid implant placement and orthognathic surgery to prevent impingement, with the hamulus serving as an intraoral posterior landmark along the "hamular line" to direct implant angulation toward the pterygoid plate.^[39] Preoperative CBCT screening is emphasized to measure safe angulations—typically 20-50° buccally, palatally, and vertically relative to the Frankfort horizontal plane—and assess pterygomaxillary dimensions, facilitating successful engagement in over 98% of cases while avoiding neurovascular structures.^[39] Recent evaluations underscore CBCT's role in morphometric planning for these interventions, particularly in edentulous or atrophic maxillae.^[40] Postoperative complications involving the pterygoid hamulus may include edema, inflammation, or avulsion, often arising from trauma during surgery or injections, manifesting as localized swelling and pain in the soft palate.^[41] Management protocols prioritize conservative measures, such as rest, soft diet, and anti-inflammatory medications, to resolve symptoms without further intervention, though persistent cases may require surgical revision like hamular resection.^[42]

References

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