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Pure shear

Pure shear is a fundamental type of deformation in continuum mechanics in which a body experiences equal and opposite extensions and contractions along perpendicular principal directions, without any accompanying rigid body rotation, often preserving volume.^[1] This irrotational strain contrasts with other shear modes by isolating the symmetric component of the deformation, transforming shapes like spheres into ellipsoids with aligned axes.^[2] Mathematically, pure shear is represented by a symmetric stretch tensor V with principal stretches \lambda, $1/\lambda, and 1 (for plane strain), where the deformation gradient F = V R incorporates only rotation R externally if needed.^[1] In infinitesimal strain theory, the strain tensor \varepsilon takes the form \begin{pmatrix} \varepsilon & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & -\varepsilon & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix} in principal coordinates, with zero trace indicating no volumetric change.^[3] For the associated stress state, pure shear corresponds to a Cauchy stress tensor with trace zero, such as principal values \sigma, -\sigma, and 0, representing purely deviatoric loading without hydrostatic pressure.^[4]^[5] Pure shear differs from simple shear, which involves a nonsymmetric deformation gradient like F = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \gamma & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}, introducing both shear strain and rigid rotation.^[1] While simple shear produces an infinitesimal strain tensor \varepsilon = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & \gamma/2 & 0 \\ \gamma/2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix}, pure shear eliminates the rotational component for a cleaner measure of material distortion.^[3] In nonlinear settings, simple shear does not align with a pure shear stress state, highlighting their incompatibility in advanced elasticity models.^[1] In applications, pure shear models tectonic deformations in structural geology, where it describes non-rotational flattening of rock layers during orogeny.^[2] In engineering, it approximates plane strain conditions in long elastomer specimens under tension, enabling fracture energy analysis independent of crack length.^[6] Materials like amorphous solids exhibit unique yielding and plasticity under pure shear, informing studies of deformation mechanisms at the atomic scale.^[6]

Fundamentals

Definition

Strain refers to the deformation of a material, quantifying changes in its shape or size due to applied forces.^[3] Shear deformation, a subset of strain, involves the sliding or angular distortion of adjacent layers within the material.^[3] Pure shear is a three-dimensional homogeneous flattening of a body without rigid body rotation.^[2] It represents an irrotational strain, characterized by elongation in one principal direction accompanied by shortening of equal magnitude in the orthogonal principal direction, while the intermediate principal direction experiences zero strain.^[7] This process maintains constant volume and aligns with principal strain axes that do not rotate during deformation.^[7] Pure shear can be represented by equal and opposite normal forces applied to a layer, causing displacement parallel to the layer plane without inducing rotation.^[8] In contrast to simple shear, which incorporates rotational components, pure shear remains purely deformational.^[9]

Physical Characteristics

Pure shear represents a constant-volume deformation process, characteristic of incompressible materials where there is no net dilation or change in volume. This volume conservation arises because the extension in one principal direction is precisely balanced by an equal and opposite contraction in the perpendicular direction, ensuring the determinant of the deformation gradient equals unity.^[2] In terms of symmetry along the principal axes, pure shear involves principal stretches where one direction experiences elongation (λ₁ > 1), the intermediate direction remains unchanged (λ₂ = 1), and the third direction undergoes shortening (λ₃ < 1), with the relation λ₁ λ₃ = 1 maintaining incompressibility in plane strain conditions. This symmetric stretching and compressing occurs without any rotation of material points, distinguishing pure shear as an irrotational deformation where material elements deform symmetrically around fixed principal axes.^[10]^[11] Under the infinitesimal strain approximation, pure shear manifests as pure extension in one direction coupled with pure compression in the orthogonal direction, with zero shear strain components in the principal coordinate system. For visualization, consider a square element aligned at 45 degrees to the principal axes: under pure shear, it deforms into a diamond (rhombus) shape while preserving its area and without any tilting or rotation of its sides relative to one another. Similarly, a sphere subjected to pure shear flattens into an oblate ellipsoid aligned with the principal axes, illustrating the balanced elongation and shortening without volumetric change.^[12]^[2]

Mathematical Formulation

Deformation Gradient

The deformation gradient tensor \mathbf{F} provides the fundamental kinematic description of pure shear as the two-point tensor that maps infinitesimal line elements from the reference configuration to the deformed configuration, defined as the Jacobian matrix of the deformation mapping \mathbf{x} = \boldsymbol{\chi}(\mathbf{X}), where \mathbf{X} is the position in the reference state and \mathbf{x} is the position in the deformed state.^[13] In two dimensions, for pure shear aligned with the principal axes, \mathbf{F} takes the diagonal form

\mathbf{F} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 + \epsilon & 0 \\ 0 & 1 - \epsilon \end{pmatrix},

where \epsilon > 0 is the principal strain parameter representing extension in one direction and equal contraction perpendicular to it, assuming approximate incompressibility for small \epsilon.^[1] When expressed in coordinates rotated by 45 degrees relative to the principal axes (aligned with the shear direction), the deformation gradient adopts the symmetric form

\mathbf{F} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \gamma \\ \gamma & 1 \end{pmatrix},

where \gamma is the shear parameter, related to \epsilon by \gamma \approx \epsilon for infinitesimal deformations.^[13] For infinitesimal strains, the displacement gradient tensor \mathbf{H} = \nabla \mathbf{u} = \mathbf{F} - \mathbf{I} (with \mathbf{I} the identity) reduces to its symmetric part only, comprising the infinitesimal strain tensor, while the antisymmetric part—the rotation tensor—is zero, reflecting the absence of rigid body rotation in pure shear.^[11] This irrotational nature is confirmed by the polar decomposition of \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{R} \mathbf{U}, where \mathbf{R} is the orthogonal rotation tensor (here, \mathbf{R} = \mathbf{I}) and \mathbf{U} is the right stretch tensor, which coincides with \mathbf{F} due to its symmetry and positive definiteness, possessing principal values $1 + \epsilon and $1 - \epsilon along the principal directions.^[14] In the context of finite strain theory for steady pure shear deformations, the velocity gradient tensor \mathbf{L} = \dot{\mathbf{F}} \mathbf{F}^{-1} remains symmetric, ensuring no vorticity and consistent irrotational flow throughout the deformation process.^[1] This symmetry of \mathbf{L} underscores the purely deformative character of pure shear, distinguishing it kinematically from rotational deformations.

Strain Tensors

In pure shear, the infinitesimal strain tensor \boldsymbol{\varepsilon} is the symmetric part of the displacement gradient tensor, capturing small deformations where higher-order terms are neglected. In the principal coordinate system aligned with the directions of maximum extension and compression, \boldsymbol{\varepsilon} is diagonal with components \varepsilon_{xx} = \varepsilon, \varepsilon_{yy} = -\varepsilon, \varepsilon_{zz} = 0, and all off-diagonal components zero, where \varepsilon > 0 represents the magnitude of the principal strain.^[15]^[16] In the sheared coordinate system rotated by 45° relative to the principal axes, the tensor takes the form with zero diagonal components and off-diagonal shear strain \varepsilon_{xy} = \varepsilon_{yx} = \gamma/2, where \gamma = 2\varepsilon is the engineering shear strain, reflecting the angular distortion without rotation.^[15]^[16] For finite deformations, the Green-Lagrange strain tensor \mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{F}^T \mathbf{F} - \mathbf{I}) provides a Lagrangian measure derived from the deformation gradient \mathbf{F}, accounting for large stretches while remaining objective. In pure shear, where \mathbf{F} is symmetric and volume-preserving (\det \mathbf{F} = 1), the principal components of \mathbf{E} are \frac{1}{2}(\lambda^2 - 1), \frac{1}{2}((1/\lambda)^2 - 1), and 0, with \lambda > 1 the principal stretch. For small strains (\varepsilon \ll 1, \lambda \approx 1 + \varepsilon), the principal components approximate to \varepsilon and -\varepsilon (with quadratic corrections such as \varepsilon + \frac{1}{2}\varepsilon^2 and -\varepsilon + \frac{3}{2}\varepsilon^2) in the principal directions in 2D, capturing the leading linear terms and quadratic nonlinear corrections beyond the infinitesimal \boldsymbol{\varepsilon}. In the sheared coordinates, for \mathbf{F} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & \gamma \\ \gamma & 1 \end{bmatrix}, the exact form is \mathbf{E} = \begin{bmatrix} \frac{\gamma^2}{2} & \gamma \\ \gamma & \frac{\gamma^2}{2} \end{bmatrix}, which for small \gamma approximates the infinitesimal strain tensor. The Euler-Almansi strain tensor \mathbf{e} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{I} - \mathbf{F}^{-T} \mathbf{F}^{-1}) offers an Eulerian counterpart, referenced to the deformed configuration. For pure shear, its principal values mirror those of \mathbf{E} in magnitude but differ in sign for the nonlinear terms, yielding similar approximations for small deformations where \mathbf{e} \approx \boldsymbol{\varepsilon}. In the sheared frame, the full expression involves the inverse stretches, but principal values remain \varepsilon_1 = \varepsilon, \varepsilon_2 = 0, \varepsilon_3 = -\varepsilon in the linear limit.^[16]^[17] Key strain invariants for pure shear underscore its incompressible nature: the first invariant I_1 = \operatorname{tr} \boldsymbol{\varepsilon} = 0 for the infinitesimal tensor, reflecting no volumetric change; in 2D, the second invariant I_2 = 0 characterizes the pure deviatoric state; and the third invariant I_3 = \det \mathbf{F} = 1 preserves volume across finite formulations.^[17]^[16] The principal strains are \varepsilon_1 = \varepsilon, \varepsilon_2 = 0, \varepsilon_3 = -\varepsilon, with extension along one axis balanced by equal compression perpendicularly in the plane.^[17]^[16]

Comparison with Simple Shear

Pure shear and simple shear represent distinct kinematic states in continuum mechanics, differing primarily in their rotational components despite sharing similar strain measures in the infinitesimal limit. Simple shear is characterized by a deformation gradient tensor F_{\text{simple}} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \gamma \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}, where \gamma is the amount of shear, which incorporates both deformation and rigid body rotation. In the small strain approximation, the corresponding infinitesimal strain tensor exhibits off-diagonal components \epsilon_{xy} = \gamma/2, with no normal strains along the shear axes (\epsilon_{xx} = \epsilon_{yy} = 0); the principal normal strains are then \epsilon_1 = \gamma/2 and \epsilon_2 = -\gamma/2, indicating balanced extension and compression but without alignment to the coordinate axes.^[14]^[11] In contrast, pure shear is an irrotational deformation, obtained by superposing a rigid body rotation of magnitude \omega = -\gamma/2 onto the simple shear to eliminate the rotational component. Specifically, rotating the coordinate system by an angle \theta = 45^\circ (or, in general, \theta = \frac{1}{2} \atan\left( \frac{2 \epsilon_{xy}}{\epsilon_{xx} - \epsilon_{yy}} \right), which simplifies to $45^\circ here) aligns the axes with the principal directions, transforming the simple shear strain state into one with only normal strains and no shear components. This coordinate rotation reveals the principal strains, while the superposed rigid body rotation compensates for the antisymmetric part of the displacement gradient in simple shear. The key kinematic distinction lies in the rotation tensor: pure shear has a zero rotation tensor (the antisymmetric part of the displacement gradient is zero), ensuring no net rotation of material elements, whereas simple shear features a nonzero rotation \omega = \gamma/2.^[11] This difference is vividly illustrated using Mohr's circle for strain. For simple shear, the Mohr's circle is centered at the origin with radius \gamma/2, reflecting the shear strain dominance and principal strains at \pm 45^\circ to the shear axes. Rotating to the principal axes yields the pure shear representation, where the circle shows pure normal strains with no shear stress on the principal planes, emphasizing the absence of distortion in those orientations. These invariants of the strain tensor remain consistent between the two, as noted in the mathematical formulation of strain.^[18]^[17]

Relation to General Strain States

Pure shear constitutes a specialized case within the general theory of strain states in continuum mechanics, defined as a coaxial deformation wherein the principal axes of the strain tensor remain aligned with the material coordinates throughout the deformation history. This coaxiality ensures that the orientation of maximum and minimum extension directions does not rotate relative to the deforming body, distinguishing pure shear from non-coaxial strain paths.^[19]^[20] As a deviatoric strain, pure shear exhibits a trace of zero for the infinitesimal strain tensor, \operatorname{tr}(\boldsymbol{\varepsilon}) = \varepsilon_{11} + \varepsilon_{22} + \varepsilon_{33} = 0, which corresponds to no volumetric change and thus incompressible behavior in the distortion sense. In the broader classification of general strain states, pure shear represents a subset of irrotational, incompressible deformations, in contrast to rotational strains that incorporate vorticity or dilational strains that alter volume. This irrotational property arises from the symmetric nature of the strain rate tensor in pure shear, with zero antisymmetric (rotation) component.^[11]^[21] Within yield criteria such as the von Mises distortion energy theory, pure shear achieves a maximum octahedral shear strain of \gamma / \sqrt{3}, where \gamma is the engineering shear strain magnitude; this value quantifies the critical distortion level for material yielding under pure shear loading. The octahedral shear strain is given by

\gamma_{\mathrm{oct}} = \frac{\sqrt{2}}{3} \sqrt{ (\varepsilon_1 - \varepsilon_2)^2 + (\varepsilon_2 - \varepsilon_3)^2 + (\varepsilon_3 - \varepsilon_1)^2 },

and for the principal strains in pure shear (\varepsilon_1 = \varepsilon, \varepsilon_2 = -\varepsilon, \varepsilon_3 = 0), it simplifies to \gamma_{\mathrm{oct}} = \gamma / \sqrt{3}, emphasizing pure shear's efficiency in inducing shape change without volume alteration.^[22]^[23] For finite deformations, pure shear preserves the fixed principal directions, enabling commutative superposition of incremental pure shears along the same axes, in contrast to general hypoelastic formulations where path-dependent rotations can misalign principal directions. This property facilitates accurate modeling of large-strain scenarios while maintaining the irrotational and deviatoric characteristics observed in infinitesimal approximations.^[24]^[11]

Applications and Examples

In Engineering and Materials Science

In engineering and materials science, pure shear is employed in experimental testing of rubber and hyperelastic materials to characterize nonlinear behavior under large deformations. A common setup involves clamping the ends of a thin, rectangular strip specimen—typically short and wide to minimize edge effects—and applying uniaxial tension perpendicular to the length, inducing a homogeneous shear state. The shear modulus G (or initial modulus \mu) is determined from force-displacement curves, where the applied load F relates to the nominal shear stress \tau = F / (L_0 W_0), with L_0 and W_0 as initial length and width, and displacement data fitted to hyperelastic models like Ogden or Mooney-Rivlin. This method, pioneered by Rivlin and Thomas in their seminal work on rubber rupture, provides accurate shear response data for calibrating constitutive models in applications such as tire design and seals.^[25] Pure shear also plays a key role in plasticity models for ductile metals, particularly through the von Mises yield criterion, which predicts yielding based on distortional energy. In pure shear, the yield stress \tau relates to the uniaxial yield stress \sigma_y by \tau = \sigma_y / \sqrt{3}, reflecting the criterion's equivalence of multiaxial states to uniaxial tension in terms of effective stress \sigma_e = \sqrt{3} \tau. This relation, derived from the second deviatoric stress invariant, enables accurate prediction of plastic flow in components like shafts and pressure vessels under combined loading, where pure shear approximates torsional or biaxial conditions without volumetric changes. Experimental validation in metals such as steel confirms von Mises outperforms simpler criteria like Tresca for shear-dominated yielding.^[26] In fracture mechanics of composites, pure shear loading simulates mode II (in-plane shear) conditions to assess delamination and crack propagation, often compared to mode I (opening) for mixed-mode toughness. For graphite/epoxy laminates, pure shear induces interlaminar sliding, with mode II critical energy release rate G_{IIc} typically exceeding mode I G_{Ic} (e.g., 1334 J/m² vs. 208 J/m²), highlighting shear's higher resistance but faster propagation under equivalent energy. This equivalence in loading allows unified criteria like G_c = G_{Ic} + (G_{IIc} - G_{Ic})(G_{II}/G_T)^\eta (where \eta \approx 4.5) to predict failure paths in aerospace structures, using end-notched flexure tests to isolate pure shear effects. Strain tensors from such analyses serve as inputs for broader modeling.^[27] Finite element modeling of pure shear in software like ABAQUS facilitates stress analysis in materials under controlled deformation, enforcing principal strains through tailored boundary conditions. For instance, in slender plate simulations, axially free edges with panel extensions (e.g., half-depth beyond supports) and initial geometric imperfections (1/1000 of depth) achieve homogeneous shear without spurious normal stresses, solved via nonlinear arc-length methods like Modified Riks. This setup accurately captures post-yield behavior in metals or hyperelastic responses in polymers, validated against experiments for buckling and plasticity in shear-loaded panels.^[28]

In Geology

In geology, pure shear is a key mechanism in crustal deformation, particularly during tectonic processes such as subduction and orogeny, where it models homogeneous flattening and thickening of rock layers under compressive forces. This type of deformation involves symmetric shortening in one direction accompanied by extension in perpendicular directions, often leading to the development of foliation planes oriented normal to the principal shortening axis. For instance, in subduction zones, pure shear contributes to the distributed thickening of the overriding plate, as observed in non-collisional orogens where uniform vertical crustal thickening produces steep foliations without significant lateral shear. Similarly, during orogenic events like those in the Tian Shan mountains, vertically coherent pure-shear shortening dominates intracontinental mountain building, resulting in widespread crustal flattening inferred from seismic and structural data.^[29]^[30]^[31] Pure shear is graphically represented in Flinn's fabric diagram, where it corresponds to the line k=1, signifying plane strain with zero constriction and equal magnitudes of principal extension and shortening axes. This plane strain condition implies no volume change and coaxial deformation paths, distinguishing pure shear from constrictional or flattenable strain states commonly analyzed in structural geology. In natural settings, such as high-strain zones in basement terranes, mylonitic fabrics record pure shear dominance when vorticity numbers (Wm) are low (≤0.4), with strain ellipsoids plotting near k=1, indicating symmetric deformation without substantial rotation.^[32]^[33] Examples of pure shear are evident in mylonite zones, where intense ductile deformation produces fine-grained, foliated rocks reflecting symmetric strain, as seen in the Lawhorne Mill zone with approximately 70% contraction across the shear plane. During lithospheric extension, pure shear models symmetric thinning of the crust and mantle, generating melt through adiabatic decompression, as applied to rift basins where uniform stretching contrasts with asymmetric simple shear. Strain markers, such as deformed fossils or ooids, provide quantitative evidence of pure shear when their elliptical distortions align with principal strain axes, allowing reconstruction of original shapes to estimate finite strain ratios in the XZ plane. These markers are particularly useful in low-strain rocks adjacent to mylonites, revealing progressive pure shear without rotational components.^[33]^[34]^[35] In natural progressive deformation, pure shear often couples with simple shear, forming general shear paths that transition between coaxial and non-coaxial components, as described by deformation matrices that integrate both for transpressional or transtensional tectonics. This coupling explains heterogeneous strain in shear zones, where initial pure shear flattening evolves into rotational simple shear under changing boundary conditions, such as during oblique convergence in orogens. Such transitions are common in the lithosphere, where pure shear accommodates early symmetric thickening before simple shear localizes along faults.^[36]^[37]

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Pure shear is a three-dimensional constant-volume "homogeneous flattening" (Twiss and Moores, 1992). During homogeneous flattening a sphere is transformed into ...
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Shear Strains Shear strain is usually represented by γ and defined as. γ=DT. This is the shear-version of engineering strain. Note that this situation does ...
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In classical continuum mechanics a state of pure shear is defined as one for which there is some orthonormal basis relative to which the normal components.
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Pure shear is defined as a special case of the tensile test where the length of the elastomer specimen is much longer than its width, preventing contraction ...
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Such a deformation is known as a pure strain because the rotation ω is zero. ... pure shear in which the dilation is also zero. Then we can say that 1 + Δ ...
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Pure shear arises when a body is subjected to a normal stress and is allowed to deform in a direction perpendicular to the normal stress. This is illustrated in ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Pure shear and simple shear - irrotational and rotational progressive strain paths. Mixtures of these two strain histories exist - these are two end members.
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### Summary of Finite Element Modeling of Pure Shear in Slender Steel Plates
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