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Ragnar Nurkse

Ragnar Nurkse (5 October 1907 – 6 May 1959) was an Estonian-American economist renowned for pioneering work in development economics, particularly his formulation of the "vicious circle of poverty," which posits that low per capita income in underdeveloped economies perpetuates low productivity, savings, and investment, trapping nations in stagnation without external intervention.^[1]^[2] Born in Käru, Estonia, then part of the Russian Empire, Nurkse studied economics at the University of Tartu, the University of Edinburgh, and the University of Vienna before emigrating to the United States amid World War II disruptions.^[1]^[3] From 1934 to 1945, Nurkse served as an economist in the Financial Section and Economic Intelligence Service of the League of Nations in Geneva, where he analyzed international capital flows and currency issues, contributing key insights to the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference that established the post-war monetary framework, including the International Monetary Fund.^[1]^[3] After the war, he joined Columbia University as a professor of international economics, shaping a generation of scholars through his emphasis on balanced growth strategies—arguing that simultaneous investment across multiple sectors was essential to expand markets and break poverty traps in low-income countries.^[1]^[2] Nurkse's seminal 1953 book, Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries, formalized his ideas on how disguised unemployment and population pressures exacerbate capital scarcity, advocating for deliberate policy measures like international aid to initiate self-sustaining development rather than relying solely on domestic savings.^[1]^[2] His theories influenced early structuralist approaches in development policy, though later critiques highlighted potential overemphasis on supply-side barriers at the expense of demand-side incentives and institutional factors.^[1] Nurkse died suddenly in Switzerland at age 51, leaving an enduring legacy in debates on why some economies remain mired in poverty despite resource endowments.^[2]^[3]

Early Life and Education

Family Background and Upbringing

Ragnar Nurkse was born on 5 October 1907 in the small rural village of Käru in Rapla County, Estonia, then part of the Russian Empire.^[4]^[2] His father, Wilhelm (Villem) Nurkse, was an Estonian forester overseeing operations at the Käru estate, reflecting a background of manual and administrative labor in agrarian settings.^[4]^[5] Wilhelm advanced through self-reliance to managerial roles, indicative of upward mobility from modest rural origins amid Estonia's pre-independence socio-economic constraints.^[5] Nurkse's mother, Victoria Nurkse (née Clanman), descended from a Swedish-Estonian lineage tracing back to Swedish settlers in Estonia, with her family connected to village schoolteaching in western Estonia.^[4]^[5] This mixed heritage—Estonian paternal roots and maternal Swedish influences—placed the family within Estonia's ethnic German-Swedish minority enclaves, which often maintained distinct cultural and educational traditions despite the dominant Baltic German and Russian imperial overlays.^[6] Nurkse's upbringing unfolded in Estonia's turbulent early 20th-century context, encompassing World War I disruptions, the 1918–1920 War of Independence, and the fragile establishment of Estonian sovereignty in 1918.^[1] The family's rural environment in Käru, approximately 100 km south of Tallinn, exposed him to agricultural economies and local self-sufficiency, while his parents' emphasis on education foreshadowed his academic trajectory.^[2] By the mid-1920s, as Estonia stabilized under parliamentary democracy, Nurkse attended secondary schooling in Tallinn, benefiting from the republic's expanded access to urban institutions for provincial youth.^[6] His family emigrated to Canada around 1928 amid economic uncertainties, though Nurkse remained initially to complete early studies before departing for Europe.^[3]^[2]

Academic Training and Influences

Nurkse completed his secondary education at the Tallinn Cathedral School (also known as Domschule zu Reval), a German-language institution, graduating in 1926 with highest honors, which allowed him direct entry to university without entrance examinations.^[5]^[4] He enrolled in the Faculty of Law at the University of Tartu in Estonia in the fall of 1926, where the curriculum also encompassed economics; however, his studies there were brief and unstructured, spanning until late 1928 or early 1929, during which he passed only one exam in general law under Professor Jüri Uluots but failed political economy under Mikhail Kurtchinsky.^[5]^[4] Following his family's emigration to Canada in 1928 amid Estonia's political instability, Nurkse pursued formal economics training abroad, beginning at the University of Edinburgh in 1929, where he studied under Professor F. W. Ogilvie and earned a first-class Master of Arts degree in economics in 1932.^[5]^[4] From 1932 to 1934, supported by scholarships including Carnegie and Van Dunlop funds, Nurkse continued advanced studies at the University of Vienna and in Geneva, without obtaining a further degree, focusing on international economics and capital movements, which informed his early publications such as a 1934 article and a 1935 monograph.^[5]^[4] His time in Vienna exposed him to the Austrian School of economics, where he engaged with prominent figures including Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek, Gottfried Haberler, Fritz Machlup, and Oskar Morgenstern, whose emphasis on capital theory, business cycles, and methodological individualism shaped his analytical approach to exchange rates and international finance.^[4] Additionally, the trade theories of Swedish economist Bertil Ohlin influenced Nurkse's early perspectives on international capital flows, while pre-Keynesian monetary doctrines prevalent in his formative years reinforced his skepticism toward flexible exchange rates.^[4] These encounters, rather than formal doctoral training—which he never completed—provided the intellectual foundation for his subsequent work at the League of Nations.^[5]

Professional Career

Work at the League of Nations

In 1934, Ragnar Nurkse joined the secretariat of the League of Nations in Geneva as a researcher in the Economic, Financial and Transit Department's Financial Section and Economic Intelligence Service, beginning his tenure on 1 May.^[5]^[1] During his time there from 1934 to 1945, he focused on analyzing international financial stability, contributing to the League's efforts to monitor global economic conditions amid the Great Depression and interwar monetary disruptions.^[7]^[1] Nurkse regularly authored sections for key League publications, including the annual World Economic Survey and Review of World Trade, providing data-driven assessments of trade flows, currency movements, and economic disequilibria.^[8] His research emphasized the vulnerabilities of fixed exchange rate regimes under the gold standard's remnants, highlighting how speculative capital flows and inadequate reserves exacerbated instability in the 1920s and 1930s.^[7] A pivotal contribution was his primary authorship of the 1944 League report International Currency Experience: Lessons of the Interwar Period, which examined the failures of unmanaged exchange rates and advocated for coordinated international mechanisms, such as adjustable pegs with emergency liquidity support, influencing postwar frameworks like Bretton Woods.^[1]^[7] Even as League operations suspended during World War II, Nurkse continued analytical work, with staff relocating to Princeton, New Jersey, to sustain research continuity.^[1]^[9] He departed in 1945 to pursue academic roles, having established himself as a leading voice on monetary policy coordination.^[3]

Academic Positions and Teaching Roles

Following the dissolution of the League of Nations in 1945, Nurkse entered academia with an appointment as visiting lecturer in economics at Columbia University, serving from September 1945 to May 1946.^[2] He concurrently held membership at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, from 1946 to 1948, during which period he contributed to scholarly discussions on international finance without formal teaching duties.^[1] In 1947, Nurkse was appointed associate professor of international economics at Columbia University, marking the start of his primary teaching tenure there; he delivered courses on topics including international trade, monetary policy, and economic development to undergraduate and graduate students in the economics department and School of International Affairs.^[2] ^[10] He was promoted to full professor in 1949, a position he held until his death, allowing him to supervise graduate students and influence emerging scholars in development economics through seminars and advisory roles.^[2] Nurkse took a leave during the 1954–1955 academic year to serve as a visiting fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford University, where he engaged in research and lectured on capital formation and underdeveloped economies, fostering transatlantic academic exchanges.^[4] In 1958, he accepted an offer for a professorship of economics and the directorship of Princeton University's International Finance Section, intending to teach advanced courses on global economic stability; however, he died in May 1959 before commencing the role.^[3] Throughout his Columbia years, Nurkse's teaching emphasized empirical analysis of interwar financial crises and postwar development challenges, drawing on his League experience to critique unstable exchange regimes.^[1]

Core Contributions to Economics

Analysis of Interwar Exchange Rate Instability

In International Currency Experience: Lessons of the Inter-War Period (1944), Ragnar Nurkse analyzed the interwar era's exchange rate volatility as a primary driver of international monetary disequilibrium, stemming from the breakdown of the gold standard and subsequent unmanaged floating rates.^[11] He argued that post-World War I attempts to peg currencies to gold at pre-1914 parities—such as the United States maintaining the dollar at $20.67 per ounce and the United Kingdom restoring the pound at $4.86 per ounce in 1925—imposed asymmetric deflationary pressures, particularly on surplus countries like France and Belgium, which hoarded gold reserves and disrupted global liquidity.^[12] This rigidity prevented automatic adjustment, amplifying imbalances that culminated in the gold bloc's collapse starting in 1931.^[13] The shift to floating rates after the United Kingdom's abandonment of gold on September 21, 1931, which devalued sterling by roughly 25-30% against the dollar, initiated a wave of competitive depreciations that Nurkse viewed as destabilizing rather than equilibrating.^[14] Subsequent actions included the U.S. devaluation of the dollar by 41% between 1933 and 1934 (via the Gold Reserve Act of January 30, 1934, resetting the price to $35 per ounce), Belgium's 28% franc devaluation in April 1935, and France's 25% adjustment in October 1936, often accompanied by exchange controls and multiple rates.^[7] Nurkse emphasized that these changes frequently failed to improve trade balances predictably, as demand elasticities proved insufficient or perverse in the short run, with retaliation offsetting any gains and fostering a "beggar-thy-neighbor" dynamic that propagated uncertainty across borders.^[15] Nurkse attributed much of the era's economic contraction to this instability, noting that exchange rate fluctuations introduced risks to trade contracts, discouraged long-term investment, and encouraged speculative capital flows over productive ones, contributing to a 66% decline in world trade volume from 1929 to 1932.^[12] ^[16] Sterilized interventions—such as central banks offsetting reserve losses without monetary expansion—exacerbated the problem by decoupling exchange rates from underlying policy, rendering them unreliable signals for adjustment.^[14] He critiqued the lack of coordination, observing that unilateral floats prioritized domestic recovery at the expense of global stability, with no net stimulus to aggregate demand due to retaliatory measures.^[7] Drawing causal lessons, Nurkse rejected pure flexibility as viable, asserting it amplified disturbances in an environment of policy divergence and weak institutions, and instead prescribed multilateral rules for fixed rates with provisions for orderly adjustments to avoid the interwar pitfalls.^[13] ^[11] This framework influenced postwar designs like Bretton Woods, prioritizing stability over discretion to mitigate the observed cascades of volatility.^[12]

Theory of Balanced Growth and Capital Formation

Ragnar Nurkse analyzed capital formation in underdeveloped countries as constrained primarily by the interplay of low savings and weak investment incentives, rather than mere scarcity of resources. In his 1953 book Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries, he emphasized that per capita incomes as low as $50–$100 annually in many such economies generate insufficient domestic savings to finance significant productive investment, perpetuating stagnation.^[17] This shortage is compounded by a "vicious circle" on the supply side, where limited capital stock yields low productivity and reinforces low incomes, while on the demand side, poverty shrinks the market size, discouraging private investment even when savings exist.^[17]^[18] Nurkse argued that orthodox approaches focusing solely on mobilizing savings—through fiscal measures or foreign aid—fail without addressing the inducement to invest, which hinges on expanding effective demand through broader market development.^[17] He highlighted disguised unemployment in agriculture, where surplus labor could be reallocated to industry without immediate reductions in food output, providing a potential labor pool for capital projects; however, this required complementary investments to absorb workers productively.^[18] Capital formation thus demands not isolated projects but a coordinated strategy to overcome bottlenecks, as uneven development risks idle capacities or inflationary pressures.^[17] Central to Nurkse's framework is the theory of balanced growth, which posits that underdeveloped economies require a "big push"—simultaneous, large-scale investments across interdependent sectors like agriculture, manufacturing, and infrastructure—to mutually reinforce supply and demand.^[18] By investing concurrently in consumer goods industries to raise incomes and in producer goods to enhance productivity, the approach enlarges the market, stimulating further private investment; for instance, agricultural modernization could boost food supplies and rural purchasing power, enabling industrial expansion.^[17] This contrasts with unbalanced strategies, as balanced expansion minimizes complementarities' absence, such as when industrial output exceeds agricultural support, leading to underutilized plants.^[17] Nurkse viewed government planning as essential for orchestrating this balanced push, given private actors' inability to internalize externalities or coordinate at scale in fragmented markets.^[18] Empirical illustrations from his work included post-war Europe's Marshall Plan, where diversified aid facilitated synchronized recovery, though he cautioned that underdeveloped contexts demanded even greater emphasis on domestic absorptive capacity to avoid dependency.^[17] Ultimately, successful capital formation under this theory hinges on breaking poverty traps through holistic development, prioritizing real output growth over financial flows alone.^[18]

The Vicious Circle of Poverty Concept

Formulation and Mechanisms

Nurkse formulated the vicious circle of poverty in his 1953 book Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries, describing it as a self-reinforcing cycle where low per capita incomes in underdeveloped economies perpetuate insufficient capital accumulation and productivity stagnation.^[19] He argued that this circle arises from the interplay of limited supply of capital and weak demand for investment, trapping economies at low equilibrium levels without external intervention.^[20] The mechanism operates on the supply side through a chain where low real incomes restrict domestic savings, limiting funds available for investment in physical capital and thereby constraining productivity improvements that could raise incomes further.^[21] Nurkse emphasized that in such economies, per capita incomes often remain below thresholds necessary for significant voluntary savings, as subsistence needs consume most output, with any surplus directed toward immediate consumption rather than deferred for capital formation.^[19] On the demand side, the circle manifests as low aggregate demand from impoverished populations failing to provide sufficient market incentives for entrepreneurs to undertake large-scale investments, resulting in underutilized production capacities and further depressed incomes.^[21] This low inducement to invest exacerbates capital scarcity, as potential investors perceive limited effective demand, leading to a feedback loop that sustains economic backwardness.^[22] Nurkse illustrated this duality as complementary forces, where supply-side savings constraints and demand-side market limitations reinforce each other, distinguishing his analysis from simpler linear poverty models.^[20]

Implications for Underdeveloped Economies

Nurkse's vicious circle of poverty posits that underdeveloped economies are trapped in a self-reinforcing loop where low per capita incomes limit both savings for investment and effective demand for goods, perpetuating low productivity and stagnation. On the supply side, meager incomes constrain domestic capital accumulation, as households prioritize immediate consumption over savings, resulting in insufficient investment to expand productive capacity; this, in turn, sustains low output per worker and reinforces poverty. Similarly, on the demand side, widespread poverty suppresses market size, deterring entrepreneurs from investing due to fears of unsold output, which further hampers capital formation and technological adoption.^[22]^[20] To escape this cycle, Nurkse argued that underdeveloped economies require an initial external impetus to bootstrap capital formation, as reliance on endogenous savings alone is infeasible given rates often below 5-10% of income in such contexts, far short of the 20-30% needed for sustained growth. Foreign aid, grants, or concessional loans from developed nations could provide this "big push," enabling governments to finance infrastructure, agriculture, and basic industries without exacerbating domestic inflationary pressures from limited absorptive capacity. Without such interventions, Nurkse warned, these economies risk perpetual underdevelopment, as isolated investments fail to generate the scale effects necessary for viability.^[18]^[23] Central to Nurkse's policy prescription is the doctrine of balanced growth, advocating simultaneous, coordinated investments across complementary sectors—such as agriculture for food security and raw materials, industry for manufacturing, and transport for connectivity—to create mutual demand spillovers and avert bottlenecks. For instance, enhancing agricultural productivity raises rural incomes, expanding the market for industrial goods, while industrial expansion absorbs surplus labor, preventing rural overcrowding; this holistic approach, Nurkse contended, maximizes the multiplier effects of scarce capital in economies where sectoral imbalances historically led to idle resources, as observed in interwar colonial dependencies with export-focused agriculture but neglected domestic industry. Government-led planning is thus implied as essential, directing resources via public investment programs to achieve this synchronization, rather than leaving allocation to fragmented private initiatives prone to market failures under poverty constraints.^[23]^[20]^[22] Empirical implications extend to human capital: the circle discourages investment in education and health, as low incomes prioritize survival over skill-building, yielding a workforce with limited productivity and perpetuating reliance on low-skill, subsistence activities; breaking it demands targeted public expenditures on these areas alongside physical capital to foster entrepreneurship and innovation. Nurkse's framework influenced post-1950s development strategies, underscoring that underdeveloped economies must prioritize capital inflows and balanced planning to achieve takeoff, though success hinges on administrative capacity to avoid misallocation, a challenge evident in varying outcomes across aid-recipient nations by the 1960s.^[20]^[18]

Criticisms and Theoretical Debates

Challenges to Balanced Growth from Market-Oriented Perspectives

Market-oriented economists, including Peter Bauer, critiqued Nurkse's balanced growth theory for its reliance on coordinated, large-scale investments akin to a "big push," arguing that such approaches substitute fallible central planning for the superior allocative efficiency of decentralized markets. Bauer maintained that the theory's premise of simultaneous sectoral investments overlooked the administrative complexities and information deficits inherent in underdeveloped economies, where governments often lacked the capacity to execute without waste, distortion, or capture by vested interests.^[24] He further rejected the associated vicious circle of poverty as a myth, asserting that "a country is poor because it is poor"—Nurkse's formulation—ignores historical instances of spontaneous growth emerging from trade, individual initiative, and incremental private investments rather than requiring an exogenous coordinated thrust to break stagnation.^[25] Bauer emphasized that market processes, driven by profit motives and price signals, enable entrepreneurs to identify and exploit opportunities without presupposing perfect foresight or balanced ex ante planning, which he viewed as antithetical to the trial-and-error discovery central to development. In contrast to Nurkse's advocacy for broad capital formation to stimulate demand and supply complementarities, Bauer pointed to cases like colonial Malaya, where export-led expansion in rubber and tin occurred through responsive private enterprise amid open markets, achieving sustained growth without deliberate sectoral balancing.^[26] This perspective aligns with broader free-market arguments that government-directed balancing distorts incentives, fosters dependency on aid or protectionism, and stifles the very innovations needed for takeoff, as evidenced by the relative stagnation in import-substitution regimes that echoed balanced growth logic compared to outward-oriented strategies.^[27] Empirical patterns post-Nurkse reinforce these challenges: economies minimizing intervention, such as Hong Kong, demonstrated high growth through market-led specialization and trade, underscoring that imbalances resolved endogenously via competition outperform imposed equilibria. Critics like Bauer extended this to contend that Nurkse's framework undervalues institutional preconditions—secure property rights and limited state interference—favoring causal realism in growth origins over stylized equilibrium models.^[28]

Empirical Shortcomings and Policy Failures Linked to Nurkse's Ideas

Nurkse's balanced growth theory, advocating simultaneous large-scale investments across complementary sectors to overcome the vicious circle of poverty, has faced empirical scrutiny for lacking robust cross-country evidence supporting the necessity of such coordination. Critics, including Albert Hirschman, argued that unbalanced growth—focusing on priority sectors—proved more effective in practice, as evidenced by the rapid industrialization of East Asian economies like South Korea and Taiwan from the 1960s to 1990s, where export-led strategies yielded average annual GDP growth rates exceeding 8% without broad simultaneous investments. ^[29] In contrast, econometric analyses of developing economies post-1950 indicate that market-driven linkages often generated spillovers absent in state-orchestrated balanced approaches, undermining the theory's assumption of pervasive coordination failures. ^[30] Policy implementations inspired by Nurkse's ideas, particularly through structuralist frameworks emphasizing import-substituting industrialization (ISI) to foster balanced domestic markets, contributed to notable failures in Latin America during the 1950s–1980s. Countries such as Argentina and Brazil adopted ISI policies influenced by the big-push rationale, leading to overprotected industries, inefficient resource allocation, and neglected agricultural and export sectors; for instance, Brazil's manufacturing productivity growth stagnated relative to competitors, with total factor productivity declining by approximately 1% annually in the 1970s due to lack of competition. ^[31] These strategies exacerbated balance-of-payments crises, culminating in the 1982 Latin American debt crisis, where regional GDP per capita contracted by an average of 0.6% yearly from 1980–1985, and external debt burdens surged to over 50% of GDP in nations like Mexico. ^[32] The vicious circle concept's policy emphasis on supply-side capital accumulation via state intervention overlooked government capacity constraints, resulting in misallocated investments and "white elephant" projects in post-colonial Africa and South Asia. In India, five-year plans modeled on balanced growth principles from the 1950s yielded the "Hindu rate of growth" of about 3.5% annually through 1980, hampered by bureaucratic inefficiencies and low private entrepreneurship, as capital was funneled into heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods and agriculture. ^[20] Empirical evaluations highlight that such interventions often amplified fiscal deficits and inflation without breaking poverty traps, with studies showing higher growth in economies pursuing outward-oriented reforms post-1980s, such as Chile's, where GDP growth averaged 7% from 1985–1998 after abandoning ISI. ^[33] These outcomes underscore a disconnect between Nurkse's theoretical priors and real-world institutional realities, where state-led coordination frequently failed due to rent-seeking and informational asymmetries rather than market shortcomings alone. ^[34]

Legacy and Influence

Impact on Post-War Development Policy

Nurkse's formulation of balanced growth theory, articulated in works such as Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries (1953), provided a foundational rationale for post-World War II development policies emphasizing simultaneous, large-scale investments across complementary sectors to break the vicious circle of poverty. This approach justified state-coordinated "big push" strategies, where governments and international agencies directed resources toward infrastructure, agriculture, and industry to stimulate domestic demand and overcome low savings-investment equilibria in low-income economies.^[35] ^[20] His ideas aligned with the post-1945 shift from European reconstruction—exemplified by the Marshall Plan (1948–1952), which applied similar principles of balanced expansion—to global development aid, influencing multilateral institutions to prioritize capital formation over reliance on export-led growth from advanced economies.^[35] ^[36] At the World Bank, Nurkse's arguments against expecting external trade to spontaneously drive growth in underdeveloped regions informed early lending priorities from the late 1940s onward, focusing on domestic investment programs to foster self-sustaining expansion rather than peripheral integration into global markets.^[36] ^[18] These principles underpinned the Bank's support for projects in Asia and Latin America during the 1950s, where balanced sectoral development was seen as essential to augment productive capacity and avoid fragmented, demand-constrained growth. Similarly, his emphasis on internal financing mechanisms and policy coordination echoed in the International Monetary Fund's mandate under Bretton Woods (1944), which aimed to promote balanced international trade expansion and resource utilization in line with developmental objectives.^[35] Nurkse's influence permeated United Nations frameworks, including economic commissions established post-1945, by advocating for planned interventions to achieve equilibrium growth amid population pressures and capital scarcity.^[37] In practice, this manifested in aid policies for recipient countries, such as South Korea's post-war modernization drive in the 1960s, where balanced growth tenets guided the allocation of U.S. and multilateral assistance toward integrated industrial-agricultural investments.^[38] By the First UN Development Decade (1961–1970), his concepts had informed targets for 5% annual GDP growth in developing nations through coordinated public and foreign capital inflows, marking a consensus on development as an active policy domain rather than market spontaneity.^[35]

Contemporary Evaluations and Relevance

In the early 21st century, Ragnar Nurkse's contributions have experienced renewed scholarly interest, particularly through retrospectives marking the centenary of his birth in 2007, which highlight the enduring applicability of classical development economics amid critiques of neoliberal policies. Economists such as Rainer Kattel and Jan A. Kregel argue that Nurkse's emphasis on balanced growth and structural transformation addresses failures of the Washington Consensus, where market liberalization in regions like Latin America yielded only 10% per capita income growth from 1980 to 2005, compared to 82% in the prior two decades under more interventionist approaches.^[39]^[40] This reevaluation posits Nurkse's framework as prescient for avoiding financial fragility via domestic resource mobilization, a lesson reinforced by post-2008 crises exposing vulnerabilities in capital-importing economies.^[18] Nurkse's vicious circle of poverty concept retains relevance in analyzing persistent low-income traps, as seen in sub-Saharan Africa's stagnation where low productivity and savings rates perpetuate underinvestment, with World Bank data indicating that over 400 million people remain in extreme poverty as of 2023 despite decades of aid. However, contemporary evaluations critique the theory for underemphasizing supply-side incentives and entrepreneurial linkages, with Albert O. Hirschman's unbalanced growth alternative gaining traction for explaining successes in export-led models like East Asia's, where targeted investments in bottlenecks outperformed comprehensive planning.^[41] Paul Krugman, in a 1994 analysis, faulted Nurkse-inspired models for methodological flaws in assuming automatic scale economies without empirical validation of coordination feasibility, though he overlooked Nurkse's financial stability insights.^[42] Empirically, Nurkse's ideas inform debates on infrastructure "big pushes" in fragile states, such as Ethiopia's Growth and Transformation Plans from 2010 onward, which aimed at simultaneous sectoral expansion but faced challenges from resource scarcity and planning inefficiencies, echoing criticisms that balanced growth ignores capital constraints in resource-poor settings.^[23] Modern development policy, per the 2008 Commission on Growth and Development, selectively integrates Nurkse's demand-side market expansion logic with market-oriented reforms, recognizing that while vicious circles hinder spontaneous takeoff, state-orchestrated balance risks diseconomies and corruption without competitive pressures.^[43] Overall, Nurkse's work is valued for causal insights into underdevelopment's self-reinforcing mechanisms but tempered by evidence favoring hybrid strategies over pure balanced intervention.^[20]

References

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HET: Ragnar Nurkse - The History of Economic Thought Website
Born and raised in Estonia, then part of the Russian empire, Ragnar Nurske began his education at the University of Dorpat (Tartu) in 1926.
[2]
About Ragnar Nurkse - TalTech
Ragnar Nurkse (1907-1959) belongs to the handful of economic thinkers associated with early or high development theory, also referred to as classical.
[3]
Ragnar Nurkse Papers, 1930-1960 (mostly 1945-1959) - Finding Aids
Ragnar Nurkse (1907-1959) was a leading scholar of international economics, international finance and economic development. He served in the League of Nations ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] (Re)discovering Ragnar Nurkse - Eesti Pank
In 1999, when great Estonians of the 20th century, among others also scientists and economists were selected, the name of Ragnar Nurkse never popped up.
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### Summary of Ragnar Nurkse's Early Education and Academic Training
[6]
Nurkse, Ragnar (1907–1959) - SpringerLink
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Full article: Ragnar Nurkse and the international financial architecture*
There was also a late Ragnar Nurkse, who made important contributions to the theory and practice of economic development. But it is with the early Nurkse ...
[8]
14. The League of Nations and alternative economic perspectives
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Ragnar Nurske continued to work in the League of Nations even after its collapse and the suspension of its activities during World War II. Therefore, he ...
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[PDF] International Currency Experience
With the detail of the history so rich in incident this book is not concerned. The story is related in bold outline and the evidence is.
[12]
[PDF] The Missing Bretton Woods Debate over Flexible Exchange Rates
Nurkse argued that flexible exchange rates had three serious disadvantages: they create an element of risk that discourages international trade, they create ...
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[PDF] EXCHANGE RATE CHOICES - Federal Reserve Bank of Boston
Ragnar Nurkse, in an influential study for the League of Nations, summarized the interwar experience with floating exchange rates in these terms (1944, p. 210):
[14]
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Interwar currency and inflation experience underscored the ineffectiveness of sterilized intervention when proceeding with inconsistent monetary and fiscal ...
[15]
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[16]
Competitive devaluations in the 1930s: myth or reality? | Cliometrica
Dec 18, 2022 · Furthermore, the article is a rehabilitation of Ragnar Nurkse (1944), who exposed the expansionary role of currency depreciations for the global ...
[17]
[PDF] Problems Of Capital Formation In Underdeveloped Countries
RAGNAR NURKSE. Professor of Economics. Columbia University. New York. OXFORD ... case for 'balanced growth' rests on the need for a 'balanced diet.' The ...
[18]
[PDF] Nurkse and the Role of Finance in Development Economics
Ragnar Nurkse was one the pioneers in development economics. This paper celebrates the hundredth anniversary of his birth with a critical retrospective of his ...
[19]
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The inducement to invest is limited by the size of the market. This proposition is, in effect, a modern variant of Adam Smith's.Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[20]
(PDF) Ragnar Nurkse's Development Theory: Influences and ...
Ragnar Nurkse, the great Estonian-American economist, was undoubtedly one of the most rigorous theoreticians and therefore his contribution to the sub- ...
[21]
Vicious Circle of Poverty and the Scarcity of Capital (With Diagram)
Ragnar Nurkse in the 1950s articulated that poverty of the poor countries may be attributed to the lack of capital formation. The Vicious Circle Argument:.
[22]
Vicious Circle of Poverty - SPUR ECONOMICS
Sep 12, 2022 · The vicious circle of poverty introduced by R. Nurkse attempts to explain the reasons and factors why underdeveloped or poor economies tend ...
[23]
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Nurkse is of the view that the government must intervene in productive activities through economic planning. He is of the view that when government participates ...
[24]
Anything Goes? | Peter Bauer | The New York Review of Books
Nov 20, 1986 · According to Nurkse, there is “a circular constellation of forces tending to act and react upon one another in such a way as to keep a poor ...
[25]
P. T. Bauer, The Vicious Circle of Poverty: Reality or Myth? (1965)
The widely held notion that poor countries are caught in a vicious circle of poverty and stagnation, or, as the late Professor Nurske put it, that a country is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[26]
Dissent on Development - Reason.com
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[PDF] Development Economics-II
Ragnar Nurkse was one of pioneers of balanced growth theory. The theory states that an underdeveloped country needs to make large investments in a number of ...
[28]
Strategies of Economic Development: Balanced Vs. Unbalanced ...
Hans Singer and Albert Hirschman' eminent American economists, have criticised Nurkse's doctrine of balanced growth. They contend that what is needed is not ...
[29]
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We suggest that the results may demonstrate the importance of trade for less developed countries, rather than provide an unequivocal verification of Hirsch- man ...
[30]
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The essence of a big-push argument is a model with multiple equilibria in which, under certain initial conditions, the economy gets stuck in a poverty trap ...
[31]
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They also failed to go beyond broad generalities in discussing policy goals and policy instruments, and never undertook much effort to uncover evidence about ...
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[33]
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Jul 18, 2019 · His error lies in the failure to disaggregate the total exports into its components. The shift in GDP growth to more than 8 percent in 1963 from ...
[34]
[PDF] Coordination Failures, Poverty Traps, ”Big Push” Policy and ...
Section five criticizes the notion of coordination failure and underscores the weaknesses of “big push” theory, explaining the risks associated with development ...
[35]
[PDF] The Relevance of Ragnar Nurkse and Classical Development ...
In this introductory essay, we aim to show, first, how the classical devel- opment economics, that of Ragnar Nurkse's (1907-1957) generation, epit- ... breadth of ...
[36]
[PDF] Pioneers in Development - World Bank Documents and Reports
Ragnar Nurkse, Problems of Capital Formation in Underdeveloped Countries, chap. 1; Patterns of Trade and Development, Wicksell Lectures (Stockholm: Almqvist.<|separator|>
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[PDF] Ragnar Nurkse_FM.qxd - Cambridge Core - Journals & Books Online
In 2007 we celebrated 100 years since Ragnar Nurkse's birth. In 2008 we are celebrating the. 60 years of the foundation of the United Nations Economic ...
[38]
Translating Foreign Aid Policy Locally: South Korea's Modernization ...
428 Translating Foreign Aid Policy Locally. The first round of this designing power formation was the introduction of Ragnar Nurkse's balanced growth theory ...
[39]
The Relevance of Ragnar Nurkse and Classical Development ...
1 The Relevance of Ragnar Nurkse and Classical Development Economics · 2 Life and Time of Ragnar Nurkse · 3 Nurkse and the Role of Finance in Development ...Missing: intellectual | Show results with:intellectual
[40]
(PDF) The Relevance of Ragnar Nurkse and Classical Development ...
Lawrence R. Klein pioneered the work on aggregation, in particular in production functions, in the 1940s. He paved the way for researchers to establish the ...
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[PDF] Nurkse is one of the advocates of the balanced growth theory ...
These different approaches, "the balanced growth" and. "the unbalanced growth", are the basis for a well known controversy in the field of economic development.Missing: implications policy
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http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/dishpan.html
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https://www.growthcommission.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=96&Itemid=169