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Ras Dashen

Ras Dashen, also known as Ras Dejen, is the highest mountain in Ethiopia and the tenth-highest peak in Africa, rising to an elevation of 4,550 meters (14,928 feet) above sea level.^[1]^[2] Located in the Simien Mountains National Park in northern Ethiopia's Amhara Region, it forms part of the dramatic Simien massif on the northern edge of the Ethiopian Highlands, a landscape shaped by millions of years of erosion resulting in jagged peaks, deep valleys, and precipices up to 1,500 meters high.^[3] The peak is situated within a UNESCO World Heritage Site designated in 1978 for its outstanding natural beauty and geological significance, comparable in scale to the Grand Canyon.^[3] Geologically, Ras Dashen is composed primarily of ancient basalt flows from volcanic activity dating back to the Oligocene epoch, forming an undulating plateau that drops sharply into gorges and escarpments.^[1] The area supports exceptional biodiversity, hosting endemic species such as the Walia ibex (an endangered mountain goat), gelada baboons, and the Ethiopian wolf—one of the world's rarest canids—as well as over 130 bird species and several small mammals unique to the Ethiopian-Eritrean highlands.^[3] Despite its rugged terrain, the park faces pressures from human activities like agriculture and grazing, which occupy about 80% of the land.^[3] Ras Dashen attracts adventurers for multi-day treks, with the ascent typically starting from the town of Sankaber or Debark and involving steep trails through alpine meadows and Afro-alpine moorlands; the summit offers panoramic views of the surrounding highlands and distant Lake Tana.^[4] Established as a national park in 1969, the region underscores Ethiopia's rich ecological heritage while highlighting conservation challenges in one of Africa's most biodiverse highland ecosystems.^[3]

Geography

Location and Elevation

Ras Dashen is situated in the North Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region in northern Ethiopia, within the eastern escarpment of the Simien Mountains. Its precise geographical coordinates are 13°14′09″N 38°22′15″E.^[5]^[6] The peak reaches an elevation of 4,550 meters (14,930 feet), making it the highest point in Ethiopia and the highest in the Horn of Africa.^[5] Earlier measurements varied due to survey limitations; Italian military surveys in the early 20th century estimated it at 4,620 meters, while triangulation data from the 1960s and 1970s revised this to 4,533 meters. A more accurate Franco-Italian survey in the early 2000s confirmed the current elevation of 4,550 meters using advanced topographic methods.^[5] Ras Dashen has a topographic prominence of 3,997 meters, ranking it as the 23rd most ultra-prominent peak in the world among those with at least 1,500 meters of prominence.^[7] In the broader context of African mountains, it stands as the 10th highest peak by elevation.^[4]

Topography and Geology

Ras Dashen forms the eastern peak of a massive volcanic rim within the Simien Mountains, part of a Hawaiian-type shield volcano complex that originated from extensive lava outpourings during the Oligocene period, approximately 40 to 25 million years ago. This rim structure is characterized by rugged terrain, including deep ravines that incise the flanks and dramatic escarpments rising up to 2,000 meters high along a southwest-northeast orientation, shaped by millions of years of erosion following the initial uplift around 75 million years ago. To the west, it is paired with Mount Bwahit, reaching 4,430 meters, with the two peaks separated by the Meshaha River valley, which creates a notable topographic divide in the landscape.^[8]^[9] Geologically, the region owes its formation to Oligocene-Miocene volcanic activity in the Ethiopian Highlands, driven by mantle plume dynamics and the East African Rift System, resulting in a thick sequence of basaltic layers—up to 3,000–3,500 meters—overlying a Precambrian crystalline basement. The primary rock types are basalt, dominant in the flood basalts and shield volcano foundations, and trachyte, prevalent in summit lava flows and plugs dated to around 30–29 million years ago, with additional felsic components like rhyolites and ignimbrites from fractional crystallization processes. This volcanic succession, including formations such as the Termaber-Gussa-Megezez, has been dissected by faulting and uplift, contributing to the plateau's highly jointed and fractured nature.^[10]^[11] Hydrologically, Ras Dashen and the surrounding Simien Plateau drain westward into the Tekeze River (also known as Takkaze) through steep gorges and ravines, forming tributaries that support downstream water resources in Ethiopia and beyond, though much of this flow is seasonal due to the region's rainfall patterns. While no major lakes are present, valleys host intermittent streams that activate primarily during the rainy season, with perennial flows limited to select rivers originating in the highlands. These water systems highlight the area's dissected volcanic topography, where erosion has carved precipitous cliffs and undulating plateaus that rise abruptly from the adjacent lowland plains.^[12]^[3]

History

Etymology

The name Ras Dashen is an anglicized corruption of the Amharic Ras Dejen, the official term employed by the Ethiopian Mapping Authority for the peak.^[13] In Amharic, ras translates to "head" or "chief," functioning as a prestigious feudal title within the Ethiopian nobility, roughly equivalent to a duke or high-ranking general, and deeply embedded in the military and administrative structure of the Solomonic dynasty from the 13th to 20th centuries.^[14]^[15]^[16] The component Dejen derives from Amharic roots connoting "foundation," "support," or "protector," leading to the overall interpretation of Ras Dejen as "head guard" or "chief protector," evoking the role of a vanguard or imperial defender in historical contexts.^[17]^[18] This nomenclature is rooted in Amharic, a Semitic language spoken across the Ethiopian Highlands, and mirrors the era's aristocratic conventions under the Solomonic dynasty, where such titles denoted loyalty and leadership amid the empire's expansive feudal system. Alternative readings occasionally link Dejen to broader descriptors of guardianship or even specific imperial roles, though the "head guard" rendering predominates in linguistic analyses.^[19]

Exploration and First Ascents

The Simien Mountains, encompassing Ras Dashen, have been integral to the lives of local Amhara communities for centuries, serving as seasonal grazing lands for livestock on the high plateaus and as a natural defensive stronghold due to the steep escarpments and isolated terrain.^[3] European interest in the region emerged in the 19th century amid quests to identify the Nile River's sources, with French explorers Antoine d'Abbadie and Arnauld d'Abbadie conducting extensive surveys of Ethiopia's highlands from 1838 to 1848, during which they documented the Simien range's prominent peaks and contributed initial mappings of the area.^[20] The first recorded ascent of Ras Dashen occurred in 1841, achieved by French military officers Pierre Victor Adolphe Ferret and Joseph Germain Galinier as part of their scientific expedition through Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia). Motivated by geographic and hydrological inquiries, they scaled the peak—then known locally as Ras Dejen—to measure its height and describe the surrounding volcanic landscape, marking the earliest documented European summit of Ethiopia's highest point.^[21] Later 19th-century efforts built on these findings, with German explorer Gerhard Rohlfs traversing northern Ethiopia in the 1860s and 1880s, providing further accounts of the Simien highlands' accessibility and strategic importance. Italian surveys in the early 20th century, particularly a military mapping during the 1930s occupation, estimated Ras Dashen's elevation at 4,620 meters, sparking ongoing debates about its precise height amid varying measurement techniques.^[22] In the mid-20th century, British and Ethiopian joint mapping initiatives refined understandings of the region's topography, while a comprehensive national triangulation survey in the 1960s and 1970s established the peak's height at 4,533 meters. A subsequent Franco-Italian expedition in 2007, led by surveyors including Vigano and Salvat, revised this to 4,550 meters using advanced instrumentation, aligning with modern GPS data and resolving prior discrepancies.^[22]

Climbing and Trekking

Access and Popular Routes

Access to Ras Dashen begins with air travel to Gondar Airport, followed by a approximately 100 km drive north to Debark, the administrative center and primary gateway to Simien Mountains National Park, which takes about 1.5 to 2 hours by road.^[23]^[24] From Debark, visitors proceed another 1 to 1.5 hours by vehicle to the park's entry points, such as Sankaber (3,250 m) or Ambiko camp, where permits are obtained at the park headquarters.^[25]^[26] Park regulations mandate the hiring of a licensed guide and an armed scout for all treks, arranged through the park office or authorized associations in Debark, to ensure safety and compliance.^[27]^[4] The most popular route to the summit is a 3- to 4-day out-and-back trek starting from Sankaber camp, passing through Gich and Chenek camps before reaching Ras Dashen (4,533 m).^[28] This itinerary covers approximately 20 to 30 km in total, with daily hikes of 5 to 8 hours on well-marked trails through dramatic escarpments and valleys.^[25]^[24] On Day 1, trekkers ascend from Sankaber to Gich camp (3,600 m), traversing open plateaus and viewpoints like Enatye Pass (4,070 m). Day 2 involves a hike from Gich to Chenek camp (3,620 m), often including a side excursion to Imet Gogo (3,926 m) for panoramic vistas, covering about 10 to 12 km with moderate elevation gain. On Day 3, from Chenek, hikers undertake the summit push via the Bwahit Pass (4,200 m) and rocky paths through the Mesheha Valley, navigating false summits to reach the true peak before descending to Chenek or Ambiko (3,100 m); this segment alone spans 15 to 20 km round trip and takes 7 to 12 hours. Day 4 typically returns to Sankaber or Debark by vehicle.^[28]^[25]^[23] For a more comprehensive experience, an 8- to 10-day traverse covers the full Simien range, starting from Sankaber or Sankaber village and incorporating additional viewpoints like Imet Gogo and Ras Dejen before summiting, with a total distance of around 40 km on foot.^[28]^[29] Logistics are managed through organized tours booked at the Debark park office or via licensed operators, which include permits (approximately $20 per day), guide, scout, and mule support for gear; no technical climbing equipment is required, though trekking poles are recommended for stability on uneven terrain.^[23]^[24]^[27]

Challenges and Preparation

Ascending Ras Dashen presents significant altitude-related challenges due to its elevation exceeding 4,500 meters, where the risk of acute mountain sickness (AMS) becomes prominent above 4,000 meters. Symptoms such as headaches, nausea, and fatigue can impair performance, potentially leading to severe conditions like high-altitude pulmonary or cerebral edema if unaddressed. To mitigate these risks, trekkers are advised to undergo 2-3 days of acclimatization in lower-altitude locations such as Gondar (around 2,200 meters) or Addis Ababa (about 2,350 meters) prior to entering the Simien Mountains, allowing the body to adjust gradually to reduced oxygen levels.^[23]^[13] The physical demands of the trek require a solid level of fitness, as the trails from Chenek to the summit involve steep and uneven terrain with approximately 1,000 meters of elevation gain over rugged paths. This route, suitable for experienced hikers rather than technical mountaineers, typically takes 8-12 hours round-trip, including breaks for rest and navigation on animal tracks and rocky slopes. Participants should prepare through regular cardiovascular training, such as multi-day hikes simulating 6-8 hours of effort daily, to build endurance for the sustained exertion at high altitude.^[23]^[30]^[13] Logistically, the trek demands careful planning amid seasonal constraints and mandatory requirements. Trekking in the Simien Mountains National Park is not recommended from June to September due to heavy rains, which turn paths into muddy hazards and increase landslide risks, making this period unsuitable for ascents. Entry requires permits obtained at the park headquarters in Debark, costing approximately $100-200 USD depending on duration, along with compulsory local guides and armed scouts for safety; porters are recommended to manage loads. Camp encounters with hyenas pose a minor but notable risk, necessitating secure food storage.^[13]^[23] Due to ongoing armed conflict in the Amhara Region as of November 2025, access to the Simien Mountains may be restricted, with road closures reported and many treks canceled. The U.S. State Department has issued a Level 3 ("Reconsider Travel") advisory for the Amhara Region, citing armed conflict, civil unrest, and violence; several governments, including the UK, advise against all travel to the area. Travelers should monitor official advisories and confirm park accessibility before planning a visit.^[31]^[32]^[33] Preparation involves comprehensive health and gear readiness to ensure safety. Vaccinations against yellow fever and typhoid are essential for Ethiopia travel, with additional consideration for rabies if extended wildlife exposure is anticipated; consultation with a travel clinic at least a month prior is recommended. Fitness regimens should include 3-6 months of progressive training focusing on hiking with elevation and pack weight (6-10 kg). Essential gear encompasses weather-appropriate layered clothing, waterproof boots, a sleeping bag rated to -10°C for sub-zero nights, trekking poles, and high-SPF sunscreen, as daytime temperatures range from 11-18°C while nights drop to -2.5-4°C. Since 2020, tourism infrastructure has seen enhancements like better road access, though current security concerns override these improvements.^[34]^[30]^[23]^[13]

Natural Environment

Climate and Hydrology

Ras Dashen, situated in the afro-alpine zone of the Simien Mountains National Park, experiences a cool, temperate climate characterized by mild daytime temperatures averaging 11–18°C year-round and nighttime lows dropping to -2°C to -10°C, with the coldest conditions occurring from October to December. Annual precipitation ranges from 1,200 to 2,000 mm, predominantly falling during the main rainy season from June to September, which accounts for about 75% of the total rainfall, while a shorter rainy period occurs in February to March. This bimodal pattern supports the region's highland ecosystem but also leads to seasonal water abundance followed by drier periods from October to May.^[35]^[36]^[10] Extreme weather events are common at higher elevations, including violent snowfalls during the winter months from November to March, which can persist for days to months but typically melt rapidly due to subsequent warming. Fog frequently envelops the summits, reducing visibility, while high winds are prevalent, exacerbating the chill factor on exposed peaks. The high altitude also results in intense ultraviolet (UV) exposure, necessitating protective measures despite the overcast conditions often present.^[1]^[35] Microclimates vary significantly across the landscape, with warmer valleys experiencing slightly higher temperatures and more stable conditions compared to the cooler, wind-swept peaks around Ras Dashen. These variations are influenced by the rugged topography, where elevation gradients create localized pockets of frost even outside winter, though no permanent glaciers exist.^[10]^[36] The hydrology of the Ras Dashen area is dominated by seasonal rivers that originate in the Simien Mountains and serve as tributaries to the Tekeze River, providing essential water for downstream regions in Ethiopia, Sudan, and beyond. Monsoon rains from June to September replenish these rivers, many of which flow intermittently and swell dramatically during the wet season, while perennial streams persist year-round due to consistent groundwater contributions. Groundwater, stored in fractured volcanic aquifers such as the Miocene Termaber–Gussa–Megezez Formation, supports numerous highland springs with yields of 5–50 l/s, emerging from topographic breaks and fractured bedrock; these springs are vital local water sources and exhibit increased discharge during rainy periods. Frost pockets and shallow water tables further shape subsurface flow, directing it toward major drainages like the Tekeze and Abay (Blue Nile) systems without forming glacial features.^[12]^[10]^[37]

Biodiversity

The Ras Dashen area within the Simien Mountains features a rich array of flora characteristic of the Afro-alpine vegetation zone, with over 1,200 plant species recorded in the national park, many of which are endemic to Ethiopia or unique to the region.^[38] Prominent examples include giant lobelias (Lobelia rhynchopetalum), which form distinctive rosettes in the high-altitude moorlands, helichrysum bushes such as Helichrysum citrispinum and Helichrysum horridum that dominate shrublands, and forests of Erica arborea (tree heather) in the lower elevations below 3,500 meters.^[39]^[40] Among the endemics are the stonecrop Rosularia simiensis and the tussock grass Festuca gilbertiana, both confined to the Simien Mountains, contributing to the area's status as part of the Afro-alpine Centre of Plant Diversity.^[39]^[38] The fauna of the Ras Dashen region is equally diverse, with 21 mammal species including seven endemics, such as the gelada baboon (Theropithecus gelada), which forms the largest troops observed in the Simien Mountains, often numbering in the hundreds and grazing on alpine meadows.^[39]^[41] The Vulnerable Walia ibex (Capra walie), though recent studies recommend listing it as Critically Endangered, is a rare antelope adapted to the steep cliffs near the summit, with a population estimated at 306 individuals park-wide as of 2024.^[42]^[43] Other notable mammals include the Ethiopian klipspringer (Oreotragus saltator), which inhabits rocky outcrops, and occasional sightings of Ethiopian leopards (Panthera pardus pardus) and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) in the lower zones.^[44] The area supports 137 bird species, of which 16 are endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, including the thick-billed raven (Corvus crassirostris) and the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), a large vulture that soars over the escarpments.^[39] The Simien Mountains, including the Ras Dashen vicinity, qualify as a biodiversity hotspot due to their topographic isolation, which has fostered high levels of endemism: seven endemic mammals and 16 endemic bird species, alongside numerous endemic plants like ten grass species representing 19% of the local grasses.^[39]^[41] This isolation, combined with varied elevations, creates distinct habitat zones that support specialized biodiversity; the ericaceous belt between 3,000 and 4,000 meters features heather-dominated (Erica arborea) woodlands, while alpine meadows above serve as key grazing areas for herbivores like geladas and ibex.^[39]^[40] These zones are influenced by the region's high-altitude climate, which limits tree growth above certain elevations and promotes unique adaptations in both flora and fauna.^[44]

Conservation and Significance

Simien Mountains National Park

Simien Mountains National Park was established in 1969 as Ethiopia's inaugural national park, aimed at preserving the unique highland ecosystems and endemic species of the Simien Mountains, including the highest peak, Ras Dashen.^[39]^[45] In 1978, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing its outstanding universal value for both natural features—such as dramatic volcanic landscapes formed by erosion—and cultural elements tied to local Amhara heritage.^[3]^[46] The park's core boundaries encompass approximately 412 km² within the Amhara Region's North Gondar Zone, stretching from the Sankaber area in the south to Chenek in the north, fully incorporating Ras Dashen and its surrounding plateaus above 3,000 meters elevation.^[47] Surrounding buffer zones, designated to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts, allow sustainable land use by adjacent local communities while protecting the park's integrity.^[3] Management of the park falls under the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority (EWCA), which enforces regulations including mandatory entry fees—20 Ethiopian birr for locals and 90 USD (or equivalent) per day for international visitors as of 2024—and requirements for licensed guides and armed scouts to ensure safety on trails.^[48]^[49]^[50] Eco-lodges, such as Simien Lodge perched at 3,300 meters, provide sustainable accommodation options, while tourism infrastructure saw significant expansion in the 2010s, including upgraded access roads from Debark and enhanced campsites at key sites like Geech and Chenek to support multi-day treks.^[51]^[52] Prior to 2020, the park attracted approximately 30,000 to 38,000 visitors annually, primarily for trekking, though numbers declined sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent civil conflict in northern Ethiopia, leading to closure from late 2020 until early 2022; recovery efforts since then have emphasized sustainable practices, such as low-impact group sizes and community-involved guiding, amid ongoing security challenges in the Amhara region as of 2025.^[53]^[54]^[55]

Cultural and Ecological Importance

Ras Dashen, as the highest peak in the Simien Mountains, holds profound cultural significance for the Amhara people of northern Ethiopia, who have inhabited the surrounding highlands for over 2,000 years and view the massif as a symbol of enduring resilience amid harsh environmental conditions. Historically, the area has supported pastoralism, with Amhara herders relying on the afro-alpine grasslands for grazing livestock such as sheep, goats, and cattle, integrating traditional agro-pastoral practices that blend crop cultivation with seasonal herding. Local communities, including remnants of the Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), maintained distinct traditions in the Simien region, where a semi-legendary Jewish kingdom flourished from the 4th to 17th centuries, centered in areas like Segenet village near the mountains; oral histories recount resistance against Christian forces, including collective acts of defiance that imbued sites with spiritual meaning, such as sacred springs believed to have healing properties. While not a primary pilgrimage destination, the Simien Mountains' ties to Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity are evident through nearby monasteries and the broader Amhara cultural landscape, which draws on Solomonic legends tracing Amhara lineage to ancient Israelite roots.^[3]^[56]^[57] Nationally, Ras Dashen embodies Ethiopian sovereignty and national pride as the "Roof of Africa," a moniker highlighting Ethiopia's dominance in the continent's highland geography, where over 70% of Africa's land above 3,000 meters is located. It serves as an iconic destination for adventure tourism, attracting trekkers to its dramatic escarpments and peaks, thereby promoting Ethiopia's image as a cradle of ancient civilization and natural wonder in literature, documentaries, and media portrayals of African exploration. The peak's prominence reinforces themes of independence, echoing Ethiopia's uncolonized history and its role in pan-African symbolism.^[58]^[59] Ecologically, Ras Dashen and the Simien Mountains contribute significantly to global climate regulation through carbon sequestration in their afro-montane forests and woodlands, which store approximately 4.24 million tons of carbon, with soil organic carbon comprising over 55% of the total stock—primarily in afro-montane forests that act as key carbon sinks despite ongoing deforestation pressures. The massif's hydrology feeds into the Nile River basin via tributaries like the Tekeze River, supporting water security for downstream regions across Ethiopia and beyond by regulating seasonal flows from highland springs and wetlands. As part of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot, the area functions as a critical refuge for endemic species, including the endangered Walia ibex (with fewer than 250 mature individuals as of 2023-2024), Gelada baboons, and Ethiopian wolves, preserving unique afro-alpine ecosystems amid broader habitat fragmentation and recent threats from regional conflicts.^[60]^[61]^[58]^[62] Community involvement in the Simien Mountains sustains these values, with Amhara herders and former Beta Israel descendants preserving oral traditions and land stewardship practices, while eco-tourism generates employment opportunities such as guiding, lodging, and conservation work for surrounding households—benefiting thousands through pre-conflict visitor numbers exceeding 25,000 annually and supporting sustainable livelihoods that reduce reliance on resource extraction, though disrupted by ongoing regional instability.^[3]^[63]^[64]^[33]

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Dry Season October to April. Days are typically bright and sunny and it rarely rains. Daytime temperatures are around 18°C/64°F and nighttime temperatures ...Missing: Ras Dashen sources
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Protecting the Unparalleled Simien Mountains
Mar 16, 2017 · The protected area encompasses more than 400 sq. km of mountains in the northern part of the country, including Ras Dejen, one of the highest ...
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Park Fees - Simien Mountains
VISITOR FEES per 24 hours ; 1. Ethiopian ; 1 · 12 years and above. 20 ; 1 · Less than 12 years. 10 ; 1 · Student. 10 ; 2. Foreign Resident Tourist.
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Welcome to Simien Lodge
Simien Lodge that sits on the edge of the escarpment and Wow! The world just falls away in front of you.
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[PDF] State of Conservation Report on Simien Mountains National Park ...
Constructions of park infrastructure and facilities and improving tourist safety within the SMNP are believed to have contributed to increased tourist flow and ...Missing: expansion campsites
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[PDF] Factors Affecting the Performance of Simien Mountains National Park
After two decades in the year 2020 the flow of foreign and domestic tourists who come to visit the park reach 28,050 and 2543 respectively. The respective ...
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Nurturing resilience among wildlife tourism-dependent communities
Aug 13, 2020 · Dwindling earnings from wildlife tourism threaten to undermine decades of conservation work, particularly in places like Simien Mountains National Park.Missing: annual pre-
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Analysis of preferences of agro-pastoralists for the attributes of ...
Dec 2, 2019 · Community based characterization of Simien sheep based on growth performance and farmers' breeding objectives in Simien mountains region, ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
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For 300 Years, a Jewish Kingdom Flourished in Africa. This Israeli ...
Nov 15, 2024 · The village of Simien Minata in the Simien Mountains, for example, became sacred in the wake of an exceptional tradition, and over the ...
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Ecology, evolution, and conservation of Ethiopia's biodiversity - PNAS
Gomery, T. J. Bergman, J. C. Beehner, High mortality associated with tapeworm parasitism in geladas (Theropithecus gelada) in the Simien Mountains National Park ...
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Journey to the Roof of Africa. Exploring Ethiopia's Simien Mountains…
Mar 23, 2018 · Journey to the Roof of Africa. Exploring Ethiopia's Simien Mountains, one of the most spectacular landscapes in the world.Missing: rivers Tekeze gorges
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Carbon Storage and Climate Change Mitigation Potential of the ...
Carbon Storage and Climate Change Mitigation Potential of the Forests of the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia · Habtamu Assaye. College of Agriculture ...
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Hydro power in Ethiopia - the staged construction of Tekeze Arch Dam
May 11, 2009 · The Tekeze River originates in the Northeastern slopes of the Simien Mountains, then flows out of Ethiopia and into the Atbara River which later ...
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Potentials, challenges and economic contributions of tourism ...
This study is aimed at assessing potentials, challenges and the economic contributions of tourism resources in the South Achefer district.
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[PDF] Multifaceted causes of conflict in the world heritage site of Simien ...
Jun 1, 2021 · The purpose of this study is to assess the causes of conflict in community-based ecotourism at the World. Heritage Site of Simien Mountains ...Missing: Beta Israel herders<|control11|><|separator|>