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Reef shark

Reef sharks are a collective term for the diverse group of shark species that associate closely with coral reef ecosystems, spending significant portions of their lives in these habitats as residents or transients.^[1] This group encompasses approximately 67 species across multiple families, though the most prominent and commonly referred to include the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), grey reef shark (C. amblyrhynchos), whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), Caribbean reef shark (C. perezi), and nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum).^[1]^[2] These medium-sized sharks typically measure 1.5 to 3 meters in length and inhabit shallow, tropical, and subtropical waters around coral reefs, where they play vital roles as apex and mesopredators.^[3] Reef sharks are distributed globally across Indo-Pacific and Atlantic coral reef systems, from coastal lagoons to outer reef slopes and atolls, often favoring areas with high structural complexity for shelter and foraging.^[4] Their diet primarily consists of small to medium-sized reef fishes, cephalopods, crustaceans, and occasionally rays or other sharks, with foraging patterns varying by species—such as the whitetip reef shark's nocturnal hunting or the grey reef shark's active patrolling of reef edges.^[3]^[5] Ecologically, they regulate prey populations, influence nutrient cycling by transporting organic matter between reefs and adjacent habitats, and contribute to overall biodiversity by acting as both predators and prey in complex food webs.^[1] For instance, at remote sites like Palmyra Atoll, grey reef sharks alone can consume hundreds of tonnes of prey annually, helping maintain trophic balance.^[1] Despite their ecological importance, reef shark populations have experienced severe declines, with global abundances reduced by an average of 63% over the past half-century due to overfishing, habitat degradation, and bycatch in fisheries.^[6] Nearly two-thirds of coral reef-associated shark species, including many reef sharks, are now classified as threatened with extinction by the IUCN Red List, prompting recent uplistings and inclusion under CITES Appendix II for international trade regulation.^[6]^[2] Conservation efforts, such as well-enforced marine protected areas, have shown promise in boosting local populations where fishing pressure is minimized, underscoring the need for targeted protections to sustain these key reef components.^[6]

Taxonomy

Definition and classification

Reef sharks refer to a colloquial group of small to medium-sized sharks adapted to coral reef environments, primarily inhabiting inshore tropical waters and excluding oceanic or deep-water species. These sharks are unified not by a formal taxonomic rank but by their shared ecological niche, focusing on species that frequent coral reefs and adjacent shallow habitats throughout their life cycles. While the term commonly applies to a core group of four to six species, broader ecological definitions include up to 67 reef-associated shark species across four orders and 16 families, categorized as residents, partial residents, or transients.^[1]^[7] Taxonomically, reef sharks belong to the order Carcharhiniformes, known as ground sharks, with all species classified in the family Carcharhinidae, or requiem sharks. This classification reflects their cartilaginous skeletal structure and other elasmobranch characteristics typical of the subclass Elasmobranchii within the class Chondrichthyes.^[8]^[9]^[10] The term "reef shark" emerged in the 19th century, coinciding with early scientific descriptions of tropical inshore species, such as the Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) named in 1876. It serves as an informal descriptor for these ecologically similar sharks, emphasizing their association with reef systems rather than a strict phylogenetic grouping.^[7] Phylogenetically, reef sharks within the Carcharhinidae are closely related to other requiem sharks, including the tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier) and bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), forming part of a diverse clade adapted to various marine habitats.^[11]

Included species

The term "reef shark" primarily refers to a core group of species closely associated with coral reef ecosystems, with approximately four to six species commonly included depending on regional and ecological contexts. These species dominate Indo-Pacific reefs more than Atlantic ones, where diversity is lower.^[5] The core group consists of the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), and Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi). The blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) is identified by its black tips on the pectoral, dorsal, and caudal fins, and it shows a strong preference for shallow coastal waters around reefs.^[12] The whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) features white tips on its first dorsal and caudal fins and exhibits predominantly nocturnal activity patterns, resting in caves or crevices during the day.^[8] The grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) has a moderately stocky build and is distributed across the Indo-Pacific, often inhabiting outer reef slopes.^[13]^[14] In contrast, the Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) possesses a robust body form and is restricted to the western Atlantic, favoring inshore reef environments.^[15]^[7] Occasionally, species like the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) and lemon shark (Negaprion brevirostris) are mentioned in association with reefs due to their habitat overlap, but they are distinguished from the core reef shark group by belonging to different families (Ginglymostomatidae and Carcharhinidae, respectively) and lacking the typical active reef-hunting traits of the core species.^[16]

Physical characteristics

Morphology

Reef sharks possess a streamlined fusiform body shape that facilitates efficient swimming through coral reef environments. This torpedo-like form is characterized by a rounded snout, which reduces drag and aids in navigation around complex reef structures, and large, broad pectoral fins that provide enhanced maneuverability for quick turns and hovering over the substrate.^[7] The first dorsal fin is typically small and positioned posteriorly, while the body exhibits flexibility, allowing these sharks to weave through narrow crevices and coral outcrops without compromising hydrodynamic efficiency.^[17] For instance, the Caribbean reef shark demonstrates this adaptation with its sturdy yet agile build, optimized for burst speeds in confined spaces.^[7] Sensory adaptations in reef sharks are finely tuned to the low-light, cluttered conditions of reef habitats. The ampullae of Lorenzini, specialized electroreceptive pores concentrated around the head, enable detection of the weak electric fields generated by hidden prey, such as burrowing fish or cephalopods, even in turbid waters.^[18] A protective nictitating membrane covers the eyes during feeding strikes, shielding them from coral abrasions or debris while maintaining visual acuity.^[19] Additionally, their acute olfactory system, with large olfactory sacs and nares positioned ventrally, allows for precise tracking of chemical cues from reef prey over short distances, complementing their horizontally oval eyes adapted for close-range vision.^[8] Dentition in reef sharks features sharp, triangular teeth arranged in multiple rows, with the functional row continuously replaced as needed for grasping elusive prey. These teeth typically bear serrated edges that enhance cutting efficiency against fish scales and cephalopod mantles, though slight variations exist across species—such as narrower cusps in upper jaws for oblique tearing.^[7] In the grey reef shark, for example, there are 13-14 serrated triangular teeth per jaw half, enabling secure holds during rapid pursuits.^[17] This multi-row structure ensures durability, with replacement teeth moving forward to maintain a full set of about 40-50 operational teeth per jaw.^[8] The skin of reef sharks is covered in placoid scales, also known as dermal denticles, which are small, tooth-like structures embedded in the dermis and providing both protection and hydrodynamic benefits. These denticles have a flattened base and a posterior spine, oriented to channel water flow smoothly over the body, reducing turbulence and drag during high-speed maneuvers through reefs.^[20] In species like the Caribbean reef shark, the denticles are closely overlapping with 5-7 marginal teeth and ridges, contributing to a rough texture that may deter ectoparasites while blending with reef substrates for camouflage.^[7] This scale arrangement not only enhances propulsion efficiency but also offers abrasion resistance against coral contact.^[21]

Size and coloration

Reef sharks, encompassing species such as the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), and grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), typically attain adult lengths of 1 to 2.5 meters (3 to 8 feet).^[17]^[8] For instance, blacktip reef sharks reach up to 1.8 meters in total length, whitetip reef sharks up to 2.1 meters (though rarely exceeding 1.6 meters), and grey reef sharks up to 1.9 meters for females.^[8]^[17] Newborns are born live after viviparous gestation, measuring 40 to 70 centimeters, with blacktip pups at 33 to 52 centimeters, whitetip pups at 52 to 60 centimeters, and grey pups at 45 to 60 centimeters.^[22]^[23] Growth in reef sharks is slow to moderate, with individuals reaching sexual maturity at lengths of 1 to 1.5 meters, often between 7 and 8 years of age.^[22]^[24] Their lifespan generally spans 20 to 25 years, though some populations may exhibit variability based on environmental factors.^[25]^[26] Sexual dimorphism is common, with females often larger than males across species, enabling greater reproductive output; for example, in grey reef sharks, females mature at 1.2 to 1.35 meters compared to 1.3 to 1.45 meters for males.^[27]^[28] Reef sharks exhibit coloration adapted for camouflage in coral reef environments, featuring a mottled gray-brown dorsal surface that blends with reef substrates and a pale white ventral side for countershading, which reduces visibility from above and below in the water column.^[29]^[17] Species-specific markings enhance this adaptation, such as the black tips on the dorsal and pectoral fins of blacktip reef sharks, white tips on the first dorsal and caudal fins of whitetip reef sharks, and dark margins on the caudal fin of grey reef sharks.^[8]^[17] Juveniles tend to display paler overall tones, facilitating distinct camouflage needs in nursery habitats compared to adults.^[22]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Reef sharks, encompassing species such as the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), and grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), are primarily distributed across the Indo-Pacific ocean basin. Their range extends from the Red Sea and East Africa eastward to the Hawaiian Islands and French Polynesia, with the grey reef shark also reaching parts of the eastern tropical Pacific, including Costa Rica.^[30]^[31]^[4] In contrast, the Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) and nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) occupy the western Atlantic, spanning from the southern United States coast, through the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, to Brazil; the nurse shark also occurs in the eastern Pacific from Baja California to Peru.^[32]^[33] These distributions are confined to tropical and subtropical waters, generally between 30°N and 30°S latitude, where reef sharks avoid colder temperate and polar regions due to thermal tolerances. Northern limits include southern Japan for blacktip and whitetip reef sharks, while southern extents reach northern Australia and Lord Howe Island.^[30]^[31] Current ranges remain stable but are fragmented by major ocean barriers, such as the Americas, which separate Atlantic and Indo-Pacific populations.^[32] Genetic analyses reveal historical expansions of reef shark populations following the Last Glacial Maximum approximately 20,000–15,000 years ago, as rising sea levels enabled recolonization of shallow reef habitats exposed during lower stands. Demographic modeling for species such as the blacktip reef shark indicates divergence among regional populations post-glacial, with subsequent expansions during the Holocene.^[34]^[35] No reef shark species are truly endemic to specific regions, though isolated populations, such as those in the Red Sea, exist.^[36]

Habitat preferences

Reef sharks primarily inhabit shallow coastal waters, ranging from the intertidal zone to depths of 50 meters, where they exploit the structural complexity of coral reefs for shelter and foraging. Species such as the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) are most abundant in waters less than 30 meters deep, while the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) occurs from the surface to at least 280 meters, often near reef edges. The whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) typically rests in caves and crevices between 8 and 50 meters but has been recorded at depths up to 330 meters.^[5]^[4] These sharks show a strong association with coral reef ecosystems, including lagoons, atolls, and adjacent sandy flats or seagrass beds, preferring areas with high structural complexity that offer ample cover from predators and access to prey concentrations. For instance, the Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) favors insular and continental shelf reefs with diverse benthic habitats. Such microhabitats support their reliance on reef-associated food sources and provide refuge amid the dynamic tropical marine environment.^[37]^[38] Reef sharks thrive in warm tropical waters with temperatures between 22 and 30°C and salinities typically above 32 practical salinity units (psu), favoring clear conditions with high visibility for effective navigation and hunting. They exhibit sensitivity to environmental perturbations, including pollution and increased sedimentation, which degrade reef clarity and structure. The blacktip reef shark demonstrates some tolerance to lower salinities in estuarine or mangrove-influenced areas compared to other species.^[5]^[39]^[40] Seasonal variations influence habitat use, with some reef sharks shifting to deeper waters during storms or periods of cooler temperatures to avoid turbulent shallow zones. For example, grey reef sharks may descend below 50 meters in response to adverse weather, maintaining access to stable reef structures while minimizing exposure to surface disruptions.^[41]^[4]

Behavior and ecology

Reef sharks exhibit varied social structures, often appearing solitary but forming loose aggregations at feeding sites or cleaning stations, particularly among species like the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos). These aggregations display diel fission-fusion dynamics, where individuals fuse into groups of 2–14 during the day for social foraging and disperse at night.^[42] Stable dyadic associations can persist for up to four years, enabling social information sharing that enhances foraging efficiency through local enhancement.^[42] Whitetip reef sharks (Triaenodon obesus) are typically communal and non-territorial, showing strong site fidelity by returning to the same caves and reefs for months or years without conflict, often resting in piles during inactive periods.^[8] Juveniles of blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) frequently school in groups for protection, a behavior observed in early life stages around island reefs. In social interactions, grey reef sharks employ threat postures when provoked, including rapid exaggerated swimming in S-curves, arching the back, raising the snout, depressing pectoral fins, and jaw snapping to deter intruders.^[17] Heterospecific associations occur occasionally, such as between grey and whitetip reef sharks during foraging, where whitetips initiate by extracting prey from crevices, drawing greys to pursue disturbed fish and increasing overall predation success from 41.8% to 65.5%.^[43] Kleptoparasitism has been documented in these interactions, with grey sharks stealing prey from whitetips in 36% of cases, marking the first evidence of such behavior in sharks.^[43] Hunting strategies among reef sharks emphasize ambush predation, leveraging coral reef cover for concealment before launching sudden attacks.^[17] They achieve burst speeds of up to 32 km/h during pursuits, enabling them to close on elusive prey.^[44] Cooperative hunting is rare but observed in multi-species groups, where coordinated efforts flush prey from hiding spots, though most hunts remain solitary or opportunistic. Whitetip reef sharks specialize in nocturnal hunts, using their slender bodies to probe reef crevices for bottom-dwelling prey inaccessible to larger species.^[8] Daily activity patterns vary by species: blacktip and grey reef sharks are primarily diurnal, aggregating on reefs by day and venturing to open water at night, while whitetip reef sharks rest inactive in caves during daylight and become active hunters after dusk.^[17]^[8] Some species exploit tidal movements to flush prey from shallows, enhancing ambush opportunities during ebb flows.^[45] Territoriality is minimal in most reef sharks, with no evidence of defended core areas in grey reef sharks, though loose spatial assortments maintain group cohesion around central reef sites.^[42]

Diet and feeding habits

Reef sharks primarily consume bony fishes, such as parrotfishes and surgeonfishes, along with cephalopods like octopuses and squids, and crustaceans including crabs and lobsters, demonstrating their opportunistic feeding on reef-associated invertebrates.^[12]^[46]^[47] Stomach content analyses indicate that fish typically dominate their diet; for example, in grey reef sharks, teleosts comprise 85% by frequency of occurrence.^[47] Dietary preferences vary among reef shark species, reflecting adaptations to their habitats and activity patterns. The blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) targets small fishes in shallow reef areas, including surgeonfishes and mullets, often foraging opportunistically during the day.^[48] In contrast, the whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) specializes in nocturnal predation on moray eels and octopuses, using its slender body to probe crevices for these bottom-dwelling prey.^[46]^[49] The grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) incorporates faster-swimming pelagic fishes into its diet, with models indicating up to 86% pelagic resources in some populations, alongside reef teleosts, cephalopods, and crustaceans.^[47]^[50] Reef sharks feed every few days to sustain their active lifestyles, with energy demands linked to their ectothermic metabolism and high mobility on reefs.^[51] Analyses of stomach contents show that non-empty stomachs often contain partially digested prey, suggesting regular ingestion intervals aligned with circadian rhythms, particularly nocturnal for species like the whitetip.^[47] As mid-level predators, or mesopredators, reef sharks occupy trophic levels similar to large piscivorous reef fishes, exerting top-down control on herbivore populations such as parrotfishes and surgeonfishes to maintain ecological balance.^[52]^[53] By regulating these herbivores, they help prevent excessive algal overgrowth on coral reefs, supporting overall reef health through moderated grazing pressure.^[54]

Reproduction and life history

Mating and reproduction

Many reef shark species, including those in the families Carcharhinidae, Triaenodontidae, and Ginglymostomatidae, are viviparous, meaning females give birth to live young nourished via a placental connection that provides ongoing metabolic support after initial yolk depletion.^[55] Internal fertilization occurs through the male's claspers, paired structures that deliver sperm directly into the female's reproductive tract.^[55] Litters typically range from 1 to 9 pups, though most species produce smaller numbers, reflecting their relatively low reproductive output compared to larger shark species. In contrast, the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) produces larger litters of 20-30 pups after a 6-month gestation.^[56] Mating behaviors involve aggressive courtship, often peaking seasonally in warmer months such as summer, when males pursue females in groups.^[57] Males grasp females by biting their pectoral fins, gills, or body to immobilize them during insertion of the clasper, resulting in superficial wounds or scars that serve as indicators of recent mating activity.^[58] These bites, while forceful, are adapted to the female's thicker skin during reproductive periods, minimizing severe injury.^[59] Species-specific patterns vary: the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) breeds annually, with mating occurring in shallow nursery areas before a gestation of approximately 10 months.^[60] The whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) has a longer 13-month gestation period, often involving group pursuits by multiple males.^[57] In the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), genetic evidence indicates polyandry, with females mating with multiple males per reproductive cycle, leading to mixed paternity in litters.^[61] Overall fecundity remains low, with small litter sizes and inter-birth intervals of 1 to 2 years depending on the species, contributing to slow population recovery rates.^[62] Sexual maturity is typically reached at 4 to 7 years of age, corresponding to body lengths of about 90 to 140 cm, varying by species and sex.^[25]

Growth and development

Reef shark pups are viviparous, born live and fully formed, typically measuring 50-70 cm in total length at birth, enabling immediate independence from parental care. For instance, blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) neonates average 62 cm and emerge in litters of 3-5 from protected shallow lagoons or mangrove fringes, which serve as nurseries to shield them from larger predators.^[63]^[64] Similarly, grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) pups are born at around 60 cm in shallow reef areas, while whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus) offspring are fully functional miniatures of adults upon birth in comparable sheltered habitats.^[65]^[25] During the juvenile phase, reef sharks exhibit rapid initial growth to reduce predation risk, often schooling in groups for added protection, though vulnerability remains high in the first year when mortality from predators can exceed 50%. Blacktip reef shark juveniles grow at rates supporting a logistic model coefficient of 0.251 per year, reaching up to 20-30 cm annually in early stages within nursery habitats.^[63]^[66] Whitetip reef shark juveniles demonstrate a growth rate of approximately 1.33 cm per month, or about 16 cm yearly, while transitioning from nurseries to broader reef zones.^[67] This phase emphasizes survival through behavioral adaptations like schooling, as juveniles face intense predation pressure before attaining defensive size. Reef sharks reach sexual maturity and adult size between 8-10 years, with males typically maturing earlier than females; for example, blacktip reef sharks attain maturity at 4.2 years for males (105 cm) and 8.5 years for females (134 cm), while grey reef sharks mature around 7 years at 117-126 cm.^[63]^[65] Senescence begins gradually after 15 years, marked by declining reproductive output and slower growth, though individuals remain active predators.^[68] Lifespan in reef sharks is influenced by predation intensity, food availability, and habitat quality, with maximum ages exceeding 25 years documented via tag-recapture studies. Grey reef sharks are estimated to live up to 18 years in unfished populations, while blacktip reef sharks live 10-15 years and whitetip reef sharks up to 25 years, underscoring the role of early-life survival in overall longevity.^[65]^[63]^[69]

Conservation

Threats and status

Reef sharks, including species such as the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos), blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), and whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), face primary threats from overfishing in coral reef-associated fisheries and incidental capture as bycatch in gillnets, longlines, trawls, and handlines.^[4]^[5] These activities target reef sharks for their fins, flesh, skin, teeth, and liver oil, with small-scale and industrial fisheries contributing to widespread exploitation across their range.^[4]^[5] The illegal finning trade intensifies these pressures, as reef sharks are often finned at sea and discarded, exacerbating mortality rates in regions with weak enforcement.^[70] Habitat degradation further compounds these risks, particularly through coral bleaching events driven by climate change, which reduce the structural complexity of reefs essential for reef shark shelter and foraging.^[4]^[5] Destructive fishing practices and declining water quality from coastal pollution also diminish suitable habitats, while ocean warming and acidification indirectly affect reef sharks by altering prey availability and reef ecosystem function.^[4]^[5] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, up to 70-90% of global coral reefs could be lost by 2050 under current warming trajectories, severely impacting reef-dependent shark populations.^[71] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assesses the grey reef shark as Endangered, with a decreasing global population trend, while both the blacktip reef shark and whitetip reef shark are listed as Vulnerable, also with decreasing trends.^[4]^[5]^[72] Some regional populations of these species remain Data Deficient due to limited monitoring data.^[4]^[5] Emerging threats include climate-induced range shifts, where warming oceans prompt reef sharks to abandon stressed reefs for cooler waters, potentially leading to more vulnerable pelagic exposure.^[73] Ocean acidification is projected to disrupt prey populations, such as reef fishes, further straining reef shark foraging dynamics.^[74] Population trends indicate substantial declines across the Indo-Pacific, with global estimates showing 50-79% reductions for grey reef sharks and 30-49% for blacktip reef sharks over the past three generations (approximately 44 years, since the 1970s).^[4]^[5] Recent surveys from 2020-2025 in remote Pacific reefs confirm ongoing depletions of 30-80% in key areas, even in lightly fished locations, underscoring the pervasive impact of these threats.^[75]^[76]

Protection measures

Reef sharks benefit from various legal protections aimed at regulating international trade and establishing protected habitats. At the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP19) in 2022, the grey reef shark was listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), with the listing entering into force on November 25, 2023, requiring export permits to ensure that trade does not threaten the species' survival.^[77] Additionally, no-take zones within marine protected areas (MPAs) prohibit fishing activities, with the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park rezoned in 2004 to designate approximately 33% of its area as no-take zones, providing critical refuge for reef shark populations.^[78] International agreements support shark conservation more broadly, but protections for resident reef sharks primarily occur through national and regional measures. Shark sanctuaries have been established in regions like Palau in 2009 and the Bahamas in 2011, banning commercial shark fishing and trade across vast exclusive economic zones to safeguard reef shark habitats.^[79] Research and monitoring initiatives play a key role in informing protection strategies. Tag-and-release programs, such as those conducted by NOAA Fisheries, involve attaching tags to reef sharks to track movements and survival rates post-capture, aiding in the assessment of fishing impacts.^[80] Acoustic tracking networks, including deployments in coral reef systems, use underwater receivers to monitor reef shark residency and habitat use, providing data for adaptive management in MPAs.^[81] Community-based ecotourism programs, particularly in areas like the Bahamas and Fiji, generate alternative income for locals through non-extractive shark viewing, thereby reducing poaching incentives and fostering stewardship.^[82] These measures have led to measurable conservation successes. In fully protected MPAs with shark fishing bans, reef shark abundances have doubled compared to fished areas, demonstrating the efficacy of combined no-take zones and national regulations implemented since the mid-2010s.^[83] Population rebounds in such areas highlight the potential for recovery when protections are enforced effectively.^[84]

Relationship with humans

Interactions and attacks

Reef shark attacks on humans are exceedingly rare. Species such as the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) and Caribbean reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi) have been implicated in a small fraction of global shark attacks, often involving surfers in shallow coastal habitats where these sharks hunt fish schools.^[85] For instance, blacktip reef sharks account for about 14 unprovoked incidents historically, none fatal, while grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) have been linked to 8 unprovoked attacks, including one fatality.^[85] No fatal attacks have been recorded for whitetip reef sharks (Triaenodon obesus), which have only 5 documented unprovoked bites over centuries.^[85] Recent ISAF reports, such as for 2024, confirm no unprovoked attacks by reef sharks, underscoring their low risk to humans.^[86] Most encounters stem from provocation factors, including mistaken identity during feeding frenzies, where humans resemble prey in murky or low-visibility conditions, or defensive responses near nursery areas where adult sharks protect pups from perceived threats like spearfishers.^[87] Studies indicate that self-defense motivates 3-5% of shark bites, often triggered by human actions such as grabbing or harassing the animal, rather than predatory intent.^[88] In shallow waters frequented by surfers, blacktip and Caribbean reef sharks may nip investigatively, but these incidents are typically minor and non-lethal.^[12] Reef sharks generally exhibit a non-aggressive nature toward humans, displaying curiosity but fleeing upon close approach unless provoked by food or territorial intrusion.^[7] Whitetip and grey reef sharks, in particular, are known for their timid behavior, with divers often observing them resting passively without aggression. This low threat level underscores their role as wary mesopredators rather than deliberate attackers. To minimize risks, safety protocols emphasize avoiding dawn and dusk swims when sharks are most active, refraining from wearing shiny jewelry that mimics fish scales, and steering clear of areas with fishing activity or low visibility.^[87] Education programs in dive tourism have proven effective in reducing incidents by promoting respectful observation and avoidance of provocation, leading to safer human-shark interactions in reef environments.^[89]

Role in fisheries and culture

Reef sharks are targeted in fisheries across the Asia-Pacific region primarily for their meat, fins, and liver oil, with species such as blacktip and whitetip reef sharks commonly caught in coastal and reef-associated operations.^[90] In Indonesia, the world's largest shark catcher, annual catches have hovered around 100,000 metric tons since 2000, much of it from tropical reef habitats where reef sharks form a notable portion of the landings.^[91] Globally, reported shark catches averaged approximately 106,000 metric tons annually from 2000 to 2010. In Polynesian and broader Pacific Island cultures, reef sharks hold profound symbolic importance, often revered as guardians or ancestral spirits known as aumākua in Hawaiian tradition or tāura in French Polynesia, appearing in myths, art, and legends as protective deities rather than mere predators.^[92]^[93] Traditional taboos, or kapu, in some Pacific Island communities prohibit shark fishing or consumption, viewing them as sacred and integral to marine stewardship, a practice that persists among indigenous groups to maintain ecological and spiritual balance.^[94] Today, this cultural reverence supports modern ecotourism, where shark diving generates over $314 million annually worldwide (as of 2013), sustaining around 10,000 jobs and highlighting reef sharks' role in vibrant ecosystems.^[95] Reef sharks, particularly blacktip and grey varieties, are popular exhibits in public aquariums, such as the Shark Reef Aquarium at Mandalay Bay, where they are displayed in immersive reef habitats to educate visitors on their ecological importance.^[96] In media, they feature prominently in documentaries like BBC's Blue Planet II, which showcases their hunting behaviors and contributions to coral reef health, fostering public appreciation and conservation awareness. Sustainable practices are increasingly adopted, including a shift to catch-and-release in sport fishing to minimize mortality, as seen in Hawaii's comprehensive shark retention bans that protect reef species while allowing non-lethal interactions.^[97] Additionally, indigenous cultural bans in Pacific communities, such as those in the Marshall Islands' shark sanctuary, effectively limit commercial exploitation and aid population recovery by enforcing release of bycatch.^[98]

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[PDF] Field Guide to Requiem Sharks (Elasmobranchiomorphi
Galapagos sharks, dusky shark (Carcharhinus obscurus), and reef shark (Carcharhinus perezi); these six species share features used on the separation sheet ...Missing: classification | Show results with:classification<|control11|><|separator|>
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Nurse Sharks - Dry Tortugas National Park (U.S. National Park ...
Aug 29, 2025 · Nurse sharks are typically found in tropical to subtropical waters in coral and rocky reefs, on grass and sponge flats, and among the roots of mangrove ...
[18]
Grey Reef Shark – Discover Fishes
Feb 3, 2025 · This is a classically shaped requiem shark. Like many species in the genus Carcharhinus, it is dark grey on the dorsal surface and paler, almost ...
[19]
Shark Biology – Discover Fishes - Florida Museum of Natural History
Jun 2, 2025 · The ampullae of Lorenzini are receptors that can detect weak electric fields. This sense is unique to sharks and their relatives. Sharks ...Missing: reef | Show results with:reef
[20]
Hawaiʻi Sharks | Teeth & Jaws - Hawaii.gov
Teeth are arranged in rows and attached to the jaws by connective tissue. Usually only the front one or two rows are functional. The other teeth, in some cases ...Missing: reef | Show results with:reef
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Structure and Function - Fish - University of Hawaii at Manoa
Fusiform is the scientific term used to describe the perch's streamlined, torpedo shaped body. ... body contract, pulling the caudal fin toward that side.
[22]
[PDF] Classification of the Major Taxa of Fish - UC Berkeley MCB
Shark skin is made of tiny, hard, tooth-like structures called dermal denticles or placoid scales. These structures are shaped like curved, grooved teeth ...
[23]
Blacktip Reef Sharks, Carcharhinus melanopterus
Males mature at about eight years of age and 95-105 cm in length; females mature at about 9 years old and a length of 93-110 cm. Courtship features the one or ...
[24]
Triaenodon obesus summary page - Whitetip reef shark - FishBase
Size at birth 52-60 cm TL (Ref. 9997). Distinct pairing with embrace (Ref. 205). During courtship and prior to copulation, the male bites the female on her ...
[25]
Whitetip Reef Sharks - MarineBio Conservation Society
They reach sexual maturity at an age of about 8 years and a length of about 1 m (males and females). Size at birth 52-60 cm total length. Conservation Status & ...World Range & Habitat · Life History · Conservation Status &...
[26]
Whitetip reef shark ( Triaenodon obesus ) - Animal Diversity Web
The whitetip reef shark is a medium-sized shark averaging about 1.6 meters in length and 20 kg in mass, but growing as big as 2 meters and 28 kg. It is grey in ...
[27]
Grey Reef Shark | Online Learning Center - Aquarium of the Pacific
Jul 10, 2024 · The lifespan for this species is estimated to be about twenty-five years. CONSERVATION. According to the International Union for Conservation of ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth<|separator|>
[28]
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Mar 17, 2024 · In this study, we analyse patterns of SSD in sharks, an ancient clade with unparalleled variation in reproductive biology.
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Gray Reef Sharks, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos
Birth size is between 45-60 cm. Males and females mature at about 7 to 7.5 years, males mature at 1.3-1.45 m, females mature at about 1.2-1.35. The expected ...Missing: growth rate
[30]
Blacktip Reef Shark - National Aquarium
Their coloring provides camouflage from above or below; a dark back helps them blend in with the dim seafloor and a white belly blends in with the brighter ...
[31]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
### Summary of Distribution for Blacktip Reef Shark
[32]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary of Distribution for Whitetip Reef Shark (Triaenodon obesus)**
[33]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary of Distribution for Caribbean Reef Shark (from IUCN Red List):**
[34]
Molecular Genetics Journal | Wiley Online Library
Oct 8, 2014 · Demographic modelling indicated that sharks in all five regions diverged after the last glacial maximum and, except for the Bahamas, ...
[35]
Population genomics of C. melanopterus using target gene capture ...
Sep 21, 2016 · Demographic inferences after a range expansion can be biased: the test case of the blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus). Pierpaolo ...
[36]
[PDF] Endemic Fishes of the Red Sea
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[37]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary:**
[38]
Carcharhinus perezii, Caribbean reef shark - FishBase
IUCN Red List Status (Ref. 130435: Version 2025-1). Endangered (EN) (A2bcd); Date assessed: 01 July 2019. CITES. Appendix II: International trade monitored. CMS ...
[39]
[PDF] Factors shaping the co-occurrence of two juvenile shark species ...
Mar 10, 2017 · (2010b) found that salinity, water temperature, and depth were the most important fac- tors affecting the relative abundances of blacktip sharks ...
[40]
[PDF] Defining distribution and habitat use of west‐central Florida's coastal ...
Oct 8, 2021 · They pre- ferred depths < 4 m, temperatures > 30℃, and salinities > 32 psu (Figure 5). The geographic extent of predicted suitable habitat was ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Environmental stress reduces shark residency to coral reefs - PMC
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Fun Facts About Black Tip Reef Sharks - Sea Life
Jan 9, 2024 · 1. Social Creatures: Black tip reef sharks are often seen in groups or schools, which is not common among sharks. They use this social behaviour ...Missing: strategies | Show results with:strategies
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In this research, we used passive acoustic telemetry to examine the long-term spatial and temporal movement patterns of several species of reef predators ...
[45]
Blacktip Reef Shark - Florida Museum of Natural History
May 29, 2025 · Blacktip reef sharks are abundant on coral reefs, making them a popular species in reef and dive tourism. They are also frequently displayed ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Whitetip reef shark - Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures on Animalia.bio
A relatively small species, few whitetip reef sharks are longer than 1.6 m (5.2 ft). The maximum length this species attains is often given as 2.1 m (6.9 ft), ...Photos With Whitetip Reef... · Distribution · Geography
[47]
(PDF) Distribution, reproduction and diet of the gray reef shark ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Most sharks (85%) consumed teleosts, but some fed on cephalopods (29.5%), and crustaceans (4.9%). For sharks in the largest size classes, the ...
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Blacktip Reef Shark - Georgia Aquarium
The blacktip reef shark prefers fish, but also feeds on crustaceans, cephalopods and other mollusks. · Common prey includes surgeonfish and mullet. In inshore ...
[49]
Whitetip reef shark | Animals - Monterey Bay Aquarium
Habitat. Coral reefs. Size. Rarely over 5.25 feet (1.6 m). Diet. Octopuses, spiny lobsters, crabs; also may eat bony fishes, including eels and reef fishes ...Triaenodon Obesus · Relatives · ConservationMissing: moray | Show results with:moray
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Conservation implications of forage base requirements of a marine ...
We found that, when consuming a diet that was composed of 86% pelagic resources, the gray reef shark population would have only consumed a mean of 7% (CRI = 6–9 ...
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Extreme Inverted Trophic Pyramid of Reef Sharks ... - PubMed
Aug 8, 2016 · Contrary to previous findings, our results highlight that sharks may overcome low local energy availability by feeding on fish spawning ...
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The Ecological Role of Sharks on Coral Reefs - ScienceDirect.com
Dietary analysis reveals that most common reef sharks are mesopredators occupying a similar trophic level to large piscivorous fishes. Evidence for shark- ...
[53]
The Ecological Role of Sharks on Coral Reefs - PubMed
We find that most reef-associated shark species do not act as apex predators but instead function as mesopredators along with a diverse group of reef fish.
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A Review of Shark Reproductive Ecology: Life History and ...
Moreover, the courtship and mating behaviours of highly mobile pelagic sharks remain almost entirely unknown as the sustained observations needed for ...
[56]
Husbandry and reproduction of Whitetip reef sharks Triaenodon ...
Jun 22, 2006 · Mean gestation period, estimated from the first appearance of mating wounds on the ♀ to parturition, was 387 ± 33·7 days (mean ± SD; n= 3).
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Courtship and Reproduction of the Whitetip Reef Shark Triaenodon ...
Nov 25, 2022 · The whitetip reef shark is a placentotrophic viviparous species, with a matrotrophic nutrition of the fetus [22,23]. That is, T. obesus is a ...
[58]
[PDF] An Observation of Mating in Free-Ranging Blacktip Reef Sharks ...
Abstract: We describe the mating behavior of free-ranging Blacktip Reef Sharks, Carcharhinus melanopterus, at Palmyra Atoll. This is the first primary re- port ...
[59]
Shark feeding affects health and female reproductive investment in ...
Dec 24, 2024 · Our results suggest that tourism feeding activity in Mo'orea provides poor nutrition and/or unpredictable food, especially for site-attached females.
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Variability in multiple paternity rates for grey reef sharks ... - Nature
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Observations of biennial reproduction in Caribbean reef sharks ...
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Validated age, growth and reproductive biology of Carcharhinus ...
The present study examined the life history of blacktip reef sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus) from north-eastern AustraliaMissing: lifespan | Show results with:lifespan
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Genetic evidence for plastic reproductive philopatry and matrotrophy ...
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Growth and life history variability of the grey reef shark ...
Feb 16, 2017 · Growth and life history variability of the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) across its range ... robust estimation with multiple ...
[65]
Estimation of mortality of juvenile blacktip sharks, Carcharhinus ...
All natural and fishing mortality occurred within the first 15 weeks of the study. This suggests that young sharks are most vulnerable to all types of mortality ...<|separator|>
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[PDF] Contribution to the Biology of the Whitetip Reef Shark (Triaenodon ...
classified in the Triakidae, it is now regarded as a carcharhinid. It is distinctive in its slender body (depth about 7 in precaudallength), obtuse snout ...
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Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Shark) - Animal Diversity Web
Females produce 1-6 offspring at a time, and the embryos gestate for about 12 months before birth. Gray reef sharks mature at 7-7.5 years of age. Key ...Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
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[PDF] Whitetip Reef Shark Scientific name: Triaenodon obesus - CSULB
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Shark Finning and Shark Fin Facts - Shark Stewards
Illegal fisheries such as those that target the Galapagos, Cocos Island reserve and other remote islands capture reef sharks and hammerhead sharks. The Blue ...
[70]
Can coral reef restoration save one of the most vulnerable ... - UNEP
Jan 18, 2021 · According to recent reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), up to 90 per cent of coral reefs could be lost by 2050, ...
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary:**
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Environmental stress reduces shark residency to coral reefs - Nature
Sep 9, 2024 · We show that on average across the region, increased stress on the reefs significantly reduces grey reef shark residency, promoting more diffuse space use.
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Impacts of Climate Change on Sharks and Rays
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(PDF) Reef shark population declines on remote Pacific reefs
Dec 20, 2024 · Recent ecological and social surveys confirm that shark populations in the Line Islands are likely severely depleted. These results highlight ...
[75]
[PDF] Reef shark population declines on remote Pacific reefs - Jacob Eurich
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[76]
Sharks and Rays Gain International Protection under CITES Listing
Sep 14, 2014 · Two species of manta rays, oceanic whitetip sharks, porbeagle sharks, and three species of hammerheads are the species that gained protection ...
[77]
Great Barrier Reef no-take marine reserves protect much more than ...
Apr 4, 2016 · “The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park was rezoned in 2004 to increase the area of no-take zones from less than five per cent to cover 33 per cent ...
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Convention on Migratory Species Sharks MOU and Sharks
The main objective of the Sharks MOU is to “achieve and maintain a favourable conservation status for migratory sharks included in its Annex 1 based on the ...
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Highly Migratory Sharks Neglected in ICCAT - Oceana USA
UNCLOS includes 72 shark species among its list of “highly migratory species” and thus these species should be under international management. Unfortunately, ...Missing: CMS | Show results with:CMS<|separator|>
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We used passive acoustic telemetry to monitor the attendance of resident grey reef sharks at four key dive sites (Blue Corner, Siaes Corner, Ulong Channel and ...<|separator|>
[83]
Diving With Sharks: Shark Science and Shark Ecotourism
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[85]
New study finds global reef shark conservation depends on a ...
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[86]
Species Implicated in Attacks – International Shark Attack File
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How to Avoid a Shark Attack - Florida Museum of Natural History
Jul 6, 2022 · The yearly average of unprovoked shark bites on humans globally is 70, resulting in about 5 deaths. These worldwide numbers are small given the ...<|separator|>
[88]
Some shark bites may be 'survival instinct' rather than planned ...
Apr 25, 2025 · Between 2009 and 2023, 74 bites were documented, four of them likely motivated by self-defense, which may trigger 3 to 5% of all shark bites.Missing: factors | Show results with:factors
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[PDF] Responsible Shark and Ray Tourism – A Guide to Best Practice
However, more education is needed to further reduce the impact of recreational divers not using dive charter operators. ▫ Having a code of conduct that has ...
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[PDF] AN OVERVIEW OF SHARK UTILISATION IN THE CORAL ...
Catch data from other sources and main species taken. Average annual reported shark catch 2000-2010 was. 106 288 t (FAO Fisheries Department, 2012) representing.
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Higher Abundance of Marine Predators and Changes in Fishers ...
Indonesia has consistently reported annual shark catches of approximately 100,000 tons since the year 2000 (FAO FishStatJ, 2015). Although this is likely an ...
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Hawaii's Spiritual Connection to the Shark
Sharks play an important role in art, legends, and even spiritual beliefs. Throughout Hawaiian folklore, stories, legends and myths feature sharks as deities.
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Here's what it's like to dive through French Polynesia's shark alley
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The Shark Deities and Spirits of Hawai'i
Jul 14, 2024 · Again, this reflects the multitude of attitudes to sharks in Hawai'i – the variety of species meant sharks were friends, foes, protectors, food, ...
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(PDF) Global economic value of shark ecotourism: Implications for ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Results suggest that, globally, c. 590,000 shark watchers expend > USD 314 million per year, directly supporting 10,000 jobs. By comparison, the ...
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Shark Reef & Mermaids: Beneath the Surface | Vegas All In - YouTube
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Hawaii Stands Up for Its Sharks With Fishing Ban - NRDC
Apr 24, 2019 · These bans are “very direct ways to dampen the trade and remove some of the demand that is contributing to shark overfishing,” Murdock says.
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Marshall Islands creates world's biggest shark park - Mongabay
Oct 3, 2011 · The new shark sanctuary not only bans commercial fishing, but deems that sharks caught as by-catch must be released. In addition any sale of ...Missing: sustainable | Show results with:sustainable<|control11|><|separator|>