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Refrain

A refrain is a line, phrase, or group of lines that is repeated at regular intervals in a poem, song, or other literary or musical work, most commonly at the end of a stanza in poetry or a verse in music, serving to enhance rhythm, structure, and thematic emphasis.^[1]^[2] The term originates from the Old French refraindre, derived from the Latin refringere meaning "to break off" or "to repeat," and it first appeared as a noun in the 1200s to describe repetitions in poetry.^[3] Refrains gained prominence in medieval lyric poetry during the Middle Ages, where they were integral to forms like ballads and songs that were often performed with musical accompaniment to aid memorization and oral transmission.^[1] In this era, particularly in 13th- and 14th-century French music and poetry, refrains functioned as short, self-contained lyric units—typically one or two verses long—that could be borrowed across works, promoting vernacular expression and musical interconnection.^[4] In poetry, refrains provide musicality and reinforce central ideas, evolving from structured medieval forms to appear in later traditions like the villanelle or even modern free verse.^[1] For instance, in Paul Laurence Dunbar's "A Negro Love Song," the refrain "Jump back, honey, jump back" recurs to evoke rhythm and emotional intensity.^[5] In music, a refrain is typically a concise repeated phrase at the end of verses, distinguishable from a full chorus by its brevity and integration within stanzas rather than as a standalone section.^[3] This device has been essential in folk songs, ballads, and modern compositions, such as the refrain in The Beatles' "When I'm Sixty-Four," which amplifies catchiness and audience participation.^[3] Beyond literature and music, refrains extend to speeches and prose for rhetorical effect, as seen in Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" address, where the repeated phrase builds persuasive momentum and unity.^[1] Overall, refrains remain a versatile tool across genres, fostering repetition for emphasis while adapting to evolving artistic needs from medieval chants to contemporary lyrics.^[6]

Definition and Etymology

In Poetry

In poetry, a refrain is a repeated line, phrase, or group of lines that recurs at regular intervals, most commonly at the end of each stanza, serving to reinforce the poem's central theme or rhythmic structure.^[2] This repetition distinguishes the refrain from mere rhyme, which involves the correspondence of sounds typically at line ends without necessarily repeating exact words, and from meter, which concerns the patterned arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables to create rhythm.^[7] By echoing key ideas or images, the refrain fosters thematic unity across the poem, heightens emotional emphasis on core motifs such as love, loss, or longing, and enhances memorability, allowing readers to internalize and anticipate its return like a resonant echo. The term "refrain" derives from the Latin refringere, meaning "to break off" or "break up," which entered English in the 14th century via Old French refrain, originally denoting a chorus or repeated section in song before its application to poetic repetition.^[8]^[9] Historically, refrains have been integral to various fixed poetic forms, where their structured recurrence amplifies the form's musicality and cohesion. The villanelle, a 19-line French form revived in English poetry, consists of five tercets and a concluding quatrain, with two refrains—the first and third lines of the opening stanza—alternating as the final lines of succeeding tercets and uniting in the quatrain's close, creating a spiraling intensification of theme.^[10] Similarly, the sestina employs end-word repetition across six sestets and a concluding envoi, functioning as an extended refrain that permutes the words to weave intricate connections without relying on rhyme or meter. The virelay, a medieval French form, features three stanzas each preceded and followed by a refrain, with internal sections sharing rhymes to evoke a cyclical, song-like quality.^[11] These instances highlight how refrains, analogous yet distinct from their musical counterparts in songs, prioritize literary reinforcement of emotional depth over auditory performance.^[2]

In Music

In music, a refrain is a repeated section of a song, typically the chorus, that features consistent lyrics and melody to provide familiarity and serve as a central hook for listeners.^[12] This repetition reinforces the song's thematic core, making it a key element in composition across genres.^[3] Key characteristics of the refrain include the repetition of melody, harmony, rhythm, or lyrics, which often contrasts with verses through heightened dynamics, fuller instrumentation, or increased emotional intensity. These sections commonly span 8 to 16 bars, offering a concise yet impactful structure that balances repetition with progression.^[13]^[14] While refrain and chorus are often synonymous in popular music, the terms diverge in classical contexts, where a refrain denotes a specific recurring phrase and chorus refers to a broader ensemble section. It differs from the bridge, a non-repeating transitional passage introducing new material for contrast, and from the hook, a shorter, catchy motif embedded within the refrain to boost memorability.^[3]^[15] The refrain's basic structural function is to anchor the song form, usually positioned after verses to unify the composition, enhance listener retention, and drive commercial appeal through its singable, recurring nature. Musical refrains evolved from poetic precursors, transforming textual repetition into auditory patterns.^[13] General examples include "Jingle Bells," with its refrain "Jingle bells, jingle bells, jingle all the way," and "The Star-Spangled Banner," featuring the repeating "O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave."^[16]^[17]

Historical Development

Early Literary and Folk Uses

The refrain emerged in oral traditions, particularly in folk songs and ballads, primarily functioning as a mnemonic device to aid memory retention during performance and to enable communal participation through familiar, singable phrases.^[18] In these contexts, refrains reinforced narrative structure and cultural transmission without written aids, allowing performers and audiences to synchronize in group settings. Examples appear in Celtic ballads, where refrains like recurring laments or natural imagery motifs supported storytelling, though their precise origins remain debated due to the lack of firm archaeological or textual evidence predating the medieval period.^[19] In medieval literature and folk music, refrains served as narrative anchors, providing emotional and structural emphasis in ballads and songs. A notable example is the English ballad "The Cruel Sister" (also known as "The Twa Sisters"), which features the repeating refrain "O the wind and the rain," underscoring themes of betrayal and tragedy while facilitating oral recitation and audience engagement.^[20] Troubadour traditions in Occitania similarly incorporated refrain-like repetitions in forms such as the dansa, blending poetic lyricism with musical performance to evoke courtly sentiments. The earliest documented uses of refrains in fixed forms date to around 1300 in French rondeaux, where composer Adam de la Halle crafted polyphonic settings in manuscripts like Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, fr. 25566, featuring syllabic, note-against-note structures that integrated the refrain as a recurring textual and musical unit.^[21] These evolved from freer dance-derived rounds into more rigid poetic structures by the 14th century, emphasizing the refrain's role in unifying stanzas. During the transition to written forms in 14th- to 16th-century poetry and early printed music, refrains aided scansion, rhythmic consistency, and performative clarity, as seen in English broadside ballads that preserved oral refrains in notated scores.^[22] French and Italian traditions significantly influenced the spread of refrains into English carols and hymns, adapting continental forms like the carole for liturgical repetition and communal worship. Franciscan friar William Herebert's 14th-century translations of Latin hymns into English carols, such as those based on "Gloria, laus et honor," incorporated refrains to enhance preaching and group singing, drawing directly from French virelai and rondeau models.^[23] This cross-cultural exchange solidified the refrain's utility in sacred contexts, promoting vernacular accessibility in English hymnody.^[24]

Evolution in Western Music

In the Classical era (c. 1750–1820), repeating sections appeared in strophic song forms and operatic arias, where they provided structural unity and emotional emphasis through melodic recurrence. These forms allowed for concise expression, with the repeating section typically returning after a contrasting stanza to heighten lyrical impact without elaborate harmonic variation.^[25] During the Romantic period (c. 1815–1910), the refrain expanded in art songs, choral works, and national anthems, emphasizing lyrical repetition to evoke deeper emotional and nationalistic sentiments. Franz Schubert's lieder, such as those in his Vier Refrainlieder (D. 866, 1828), exemplified this by integrating refrains as recurring melodic anchors that intensified poetic themes, blending strophic simplicity with subtle piano interjections for contrast.^[26] Similarly, Ludwig van Beethoven elevated the choral refrain in works like the Ninth Symphony (1824), where repeated sections in the finale's "Ode to Joy" served as a unifying, triumphant motif, raising refrain usage to a structural and symbolic pinnacle in large-scale compositions.^[27] This era saw refrains evolve from mere repetition to vehicles for expressive expansion, often in through-composed or modified strophic forms that prioritized individual interpretation over strict periodicity. By the early 20th century, Tin Pan Alley's commercialization of sheet music standardized refrains within accessible formats, influencing composed Western music toward more formulaic structures suited to performance and recording. Publishers like those on New York's West 28th Street promoted refrains as catchy, hook-laden sections in popular ballads, shifting focus from verse-led narratives to chorus-dominant designs.^[28] Technically, refrains progressed from Classical-era melodic simplicity—often exact repetitions in major keys with basic cadences—to harmonically varied iterations in Romantic and post-Romantic works, incorporating modulations and chromaticism for greater tension and release, as notated in evolving piano-vocal scores. A pivotal development occurred in the 1920s with the widespread adoption of the 32-bar AABA form, where the A sections framed the refrain-like chorus and the B bridge provided contrast, bridging art music traditions to emerging popular genres through its balanced, notation-friendly architecture.^[29]^[30]

Applications in Popular Music

Structural Role

In popular music, the refrain, often synonymous with the chorus, typically appears after one or two verses in the verse-chorus structure, such as the ABAB form, where it functions as the emotional climax by releasing tension accumulated in the preceding narrative sections.^[31] This placement allows the refrain to encapsulate the song's core message, contrasting with the verses' progressive storytelling through differences in melody, rhythm, and intensity.^[31] The refrain enhances a song's catchiness by incorporating melodic leaps, rhythmic syncopation, and simple, tonally strong chord progressions that make it memorable and engaging for listeners.^[32] It supports lyrical themes by repeating key phrases that summarize the song's focus, providing a consistent emotional anchor amid the verses' development.^[32] Additionally, the pre-chorus builds anticipation toward the refrain, using unique chord progressions or rising melodies to bridge the gap, reinforce its impact, and add structural depth since the mid-20th century.^[33] Variations in pop refrains often integrate hooks—short, repeatable motifs—for heightened memorability, while key changes between verses and refrains introduce contrast and energy.^[34] Modulation, such as a half-step or whole-step shift into the refrain, creates dramatic lifts, particularly in final iterations, by elevating the vocal range and harmonic tension without preparatory chords.^[35] Commercially, refrains have played a key role in radio-friendly formats since the 1950s, when the verse-chorus structure gained prominence in rock and pop, favoring concise, hook-driven designs suited to short airplay durations of around 2-3 minutes.^[36] Hit songs from this era and beyond typically feature refrains averaging 4-8 bars, balancing repetition for accessibility with brevity to maintain listener attention.^[37] As an "earworm" generator, the refrain leverages repetition to exploit cognitive processes, where recurring melodic intervals and phrases trigger involuntary musical imagery, enhancing memorability as supported by psychological studies on over 3,000 participants analyzing popular tunes from 2010-2013.^[38] This effect stems from the brain's tendency to loop simple, repetitive structures, making refrains particularly prone to persistent mental replay.^[38]

Examples and Variations

In 1960s rock, The Beatles' "Hey Jude" exemplifies an extended refrain designed for audience engagement, featuring the repetitive "na na na" coda that lasts over four minutes and invites communal singing with handclaps and orchestral swells.^[39] This structure transforms the song's intimate ballad into a stadium anthem, emphasizing participation over lyrical depth in live performances.^[39] Shifting to 1980s-2000s pop, Michael Jackson's "Billie Jean" employs a rhythmic refrain—"Billie Jean is not my lover / She's just a girl who claims that I am the one / But the kid is not my son"—that recurs after verses, bolstered by harmony vocals, synth strings, and funk guitar for emphatic denial.^[40] The refrain's 12-beat phrasing integrates seamlessly with the song's verse-chorus form, heightening tension through added instrumentation in later iterations.^[40] Post-2010 variations in EDM and hip-hop fusions highlight dynamic refrains, as in Adele's "Rolling in the Deep," where the chorus—"We could have had it all / Rolling in the deep"—builds energy with upward melodic motifs, background vocals, and intensified drums for emotional swells.^[41] In trap music, minimalistic repeating hooks prevail, such as the looped "Drop" vocal sample in Baauer's 2012 track "Harlem Shake," which sustains simplicity amid heavy 808 bass and hi-hat patterns to drive repetitive intensity.^[42] Unique adaptations include call-and-response refrains in R&B, where a lead vocal prompts a choral reply, as in James Brown's "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud" (1968), with the singer's lines met by a unified "I'm black and I'm proud" hook affirming communal identity.^[43] Multilingual refrains appear in global pop, blending languages for broader appeal, exemplified by Luis Fonsi's "Despacito" (2017), whose Spanish hook "Despacito / Quiero respirar tu cuello despacito" mixes with English elements in remixes to dominate international charts.^[44] Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" (1975) offers a breakdown of refrain-like sections defying conventional form, comprising an a cappella intro, ballad verses, operatic ensemble (with overlapping vocal lines mimicking refrains), hard rock outburst, and reflective outro, creating a narrative arc without a singular repeating chorus.^[45] This multi-sectional approach, spanning six minutes with key shifts from B♭ major to A major, prioritizes dramatic progression over repetition, influencing experimental pop structures.^[45]

Applications in Jazz

Standard Chorus

In jazz, the standard chorus refers to a single iteration of the song's form, typically a 32-bar structure such as AABA, which provides the foundational framework for both ensemble playing and individual improvisation.^[46] This form consists of two repeated A sections (each 8 bars), a contrasting B section or bridge (8 bars), and a final A section, creating a balanced cycle that supports harmonic progression and melodic development.^[47] The chorus serves as the repeating unit in many jazz standards, enabling musicians to navigate the tune's chord changes while allowing for creative variation within a fixed structure. In performance, the standard chorus plays a central role in "head charts," where the melody—known as the "head"—is first stated in unison by the ensemble, followed by successive choruses dedicated to improvised solos by individual players, and concluding with a restatement of the head.^[48] This structure is exemplified in standards like "Autumn Leaves," a 32-bar AABC form often treated as a chorus cycle in jazz settings, where soloists improvise over its ii-V-I progressions after the initial melody presentation.^[49] The approach emphasizes collective and solo expression, with each chorus maintaining the song's core harmony to facilitate seamless transitions between players. Historically, the standard chorus emerged during the 1920s as jazz evolved toward larger ensembles in the big band era, drawing from Tin Pan Alley song forms, and was formalized in the 1940s bebop movement, where small groups used it to structure extended improvisations on familiar tunes.^[47] A key characteristic is its consistent harmonic framework, which permits thematic variation and rhythmic complexity without deviating from the refrain's essential outline, fostering innovation within tradition.^[50] Notably, in jazz, a "chorus" denotes one full cycle of this form, distinguishing it from the lyrical refrain in popular music, which serves as a simpler, hook-like section rather than an improvisational scaffold.^[46]

Arranger's Chorus

In jazz big band arrangements, the arranger's chorus refers to an internal iteration of the refrain—typically the second or third chorus—that features a recomposed version of the form through intricate orchestration, serving as a composed ensemble "solo" to enhance textural depth and variety.^[51] Unlike improvised solos, it is fully notated to prioritize collective precision and cohesion across the ensemble.^[51] This section elaborates on the standard chorus by introducing deliberate harmonic and melodic deviations, such as substitutions or reharmonizations, while adhering to the underlying chord progression.^[51] Key techniques in the arranger's chorus include counterpoint between instruments, call-and-response patterns dividing the band into sections, and layered voicing that assigns specific roles to instrumental families. For example, woodwinds—often saxophones and clarinets—may carry the primary melodic line, while the brass section (trumpets and trombones) supplies harmonic support or rhythmic punctuations, fostering a sense of dialogue and momentum.^[52] In Duke Ellington's arrangement of "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)" (1932), these elements are evident in the mid-chart exchanges between reed and brass sections, creating subtle contrasts that highlight the band's unified sound without relying on volume or intensity.^[52] The primary purpose of the arranger's chorus is to generate mid-performance tension and interest, bridging the initial statement of the theme and later improvisational sections without dominating the overall structure.^[51] Historically, this device gained prominence in the 1930s and 1940s swing era, closely associated with Fletcher Henderson's pioneering work in big band orchestration, where he integrated such internal variations to elevate ensemble playing beyond simple repetition.^[53] Henderson's charts, influential on subsequent arrangers, demonstrated how these choruses could sustain listener engagement through sophisticated interplay, solidifying their role in the evolution of jazz form.

Shout Chorus

The shout chorus represents the climactic final refrain in a jazz big band arrangement, typically performed at maximum volume by the full ensemble in a tutti style, incorporating riffs, growls, and improvised flourishes to build intense energy.^[54]^[55] This section serves as the pinnacle of the performance, often positioned after solos to deliver a raucous, unified outburst that resolves the piece with heightened excitement.^[56] The term "shout" draws from gospel music traditions, where ecstatic, chant-like expressions influenced the rhythmic and emotional intensity of jazz riffs and ensemble playing.^[54] Key techniques in a shout chorus include sharp brass stabs for rhythmic punctuation, the use of plunger mutes to produce growling timbres in the trumpet and trombone sections, and propulsive walking bass lines that maintain swing momentum.^[57] Dynamics typically escalate from softer piano textures to explosive forte passages, with the ensemble often employing call-and-response patterns between sections to amplify the drive; in some arrangements, the tempo may double to heighten the frenzy.^[58] These elements create a layered, high-volume texture that emphasizes harmonic development through close voicings and motif variations.^[58] Emerging in the 1930s swing era, the shout chorus evolved as a tool to energize audiences in large venues, marking the end of improvisational sections with a collective release that blended orchestral precision and raw vitality.^[59] It provided structural resolution while showcasing the band's cohesive power, often building on earlier arranger's choruses for progressive intensity. A representative example is the final shout chorus in Count Basie's "One O'Clock Jump" (1937), where riff-based brass and sax interplay delivers a shouting call-and-response climax that epitomizes big band swing.^[54] This format became a staple in swing ensembles, influencing later jazz styles through its ecstatic, communal spirit.^[57]

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shout chorus A specially arranged chorus, usually played between the last solo and the out chorus. sit in, sitting in When a musician who is not a member of ...
[60]
[PDF] AS Jazz Music - Whitmore High School
This sound is created using a plunger mute; this was a common technique used by all of Ellington's brass players. ... Double bass begins to play a relaxed walking ...
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Big Band Arranging | The Shout Chorus — Evan Rogers | Conductor
Apr 21, 2020 · A shout chorus is traditionally the pinnacle of the big band chart. It's a tutti where the whole band plays together, usually developing the themes, motifs and ...Missing: internal | Show results with:internal
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[PDF] MUS 205: Jazz History and Appreciation Learning Unit 5
Arrangements often end with an exciting full ensemble statement called a shout chorus. • Improvising soloists are incorporated within the written arrangements.