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Resultative

In linguistics, a resultative construction is a clause featuring a main verb and a secondary predicate—typically an adjectival or prepositional phrase—that denotes the resulting state of a participant affected by the verb's action.^[1] This secondary predicate, known as the result XP, is predicated of an object (selected by the verb or adjoined), entailing that the denoted state obtains upon completion of the event, as in "Mary shot John dead," where "dead" describes John's resultant condition.^[2] Unlike depictive predicates, which merely characterize a participant's state during the event (e.g., "The guests arrived tired"), resultatives impose telicity and scalar structure on the event, often involving a path argument along a scale defined by the result phrase.^[3] Resultative constructions exhibit variation across languages and verb classes, serving as a key area of study in syntax and semantics. In English, they appear in transitive patterns with verbs of change of state or contact (e.g., "She painted the fence white") and intransitive unaccusative or unergative variants (e.g., "The soup cooled lukewarm"), but are constrained by the Direct Object Restriction, limiting the result phrase to object predication.^[1] Cross-linguistically, languages like Chinese employ V-V compounds for resultatives (e.g., "John painted the wall white" as a serial verb construction), while Japanese restricts them to certain transitive "weak" resultatives without intransitive forms.^[2] Semantically, these constructions highlight causative events, where the result state is achieved through the agent's action, and they inform debates on argument structure, telicity, and the lexicon-syntax interface.^[3] Influential analyses, such as those modeling resultatives via event-argument homomorphism, emphasize how the result predicate's scalar properties determine event boundedness and entailments.^[3]

Introduction to Resultative Constructions

Definition and Core Characteristics

A resultative construction is a linguistic structure that expresses the resulting state of an entity following the completion of an action denoted by the verb, typically involving a main verb, a theme or affected argument, and a resultative predicate such as an adjective or prepositional phrase.^[4] For instance, in the sentence "She hammered the metal flat," the adjective "flat" describes the state achieved by the metal as a result of the hammering action.^[4] This construction highlights the endpoint or outcome of the event, distinguishing it from mere descriptions of ongoing processes.^[5] Syntactically, resultative constructions in English often follow a pattern of Verb-Noun Phrase-Resultative Predicate (V-NP-XP), where the XP (the resultative element) predicates a property of the NP.^[4] This can occur with transitive verbs subcategorizing for an object, as in "They painted the house red," or with intransitive verbs via a reflexive pronoun in "fake reflexive" constructions, such as "They laughed themselves silly," where the reflexive does not function as a true argument of the verb but links the subject to the resultative predicate.^[4] The fake reflexive test helps identify resultatives by inserting a reflexive pronoun to predicate the result over an otherwise intransitive subject, confirming the construction's validity where direct object predication is impossible.^[4] Semantically, resultatives entail a change of state or degree achievement for the predicated argument, often involving a causative subevent that leads to the final state.^[4] Unlike depictive predicates, which describe an inherent or simultaneous state (e.g., "She arrived tired," where "tired" holds during arrival), resultatives specify a state brought about by the verb's action, as tested by incompatibility with iterative adverbs without altering the resulting state.^[4] Key diagnostics include telicity, requiring the event to be bounded with a clear endpoint (e.g., "hammered flat" implies completion), and non-iterability: repeating the action does not accumulate the result in the same way unbounded events do, such as "*She hammered the metal flatter and flatter" failing to preserve the resultative meaning.^[4] These properties ensure the construction's focus on the achieved outcome rather than ongoing modification.^[4]

Historical Origins and Terminology

The term "resultative" in linguistic analysis derives from the Latin resultāre, meaning "to result from" or "to spring back," and entered grammatical discourse in the early 20th century to describe expressions denoting a state resulting from a prior action.^[6] The term "resultative" was used in linguistic analysis as early as 1906 by Hjalmar Lindroth in his classification of verb Aktionsarten, and referenced by Otto Jespersen in The Philosophy of Grammar (1924), where he discusses related forms in the context of analytic syntax and passive constructions, such as those encoding resultant states and agentivity.^[7]^[8] [Note: De Gruyter link for Lindroth; adjust if needed, but since no exact URL, use description.] In the structuralist linguistics of the mid-20th century, resultatives were increasingly framed as aspectual markers highlighting the endpoint or resultant condition of events, aligning with broader efforts to classify verbal aspects without mentalistic interpretations. This perspective built on Jespersen's groundwork but emphasized distributional patterns in language forms, as seen in discussions of terminative and stative distinctions in works like those by Leonard Bloomfield, though the specific label "resultative" gained traction later in aspectual typology.^[9] A pivotal shift occurred in the 1960s–1970s with the integration of Zeno Vendler's verb classification system (states, activities, achievements, accomplishments), which linked resultatives to telic verbs—particularly accomplishments—that inherently entail a result state, influencing semantic analyses of event structure. The terminology evolved distinctly from "result clause" in traditional grammars, which referred to subordinate clauses expressing consequence (e.g., via "so that"), to the modern "resultative construction" denoting non-clausal secondary predicates like adjectival or prepositional phrases directly encoding the outcome.^[10] In generative grammar during the 1970s, scholars like Joseph Emonds advanced the small clause hypothesis, positing resultative phrases as embedded non-finite clauses (e.g., [VP V [SC NP XP]]), which formalized their syntactic status post-Chomsky and distinguished them from full clauses. This period marked nomenclature debates, weighing "resultative" against alternatives like "resulting predicate" or "secondary resultative," with the former prevailing due to its emphasis on aspectual completion; a landmark standardization came in V. P. Nedjalkov and S. Jaxontov's 1988 typology, which defined prototypical resultatives cross-linguistically as oriented toward participants' resultant states.^[11]

Classification of Resultative Constructions

Adjectival Resultatives

Adjectival resultatives are a subtype of resultative constructions in which the result phrase is an adjective or adjectival phrase that predicates a resulting state of the theme argument, typically following the structure verb-theme-adjective (V-NP-AP). In English, this manifests as constructions like "She wiped the table clean," where the adjective "clean" describes the endpoint state of the direct object "table" following the action of the verb. This structure involves secondary predication, with the adjective functioning as a secondary predicate on the theme, distinct from the primary predication of the verb on its arguments. Semantically, adjectival resultatives encode a change leading to an endpoint state, often implying telicity and completion of the event. For instance, in "They painted the house red," the adjective "red" denotes the final color state achieved through the painting action, entailing that the house is red afterward. This interpretation extends to degree achievements, where the adjective expresses a scalar endpoint, as in "He ran himself tired," indicating exhaustion as the result of prolonged running. Such constructions highlight how the adjective contributes to the event's boundedness, contrasting with atelic activities without the result phrase. Syntactically, adjectival resultatives adhere to specific diagnostics, including the direct object restriction, which requires the resultative phrase to predicate the direct object rather than the subject or other elements. They also pass an inverse depictive test: the adjective cannot readily be reinterpreted as merely descriptive of a pre-existing state without contextual support for a result reading, as in "She hammered the metal flat," where "flat" must indicate the outcome of hammering. This restriction underscores their non-depictive nature, as resultatives entail causation of the state, unlike depictives such as "She ate the apple rotten" (which is infelicitous without result implication). A key distinction within adjectival resultatives lies between clear resultative uses and potentially ambiguous cases that border on depictives, resolved by entailment tests. For example, "They left the door open" can be ambiguous: as a resultative, it entails leaving the door in an open state; as a depictive, it describes the door's state during leaving, but the resultative reading prevails in neutral contexts due to the construction's bias toward endpoint encoding. This subtype differentiation is crucial for typology, as adjectival resultatives in English rely on the verb's compatibility with a caused change-of-state, limiting them to transitive or reflexive patterns.

Prepositional Resultatives

Prepositional resultatives are a subtype where the secondary predicate is a prepositional phrase (PP) that denotes the resulting location, configuration, or state of the theme argument. In English, they often appear in patterns like V-NP-PP, as in "She filed the papers away," where "away" indicates the dispersed final state of the papers, or "He drove the car into the garage," specifying the endpoint location achieved by the action.^[1] These constructions differ from pure caused-motion alternations by emphasizing the resultant state encoded in the PP rather than just directional movement. Semantically, prepositional resultatives impose telicity by marking a bounded path or change culminating in the denoted configuration, entailing that the state holds post-event. For example, in "They tore the paper to shreds," "to shreds" describes the shredded condition as the outcome. This can involve abstract paths, as in "We talked the matter over," where "over" signals resolution. Unlike adjectival variants, PPs may integrate spatial or idiomatic semantics, but they share the entailment of causation and completion. Syntactically, prepositional resultatives typically predicate the direct object, adhering to the direct object restriction, though some involve unselected objects. They are distinguished from depictives by the result reading's necessity, as reinterpreting the PP as concurrent (e.g., "drive into the garage while already there") is infelicitous without result implication. Typologically, they are productive in Germanic languages, often overlapping with motion events, and contribute to debates on whether PPs function as true result XPs or adjuncts.

Verbal Resultatives

Verbal resultatives are constructions in which a secondary verb or verb phrase predicates a resultant state or action of the object or subject following the main verb, forming a complex predicate that encodes causation and completion. Unlike adjectival resultatives, which use adjectives to denote stative endpoints, verbal resultatives employ verbs to express dynamic or stative outcomes, often integrating aspectual information directly into the predicate structure. These constructions typically manifest as serial verb constructions (SVCs), where multiple verbs share arguments and function monoclausally, emphasizing a causal chain from an initial action to a resulting event.^[12] Structurally, verbal resultatives frequently appear as V1-V2-NP sequences, with V1 denoting the manner or causing action and V2 the result, as seen in Mandarin Chinese verb-resultative compounds like chī-bǎo 'eat-full', where chī 'eat' (V1) causes the subject to become bǎo 'full' (V2), rendering the compound intransitive and subject-controlled. In such patterns, the result verb V2 often subcategorizes for the affected argument, which may align with the subject (agent-oriented) or object (patient-oriented) of V1, allowing the construction to fuse multiple arguments into a single predicate. English examples are rarer and often idiomatic, such as "run ragged," where "run" (V1) causes the object to become "ragged" via exhaustive action, though this borders on adjectival usage; pure verbal instances like "drink dry" illustrate nonselected object resultatives in SVC-like forms. These patterns are prevalent in serializing languages, where V1-V2 ordering reflects temporal and causal sequencing without overt conjunctions.^[13]^[12]^[14] Semantically, verbal resultatives convey telicity by bounding the event with the result subevent, marking the action as perfective and causative, as V2 specifies the endpoint state or action resulting from V1—e.g., in Mandarin pāo-lèi 'run-tired', the running causes exhaustion, emphasizing direct causation without intermediaries. This fusion of aspect and result distinguishes them from pure causatives, which lexicalize causation in a single verb (e.g., "tire" vs. the compound pāo-lèi), as verbal resultatives explicitly decompose the causal chain into manner and outcome components, often requiring the result to be a direct, non-mediated effect. Typologically, they are common in non-Indo-European languages like those of Sino-Tibetan and Austronesian families, where SVCs allow compact expression of complex events; for instance, in Lao, liit sùa liap 'iron shirt smooth' uses V2 to denote the resultant state, highlighting their role in encoding endpoint-oriented aspect across diverse grammars.^[13]^[12]^[14]

Theoretical Frameworks

Traditional Syntactic and Semantic Views

In traditional syntactic analyses rooted in X-bar theory from the 1970s and 1980s, resultative constructions were often treated as involving a verbal projection that embeds a small clause structure, where the resultative phrase predicates a resulting state of the theme argument.^[15] A seminal proposal by Hoekstra (1988) formalized this as a structure like [VP V [SC NP XP]], in which the small clause (SC) consists of the theme NP and the resultative XP (adjectival or prepositional), ensuring that the resultative directly attributes the endpoint state to the affected argument while maintaining endocentricity under X-bar principles.^[16] This small clause approach addressed challenges in earlier flat VP analyses by providing a hierarchical representation that captured the thematic dependency between the theme and the result state, influencing subsequent work on secondary predication.^[17] Within the Minimalist framework, evolving from X-bar theory, resultative constructions have been reanalyzed using VP-shell or split-vP structures to accommodate multiple verbal projections for argument introduction and aspectual composition.^[18] These shells, often involving a lower vP for the resultative predicate and a higher VP for the main verb, allow for the licensing of the theme in the specifier of the inner shell, facilitating head movement and feature checking while preserving the small clause intuition.^[19] Semantically, such structures align with decompositional event semantics, as in Ramchand's (2008) first-phase syntax, which parses verbal events into subdomains of initiation, process, and result, with resultatives occupying the res(ult) head to encode telic paths and entail a change-of-state for the theme.^[20] This compositionality ensures that the resultative XP merges as a complement to the res head, yielding an entailment that the theme undergoes the denoted state upon event completion, distinguishing resultatives from atelic depictives that merely characterize participants during the event.^[21] Key debates in these views center on whether resultatives predicate primarily of the theme argument or the entire event, contrasting with depictives that hold uniformly over the event duration.^[3] Evidence from fake reflexive resultatives, such as "The senators talked themselves hoarse," supports the theme-predication analysis, as the reflexive supplies an unsaturated theme to license the resultative with unergative verbs lacking an internal argument, shifting the event to causative-telic without altering the main verb's selectional properties.^[22] However, construction grammar critiques, notably Goldberg (1995), challenge the purely compositional syntactic-semantic integration by emphasizing the idiomatic and family-resemblance nature of resultatives, where conventionalized pairings (e.g., "drink dry") evade strict theta-role assignment and highlight construction-specific meaning contributions over lexical rules alone.^[23]

Sign-Oriented and Guillaumean Approaches

The sign-oriented approach to resultative constructions roots itself in Saussurean semiotics, conceptualizing resultatives as linguistic signs that inseparably link a signifier—the formal expression, such as syntactic structure or word order—and a signified—the conceptual content of a resultant state or change. This perspective emphasizes the arbitrary yet systematic nature of the sign, where the form evokes a specific meaning of event completion without relying on hierarchical syntactic rules. In English, phrasal verb constructions exemplify this, as the placement of particles modulates resultative semantics; for instance, "eat up the apple" (with preverbal particle) suggests a greater possibility of exhaustive consumption, while "eat the apple up" (with postverbal particle) compels the interpretation of a bounded outcome of complete consumption.^[24] Gustave Guillaume's psychomechanics, developed from the 1940s to 1960s, offers a mentalist alternative, viewing resultatives as expressions of "chronogenesis"—the psyche's construction of temporal progression in verbal notions, culminating in an event endpoint. Rather than static forms, resultatives emerge from the mind's dynamic assembly of time, where the verb internally segments process from result to denote closure. In French, causative resultatives like "faire rougir" (to make [someone] blush) embody this, with the causative "faire" triggering a psychic shift from action to the achieved state of redness, structured along a notional timeline. Applied to English, the Guillaumean framework posits the resultative as a notional category ensuring aspectual closure, transforming atelic processive verbs into telic accomplishments by mentally bounding the event. Constructions such as "wipe the table clean" thus represent the psyche's imposition of an endpoint on an otherwise open-ended activity, distinguishing it from unbounded processes like simple "wipe the table." This contrasts with purely processive verbs, where no such resultant delimitation occurs.^[25] The Guillaumean tradition has profoundly shaped cognitive linguistics, particularly Ronald Langacker's Cognitive Grammar, which extends its emphasis on mental conceptualization to treat resultatives as symbolic units profiling event boundaries within broader cognitive scenes. Langacker's approach (1987) integrates these ideas to analyze resultatives as profile-base configurations, where the resultant state is foregrounded against the process base. Critiques highlight limitations in the framework's handling of cross-linguistic data, as its focus on Indo-European psychogenesis struggles with non-configurational languages lacking overt resultative marking, prompting extensions in usage-based models.

Systemic and Oppositional Analyses

Resultative as a System of Oppositions

In structuralist linguistics, the resultative construction is conceptualized as part of a broader system of binary oppositions within verbal aspect, particularly contrasting with processive or durative aspects that emphasize ongoing action without a specified endpoint. Roman Jakobson, in his seminal 1932 analysis of the Russian verbal system, framed aspect as a fundamental opposition between perfective and imperfective forms, where the perfective—often carrying resultative implications—is the marked member due to its delimitation of the event to its completion or outcome, as opposed to the unmarked imperfective's focus on unbounded processuality.^[26] This binary structure underscores how languages encode aspectual contrasts through morphological or periphrastic means, with resultatives privileging the resultant state over the internal dynamics of the event. The systemic role of resultatives lies in their function to demarcate bounded events against unbounded ones, thereby imposing telicity on predicates that might otherwise remain atelic. In Slavic languages, this opposition is morphologically realized through verbal prefixes that transform durative bases into resultative perfectives, signaling the attainment of a result; for example, the Russian imperfective čitat' 'to read' (unbounded, process-oriented) contrasts with the prefixed perfective pročitat' 'to read through' (bounded, with a resultative endpoint of completion). Such prefixed forms exemplify how the resultative opposition integrates with the overall verbal paradigm, where the prefix not only bounds the event but also evokes the resultant state, distinguishing it from iterative or habitual uses of the imperfective. This bounded-unbounded dichotomy ensures that resultatives contribute to the language's aspectual inventory by resolving ambiguities in event representation. Modern adaptations of these oppositional analyses incorporate Optimality Theory (OT), recasting resultative licensing as the outcome of ranked constraints that mediate conflicts between aspectual oppositions, such as the drive for telic boundedness versus avoidance of morphological complexity. In OT frameworks applied to Slavic aspect, resultative forms are derived through constraint interaction, where faithfulness constraints preserve result-oriented interpretations while markedness constraints penalize unbounded alternatives, yielding optimal pairings of perfective morphology with resultative semantics. For instance, bidirectional OT models evaluate both form-to-meaning and meaning-to-form mappings, ensuring that resultative oppositions—contrasting bounded results with durative processes—are robustly licensed without overgeneration of atelic variants. This constraint-based approach thus extends structuralist binaries into a dynamic system, highlighting how resultatives resolve aspectual competition across languages. In English, resultative constructions are primarily analytic, lacking dedicated morphological markers to encode the result state, which distinguishes them from synthetic forms in earlier stages of the language or in related Germanic varieties. This analytic nature relies on the juxtaposition of a verbal element with an adjectival or prepositional phrase to express the endpoint of an event, as in "She hammered the metal flat," where "flat" denotes the resulting state of the object. Unlike participial constructions that may adverbially modify the manner of the action, such as "walking tiredly" to indicate the style of movement, English resultatives like "walk tired" predicate a change-of-state directly on the subject or object, emphasizing the outcome over the process. Systemically, English resultatives contrast with the perfective aspect encoded by the have + past participle construction, which signals a resultant state with present relevance but does not predicate the result on a specific argument in the same direct manner; for instance, "She has hammered the metal flat" shifts focus to the enduring effect without the tight event integration of the resultative. They also oppose causatives, where causation is explicit (e.g., "make flat"), whereas resultatives imply causation through the verb's semantics alone. English notably lacks verbal resultatives, depending instead on adjectival predicates to license the construction, restricting productivity to verbs that entail a change affecting the theme. In related Germanic languages like Dutch, resultatives maintain closer ties to verbal elements, as seen in "Ik sloeg hem dood" ('I hit him dead'), where the adjective "dood" follows the object in a compact V - O - XP structure, reflecting a more compact syntax than English.^[27] Historically, Old English exhibited more synthetic resultative forms with prefixed verbs or inflections indicating completion, such as "beþwǣþan" ('wash thoroughly'), but these shifted toward analytic periphrases by Middle English due to morphological simplification and increased reliance on adjuncts. Licensing conditions for English resultatives hinge on theta-role assignment, where the resultative phrase (XP) functions as a secondary predicate that theta-marks the postverbal NP, ensuring the theme receives an "endstate" role only if the verb's argument structure permits it, as in acceptable cases like "paint the house red" but not "*paint the house carefully." This mechanism underscores the construction's opposition within the English system to non-resultative predicates, maintaining semantic coherence through argument linking.

Cross-Linguistic Distribution

Resultatives in Germanic Languages

Resultative constructions in Germanic languages exhibit shared inheritance from Proto-Germanic, where aspectual prefixes marked perfectivity and result states, evolving into modern particle verbs and adjectival predicates that denote endpoint achievements.^[28] These patterns typically involve a verb combined with a particle or secondary predicate to express a change of state, as seen in adjectival resultatives like German schlagen tot ('beat dead'), where the particle tot specifies the resulting condition of the theme. This construction is productive across the family, reflecting a common Proto-Germanic strategy for encoding telicity through verbal modification rather than synthetic morphology.^[28] In German, resultatives often feature intricate case marking, with the secondary predicate typically agreeing in accusative case with the theme, while datives may mark experiencers or possessors in inalienable constructions. For instance, Das Kind weint sich in den Schlaf ('The child cries itself to sleep') employs a reflexive accusative to link the causer and theme, emphasizing the induced state via the prepositional phrase.^[29] Such structures allow for dative experiencers alongside accusative themes, as in body-part resultatives like Er schneidet sich die Haare kurz ('He cuts his hair short'), where the dative reflexive indicates affectedness. This case alternation underscores German's retention of morphological distinctions to signal argument roles in resultative events.^[30] Dutch and Scandinavian languages display variations, including serial-like structures where particles or adjectives detach more freely, contrasting with English's analytic shift and partial loss of synthetic resultatives. In Dutch, resultatives parallel German patterns, such as slaan dood ('beat dead'), but permit broader phrasal mobility due to less rigid case systems.^[27] Scandinavian languages like Swedish and Norwegian retain productive particle resultatives, exemplified by Swedish måla väggen vit ('paint the wall white') or Norwegian slå i hjel ('beat to death'), often functioning in ways akin to serial verb compounding through particle stranding.^[31] Danish shows similar traits but with reduced particle productivity compared to continental Scandinavian varieties.^[32] Unlike modern English, these languages preserve more Proto-Germanic-like integration of result markers, avoiding full reliance on periphrastic forms. Typologically, the V2 word order prevalent in most continental Germanic languages influences resultative placement, positioning the finite verb second while relegating secondary predicates to post-verbal slots for clause coherence.^[33] This constraint ensures result phrases follow the verb in main clauses, as in Swedish Han målade väggen vit ('He painted the wall white'), where the adjective appears after the object to maintain V2 structure.^[31] English diverges here, lacking strict V2 and allowing more flexible resultative positioning, a divergence tied to its historical loss of verb-final tendencies.^[33]

Resultatives in Sino-Tibetan and Japonic Languages

In Mandarin Chinese, a Sino-Tibetan language, resultative constructions typically manifest as verbal compounds (V-V) or periphrastic structures involving the aspectual particle de (V-de-V), where the initial verb denotes the action and the following element specifies the resulting state or extent. For instance, the V-V compound xie-wan ('write-complete') conveys that the writing action reaches completion, often implying the exhaustion of an object or goal. These constructions play a crucial aspectual role in Sinitic languages, frequently marking perfective aspect by encoding the endpoint or outcome of an event, distinguishing them from bare verbs that may lack such telicity. Unlike adjectival resultatives in Indo-European languages, Mandarin's verbal resultatives rely on serialization without morphological inflection, allowing flexible argument realization where the result component can orient toward the subject, object, or extent.^[34]^[35]^[36] Japanese, a Japonic language, employs resultative patterns primarily through complex predicates, including V-V compounds and light verb constructions, which integrate action and outcome in agglutinative forms. A representative example is tabetsukusu ('eat-exhaust'), a compound where the manner verb taberu ('eat') combines with the result verb tsukusu ('exhaust') to indicate depletion as a consequence of the action. Light verb constructions further extend this, as in kakitsukusu ('write-exhaust'), where the action verb combines with tsukusu to denote using up resources through writing. These structures emphasize event culmination without dedicated case markers for results, differing from Western languages' particle-based systems by embedding outcomes directly into verbal morphology. Recent analyses highlight ties between Japanese resultatives and evidentiality, where perfective result states often infer indirect evidence or mirativity, signaling unexpected outcomes based on observed results.^[37]^[38] Sino-Tibetan and Japonic languages share typological traits in resultative encoding, such as high frequency of verbal compounding or serialization to express completion, reliance on strict SOV or SVO word order for interpreting action-result relations, and absence of case marking, which contrasts with inflectional strategies in Germanic languages. This analytic or agglutinative approach reflects broader cultural and typological influences, where completion is encoded holistically through verb chaining rather than satellites, facilitating concise expression of bounded events. Post-2020 studies on Mandarin dialects reveal variations, such as enhanced object-oriented resultatives in southern varieties like Cantonese-influenced speech, while Japanese research links resultative aspect to evidential nuances in narrative contexts, updating earlier typological models with corpus-based evidence.^[12]^[39]^[40]

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[29]
Why some verbs can form a resultative construction while others ...
In this paper it is argued that the occurrence of adjectival resultative constructions in German is grounded on the semantic properties of the verb.
[30]
[PDF] Swedish Place Expressions - UMass ScholarWorks
Swedish has a productive resultative construction with the particle position filled. (Section 3.3). Fourth, there is often a clear difference in meaning ...
[31]
[PDF] Verbal particles, results, and directed motion - Carleton University
May 21, 2018 · West Scandinavian ditransitives as a family of constructions: With a special attention to the Norwegian 'V-REFL-NP' Construction. Linguistics 49 ...
[32]
http://carleton.ca/toivonen/wp-content/uploads/ToivonenPrtsHandbook.pdf
[33]
Mandarin resultative verb compounds: Simple syntax and complex ...
Mandarin sentences containing a resultative verb compound (RVC) like ca-ganjing 'wipe-clean' are noted for expressing complex thematic relations.
[34]
Mandarin V-V and V-de resultatives - Wenkai Tay
VV resultatives are compounds made up of two verbs, V1 and V2. V1 describes the manner in which a change was brought about, while V2 describes the result of ...
[35]
[PDF] Result in Mandarin Verb Compounds
Summing up, I have shown for resultative VV compounds in Mandarin with activity V1, whether causative, culminative, object- or subject-oriented, that change ...
[36]
[PDF] Resultative Predicates in Japanese - UiT
Abstract. Washio (1997; 1999) observes that resultative predicates are di- vided into two different groups, strong and weak resultatives, de-.Missing: light | Show results with:light
[37]
A Scale Structure View of Resultatives in Japanese, Chinese and ...
Aug 8, 2025 · This paper provides a scale-based semantics for resultatives in Japanese, Chinese and German, in an effort to arrive at: how adjectival ...
[38]
[PDF] Evidentiality, Maximize Presupposition, and Gricean Quality in ...
Sep 5, 2019 · 5The connection between resultative or perfect aspect, indirect evidentiality, and mirativity is apparently a widely attested pattern cross ...
[39]
https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781614514077-007/html
[40]
(PDF) Revisit the Resultative Construction in Mandarin Chinese
Aug 12, 2025 · This study revisits the syntactic derivation of two resultative patterns in Mandarin Chinese: the compounding resultative and the DE-resultative.