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Ridgling

A ridgling, also spelled ridgeling and commonly known as a rig, is a male animal—most often a horse—in which one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) testicles have failed to descend into the scrotum, a condition medically termed cryptorchidism.^[1]^[2] This developmental anomaly places the animal in an intermediate reproductive status between an intact stallion and a gelding, as the undescended testicle(s) typically remain in the abdominal cavity or inguinal canal. Cryptorchidism is the most common congenital disorder of the male reproductive tract in horses, affecting approximately 5–8% of male foals, with most cases unilateral.^[3]^[4] Testicles normally descend from the abdomen through the inguinal canal between one month before birth and 10 days after foaling.^[5] The precise causes remain unclear but are believed to involve a combination of genetic, hormonal, and mechanical factors, with a hereditary component that does not always manifest predictably across generations.^[6]^[7] Affected horses often exhibit stallion-like behaviors due to testosterone production from the retained testicle(s), including increased aggression and distractibility; while undescended testicles cannot produce viable sperm owing to elevated abdominal temperatures, unilateral cases may retain fertility from the descended testicle, though cryptorchids are generally unsuitable for breeding due to genetic transmission risks.^[5] Diagnosis typically involves veterinary examination through rectal palpation, ultrasound imaging to locate the testicle, and hormone assays such as testosterone response tests or anti-Müllerian hormone levels to confirm the condition.^[8]^[9] Treatment is surgical, usually via laparoscopy to remove the undescended testicle(s) and achieve full castration, as manual manipulation is ineffective for true cryptorchids and the condition carries health risks like testicular torsion, hernia, or tumor development.^[5]^[6] In equine contexts such as racing and breeding, ridglings may perform competitively but often face challenges: they are generally unsuitable for breeding due to potential genetic transmission, and their behavioral traits can necessitate specialized training and higher veterinary costs.^[10] The condition does not inherently impair athletic ability. While most prevalent in horses, the term ridgling can apply to other male livestock like rams or bulls exhibiting similar undescended testicles.^[1]^[2] It is also common in dogs, with a prevalence of 1–10%.^[11]

Definition and Etymology

Definition

A ridgling is a cryptorchid male domestic animal, typically a horse or dog, in which one or both testes fail to descend into the scrotum by maturity.^[12]^[13] This failure results in the animal displaying typical male behaviors, such as stallion- or sire-like actions, but often leads to apparent sterility because undescended testes remain at higher body temperatures that inhibit spermatogenesis and viable sperm production.^[5] The condition, medically termed cryptorchidism, affects the external appearance by potentially leaving the scrotum partially or fully undeveloped.^[14] Ridglings are distinguished as complete, where both testes are undescended and no scrotal testes are visible, or incomplete, where only one testicle descends, which may result in a scrotum that appears nearly normal externally.^[5] In the incomplete form, the descended testicle typically functions adequately for fertility, though the retained testicle does not contribute to reproduction.^[5] Complete ridglings, however, lack functional testicular tissue in the scrotum and are invariably sterile.^[13]

Etymology and Terminology

The term "ridgling" (also spelled "ridgeling") originates from the combination of "ridge," referring to the animal's back, and the diminutive suffix "-ling," reflecting a 16th-century misconception that an undescended testicle remained lodged near the spine or "ridge" of the animal.^[1] This etymology underscores early veterinary misunderstandings of the condition's anatomy. The word's first documented use in English dates to around 1555, where it described imperfectly castrated animals or those with retained testes, often in agricultural contexts involving livestock.^[1] In terminology, "ridgling" shares synonyms that vary by region and species, primarily applied to male horses and dogs with cryptorchidism. The term "rig" is a common abbreviation in British English, especially for horses, denoting the same condition.^[15] "Cryptorchid," the standard medical term derived from Greek kryptos ("hidden") and orchis ("testicle"), emphasizes the concealed nature of the undescended gonad and is used universally in veterinary literature.^[16] Less frequent variants include "high flanker," a colloquial expression alluding to the perceived elevated position of the testis.^[5]

Pathophysiology

Causes

Ridgling, also known as cryptorchidism, primarily arises as a congenital defect during fetal development, in which one or both testes fail to migrate from their intra-abdominal origin through the inguinal canal to the scrotum. This migration process is complex and involves coordinated mechanical, hormonal, and gubernacular changes, typically occurring from late gestation through 10 days postnatally in horses and by 6-8 weeks in dogs.^[17]^[14] The failure disrupts the normal pathway guided by the gubernaculum testis, leading to retention in abdominal, inguinal, or subcutaneous locations.^[5] Key etiological factors include genetic predisposition, characterized by polygenic inheritance with heritability estimates ranging from 0.13 to 0.4 in certain horse breeds such as Friesians. Hormonal disruptions play a critical role, particularly insufficient anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) production by Sertoli cells or impaired androgen signaling, including testosterone, which is essential for gubernaculum regression and canal traversal. Possible environmental influences, such as maternal exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals during gestation, may exacerbate these vulnerabilities, though their precise contributions remain under investigation.^[18]^[19]^[20] The evolutionary role of the scrotum underscores the importance of temperature regulation in testicular function; intra-abdominal retention exposes the testes to higher core body temperatures (approximately 3-5°C warmer than scrotal conditions), which inhibit spermatogenesis by inducing germ cell apoptosis and oxidative stress. This thermoregulatory failure not only explains the adaptive purpose of scrotal descent but also highlights why retained testes exhibit impaired fertility across species.^[18]^[20]

Types and Locations

Cryptorchidism, or ridgling, is classified primarily by the number of affected testes as either unilateral or bilateral. Unilateral cryptorchidism, in which only one testis fails to descend into the scrotum while the other reaches its normal position, accounts for approximately 80-90% of cases in both horses and dogs, allowing for partial fertility due to the presence of the descended testis.^[21]^[5] Bilateral cryptorchidism, involving failure of both testes to descend, is rare and results in complete infertility as neither testis enters the scrotum.^[14]^[22] The location of the retained testis varies along the descent pathway and influences detection and treatment challenges. Common sites include the inguinal region and abdominal cavity, with the most frequent location varying by species (inguinal in dogs, abdominal or inguinal in horses).^[5]^[22] Abdominal retention places the testis deep within the peritoneal cavity, making it harder to palpate or visualize, while prescrotal positioning situates it just above the scrotum in a subcutaneous location.^[14]^[5] Normal testicular descent begins with the testes developing near the caudal pole of the kidneys in the abdominal cavity during fetal life, followed by migration caudally guided by the gubernaculum through the inguinal canal and vaginal ring (in horses) into the scrotum, typically completing by 6-8 weeks postnatally in dogs and around birth in horses. Failure can occur at any stage of this pathway: early arrest near the kidneys leads to abdominal retention, intermediate failure in the inguinal canal results in inguinal cryptorchidism, and late interruption just before scrotal entry causes prescrotal positioning.^[22]^[14]^[5]

In Horses

Prevalence and Risk Factors

Cryptorchidism in horses, also known as ridgling, has a prevalence that varies by breed, typically ranging from 1% to 3% overall, though higher rates are reported in specific populations. For example, it occurs in approximately 2.6% of Arabian colts and up to 14.2% of Friesian colts.^[6]^[23] Unilateral cases predominate, comprising about 80% of instances, with left-sided retention more common in some breeds like Quarter Horses.^[24] Certain breeds show increased susceptibility, including Percherons (highest prevalence), American Saddlebreds, Quarter Horses, and ponies, while rates are lower in Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds.^[9]^[4] Risk factors include a hereditary component, often linked to genetic influences such as polygenic traits or specific gene copy number variations (e.g., TSPY on the Y chromosome). Hormonal imbalances, like insufficient anti-Müllerian hormone or testosterone signaling, and mechanical obstructions during descent may also contribute, though the exact etiology involves a combination of these factors.^[5]^[6] The condition is typically identified by 1-2 years of age, as testicular descent should complete by 10 days post-foaling, but abdominal cases may remain undetected longer if not evaluated for breeding or behavior.^[25]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of cryptorchidism in horses begins with a physical examination, including scrotal palpation to assess for the presence of one or both testicles, combined with inguinal palpation. Rectal palpation can detect retained testicles in the abdomen or inguinal canal, though it requires experience to avoid injury.^[5]^[4] History of stallion-like behaviors (e.g., aggression, vocalization) despite an incomplete scrotum raises suspicion, particularly in young stallions presented for breeding evaluation.^[6] Imaging enhances localization: transrectal ultrasonography is highly effective for identifying abdominal or inguinal testes, visualizing testicular tissue with sensitivity over 90%. If inconclusive, abdominal radiography may reveal soft tissue opacities consistent with retained testes.^[9]^[26] Hormonal assays confirm the presence of functional testicular tissue, distinguishing cryptorchids from geldings. Basal testosterone levels may be equivocal, so dynamic tests like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulation—measuring post-injection testosterone rise (>1 ng/mL indicates retention)—are preferred. Alternatively, anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) assays detect Sertoli cell activity in immature horses. These tests are especially useful in mature males where palpation is challenging.^[26]^[25]

Surgical Treatment

Surgical castration (cryptorchidectomy) is the standard treatment for ridglings in horses, involving removal of both the descended and retained testicle(s) to prevent complications and eliminate breeding potential. The procedure is recommended by 1-2 years of age, ideally before breeding attempts, as manual descent is ineffective for true cryptorchids.^[5]^[6] For inguinal retention, an open approach via incision over the external inguinal ring, often under standing sedation, allows direct access and ligation of the spermatic cord with minimal complications. Abdominal cryptorchids, comprising about 50% of cases, are best treated with laparoscopy: standing laparoscopy (using CO2 insufflation and 2-3 ports) is preferred for its reduced recovery time, lower cost, and complication rate compared to recumbent general anesthesia. In recumbent laparoscopy, the horse is positioned in dorsal recumbency for intra-abdominal visualization and removal. The descended testicle is removed via standard scrotal incision.^[5]^[9]^[6] Postoperative care includes stall rest for 24-48 hours, monitoring for swelling or hemorrhage, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for pain. Complications occur in <10% of cases, including edema, infection, or rare evisceration; laparoscopic methods reduce these risks. Costs range from $500 to $2,500 USD, depending on approach and location (as of 2023).^[5]^[4]

Implications and Complications

Untreated cryptorchidism in horses leads to infertility, as retained testicles, exposed to abdominal temperatures (3-5°C higher than scrotal), fail to produce viable sperm despite testosterone output causing stallion behaviors like mounting and aggression. Bilateral cases are completely infertile; unilateral ones may sire foals but risk transmitting the heritable trait, so affected stallions are disqualified from breeding registries.^[4]^[5] Health risks include testicular neoplasia (e.g., seminomas, 10-13 times higher risk in retained testes), spermatic cord torsion (causing acute colic-like pain), inguinal hernia, and peritonitis if untreated. These elevate veterinary costs and welfare concerns, though athletic performance is often unimpaired.^[6]^[27] Surgical intervention resolves these issues, improving behavior and preventing tumors, with excellent prognosis (>95% success). Early diagnosis via routine exams mitigates long-term complications.^[9]^[5]

In Dogs

Prevalence and Risk Factors

Cryptorchidism affects approximately 0.8% to 2% of male dogs overall, with unilateral cases accounting for 70% to 80% of diagnosed instances.^[28]^[29] This prevalence varies widely by population, with higher rates observed in veterinary caseloads focused on sterilization procedures, where cryptorchid dogs represent up to 8-9% of males presented for gonadectomy.^[30] Several canine-specific risk factors contribute to the development of cryptorchidism. Breed predispositions are prominent, particularly among toy and small breeds, where the condition occurs up to three times more frequently than in larger breeds; examples include the Chihuahua, Pomeranian, and Shetland Sheepdog, with prevalence reaching 10% or higher in certain purebred lines.^[28]^[31] Genetic factors play a central role, as cryptorchidism is inherited as a sex-limited autosomal recessive trait, requiring contributions from both parents for expression in males.^[32] Bilateral cases often show familial clustering, suggesting polygenic influences or shared environmental modifiers within lineages.^[33] Testicular descent is normally complete by 2 months of age in most puppies, with cryptorchidism typically diagnosed during routine veterinary examinations around this time.^[14] However, abdominal cryptorchids—comprising about 50% of retained testicles—may evade palpation and remain undiagnosed until 1 to 2 years of age, especially if the dog is not presented for breeding evaluation or unrelated health issues.^[34]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of ridgling in dogs typically begins with a thorough physical examination. During scrotal palpation, the presence of a normally sized descended testicle alongside an absent contralateral one suggests unilateral cryptorchidism, while bilateral absence indicates the need for further investigation.^[29] Abdominal and inguinal palpation may reveal retained testes in the subcutaneous or inguinal regions, though abdominal cryptorchids are often not palpable due to their deeper location.^[35] This examination is most reliable in puppies after 8 weeks of age, when testicular descent should be complete.^[36] Clinical presentation often includes normal male behaviors, such as urine marking or mounting, despite an asymmetrical or empty scrotum, which raises suspicion in breeding attempts due to potential infertility.^[29] Retained testes may remain smaller than descended ones and are typically asymptomatic unless complications arise.^[35] Imaging modalities are employed to precisely locate undescended testes, which may be abdominal, inguinal, or prescrotal. Transabdominal ultrasound is the preferred initial method, offering high sensitivity—96.6% for abdominal testes and 100% for inguinal ones—to visualize testicular parenchyma and confirm retention.^[37] If ultrasound is inconclusive, abdominal radiographs can provide supportive evidence by identifying soft tissue masses consistent with retained testes.^[29] Hormonal assays, while less routinely used than imaging in dogs compared to larger species like horses, serve to confirm testicular presence and function, particularly to distinguish cryptorchidism from castration in mature males. Basal serum testosterone measurement, with levels above 1.0 nmol/L indicating retention, is often sufficient; if equivocal, stimulation tests using GnRH (LHRH) or hCG can assess responsiveness, with GnRH preferred to minimize allergic risks.^[38]^[35]

Surgical Treatment

The recommended surgical treatment for ridglings in dogs is full neutering via orchiectomy, involving the removal of both testicles to mitigate associated health risks, even in cases of unilateral retention.^[29]^[14] For unilateral ridglings, this typically requires two separate incisions: a standard prescrotal or scrotal incision for the descended testicle and an additional inguinal or abdominal incision for the retained one, depending on its location confirmed preoperatively through physical examination or imaging.^[29]^[35] Surgical techniques vary by the position of the retained testicle. The descended testicle is removed using a conventional prescrotal incision, allowing exteriorization, ligation of the spermatic cord, and closure. For an inguinal cryptorchid testicle, a direct incision is made over the groin area to access and excise it, often with minimal dissection. Abdominal retention, though less common in dogs due to their size, may necessitate a paramedian or parapreputial laparotomy for open access or, preferably, laparoscopic cryptorchidectomy, which involves small ports for visualization and removal, reducing tissue trauma, postoperative pain, and recovery time compared to open methods.^[39]^[40] Isolated cryptorchidectomy is occasionally performed if the owner declines full neutering, but it is not recommended due to persistent risks from the remaining testicle.^[36] Timing for surgery is ideally before six months of age, as the inguinal canal typically closes around this period and early intervention reduces the risk of testicular neoplasia developing in the retained testicle; however, the procedure remains feasible at any age if the condition is identified later.^[14]^[41] Postoperative management includes fitting the dog with an Elizabethan collar (E-collar) to prevent incision licking, administration of analgesics such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for pain control, and strict activity restriction—limiting exercise, jumping, and play—for 7 to 14 days to promote healing.^[40]^[42] Complications are uncommon, with serious rates below 5%, though they may include wound dehiscence, infection, or hemorrhage, often requiring veterinary follow-up.^[43] The procedure's cost typically ranges from $300 to $1,000, influenced by factors like the dog's size, surgical approach (e.g., laparoscopic adds expense), and location.^[44]^[45]

Implications and Complications

Cryptorchidism in dogs significantly elevates health risks, particularly for testicular neoplasia and torsion of the retained testicle. Dogs with cryptorchidism face a 9.2- to 13.6-fold increased risk of developing testicular tumors compared to normally descended testicles, with seminomas and interstitial cell tumors being the most prevalent types in affected testes.^[46]^[47] Additionally, the retained testicle is prone to spermatic cord torsion, which can cause acute abdominal pain, vomiting, and shock, presenting as an emergency similar to colic in other species.^[29]^[14] Breeding implications are severe, as cryptorchid dogs are typically infertile due to impaired spermatogenesis in the retained testicle; even unilateral cases often exhibit reduced sperm count and quality, rendering them unsuitable for reproduction.^[48]^[29] Furthermore, the condition has a heritable component, classified as a sex-limited autosomal recessive trait, so affected dogs are not recommended for breeding to prevent transmission to offspring.^[49] Behaviorally, unilateral cryptorchid dogs may display mounting and other testosterone-driven activities from the descended testicle, alongside issues like roaming, urine marking, and inter-male aggression due to residual hormone production.^[29]^[14] Management through neutering, which removes both testicles, effectively eliminates these cancer and torsion risks while reducing unwanted behaviors such as roaming and aggression, promoting overall welfare.^[29]^[35] Untreated cases raise significant welfare concerns, including chronic discomfort and severe pain from torsion events.^[14] The prognosis following surgical neutering is excellent, with full recovery expected within two weeks and no long-term health issues in uncomplicated cases.^[35]^[40]

References

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