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Colic

Colic, commonly referring to infantile colic, is a behavioral syndrome in newborns and young infants characterized by excessive, inconsolable crying without an identifiable medical cause, typically manifesting as episodes lasting more than three hours per day, occurring on more than three days per week, for at least three weeks in an otherwise healthy baby under four months of age.^[1] This condition, which peaks around six weeks of age and usually resolves by three to four months, affects up to 20% of infants worldwide and is distinguished by paroxysmal crying often accompanied by physical signs such as leg drawing up, facial flushing, and abdominal distension, suggesting possible gastrointestinal discomfort.^[2]^[3] The term "colic" derives from the Greek word for "colon," historically linking it to intestinal pain, though in infants, the precise etiology remains unclear and multifactorial, potentially involving immature gut motility, food sensitivities, altered gut microbiota, or overstimulation of the central nervous system.^[3] Despite its distressing nature for caregivers—often leading to parental exhaustion, anxiety, or sleep deprivation—infantile colic is benign and self-limiting, with no evidence of long-term developmental or health consequences for the child.^[1] Management focuses on soothing techniques like swaddling, white noise, or gentle motion, alongside ruling out underlying issues such as reflux or allergies through pediatric evaluation.^[4] In broader medical usage, "colic" describes acute, spasmodic abdominal pain arising from obstruction or distension in hollow viscera, such as renal colic from kidney stones or biliary colic from gallstones, but these are typically specified by organ to differentiate from the infantile form.^[5]

Overview

Definition

Colic is a medical term denoting severe, often fluctuating abdominal pain resulting from distension, spasm, or obstruction within a hollow viscus, such as the intestine, ureter, or biliary duct, where peristalsis against a blockage exacerbates the discomfort.^[6]^[5] This pain arises specifically from the smooth muscle contractions of tubular organs attempting to overcome an impediment, distinguishing colic from steady or inflammatory abdominal discomfort.^[7] The hallmark characteristics of colic include its episodic nature, with attacks manifesting as intense, cramping sensations of visceral origin that typically wax and wane over periods ranging from minutes to hours.^[5] Pronounced /ˈkɒlɪk/, the condition frequently intersects with specialties such as gastroenterology, for intestinal involvements, and urology, for urinary tract cases.^[8] Examples of colic encompass renal colic from ureteral stones and biliary colic from gallbladder obstruction.^[5]

Etymology and Historical Context

The term "colic" derives from the Ancient Greek adjective kōlikos (κόλικος), meaning "pertaining to the colon," which stems from kōlon (κόλον), the word for the large intestine; it originally referred to severe pains associated with the colon or intestinal disturbances.^[9]^[10] In ancient medical writings, colic was described by Hippocrates (c. 460–370 BCE) in the context of renal colic associated with kidney stones, as part of early observations on urinary tract diseases.^[11] By the 17th and 18th centuries, colic appeared in European medical records as a widespread affliction, exemplified by the "Devon colic" outbreaks in England, where severe abdominal cramps affected cider drinkers and were later traced to lead poisoning from contaminated equipment, though initially treated as idiopathic colic without identifying the toxic cause.^[12]

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of colic varies depending on the type. In visceral colics such as renal, biliary, and gastrointestinal forms typically seen in adults, pain arises from distension or spasm of hollow organs. In contrast, infantile colic, the most common form in newborns, has an unclear and multifactorial etiology without an identifiable medical cause like obstruction; proposed mechanisms include immature gastrointestinal motility, food sensitivities, altered gut microbiota, and central nervous system overstimulation.^[3]^[1]^[2]

Mechanisms of Colic Pain

Colic pain originates from visceral nociception triggered by the contraction of smooth muscle against an obstruction in hollow organs, resulting in distension that stretches the organ wall and can lead to localized ischemia if prolonged.^[13]^[14] This mechanical stress activates low-threshold mechanoreceptors and high-threshold nociceptors embedded in the visceral serosa, mesentery, and muscularis layers, converting physical deformation into neural signals that propagate via afferent fibers.^[15] The resulting pain is typically diffuse and poorly localized due to the sparse innervation of visceral structures compared to somatic tissues.^[16] At the neurophysiological level, visceral afferents—primarily Aδ and C fibers—transmit these signals through the splanchnic and vagal pathways to the spinal cord and brainstem, where convergence with somatic inputs occurs.^[17] Stretch receptors, such as those in the gut wall, are particularly sensitive to the rapid changes in intraluminal pressure during distension, initiating pain signaling that involves the release of neurotransmitters like substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide from primary afferents.^[18] The autonomic nervous system plays a key role in modulating this response, with sympathetic efferents contributing to visceral hypersensitivity and parasympathetic influences amplifying referred pain to dermatomes via viscerosomatic reflexes.^[19] This referral occurs because visceral afferents share spinal segments with somatic nerves, leading to misinterpretation of the pain source in overlying body regions.^[20] Peristalsis exacerbates the pain through coordinated waves of smooth muscle contraction aimed at overcoming the obstruction, generating rhythmic increases in intraluminal pressure that produce the characteristic cramp-like, intermittent quality of colic.^[21] These propulsive efforts, driven by enteric nervous system activity, can temporarily relieve pressure but often intensify nociceptor activation during peak contractions.^[22] Several factors can worsen colic pain intensity. Inflammation sensitizes nociceptors by releasing proinflammatory mediators like prostaglandins and cytokines, lowering the threshold for activation and promoting central sensitization.^[23] Electrolyte imbalances, such as hypokalemia or hypocalcemia, disrupt smooth muscle excitability and contractility, leading to uncoordinated spasms that heighten distension.^[24] Additionally, gas accumulation within the organ lumen amplifies mechanical stretch, further stimulating mechanosensitive afferents and contributing to visceral hypersensitivity.^[25]

Anatomical Sites Involved

Colic primarily arises from the distension, spasm, or obstruction of hollow viscera in the abdominal and pelvic regions, where intermittent contractions generate the hallmark visceral pain. The most frequently involved anatomical sites are the gastrointestinal tract, encompassing the small intestine and large intestine (including the colon), the biliary system (gallbladder and bile ducts), and the urinary tract (ureters and renal pelvis). These tubular organs share a common pathophysiology vulnerability due to their compliant walls, which can expand under pressure from gas, fluid, or calculi, triggering nociceptors embedded in the muscularis layer.^[26]^[5]^[14] The visceral innervation of these sites, primarily via splanchnic afferent nerves from the autonomic nervous system, contributes to the poorly localized nature of colic pain. Unlike somatic pain, which is sharply defined, visceral afferents provide sparse, diffuse signaling that often refers pain to midline or dermatomal areas, such as the epigastrium for upper gastrointestinal or biliary involvement, or the flank for ureteral issues. This innervation pattern arises from the organs' embryological origins and shared sympathetic pathways, limiting precise localization without parietal involvement.^[15]^[27] Less common anatomical sites include the uterus in gynecological colic, where myometrial contractions or obstructions can mimic visceral patterns, and vascular structures like the mesenteric arteries in cases of ischemia, which may produce colicky pain from bowel hypoperfusion. In adults, intestinal sites predominate as the most common origin of colic, often linked to obstructions or motility disorders, while ureteral involvement is prevalent in urolithiasis, affecting approximately 12% of men and 6% of women lifetime. Biliary colic from gallstones impacts 15-25% of those with cholelithiasis over 10-15 years.^[28]^[29]^[30]

Types of Colic

Gastrointestinal Colic

Gastrointestinal colic refers to episodic, cramping abdominal pain arising from the intestines due to distension, spasms, or partial obstruction in the digestive tract. This type of colic typically manifests as waves of severe pain that build and subside, often correlating with peristaltic activity attempting to propel contents through the bowel.^[22]^[31] The primary causes include mechanical obstructions such as adhesions, tumors, or volvulus, which impede bowel flow and lead to proximal distension and colicky pain. Adhesions, often resulting from prior abdominal surgery, account for 65% to 75% of small bowel obstructions in developed countries. Functional causes involve abnormal motility, such as spasms in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), where heightened visceral sensitivity and disordered contractions produce colicky discomfort.^[22]^[32]^[33] Gastrointestinal colic affects individuals across all ages but is more prevalent in the elderly, where hernias and malignancies contribute to higher rates of intestinal obstruction. In older adults, hernias are a leading cause, responsible for up to 43% of surgical cases of small bowel obstruction. Unique features include associations with dietary factors, such as high-fiber intake that promotes gas production and bloating, exacerbating distension-related pain, particularly in those with underlying dysmotility. It is also common in postoperative patients due to adhesion formation following abdominal procedures.^[22]^[34]^[35] The pain is characteristically midline and periumbilical, reflecting visceral innervation, and is often relieved by defecation or passage of flatus, which reduces intraluminal pressure. This distinguishes it from more constant or localized pains in other abdominal conditions.^[14]^[36]

Biliary Colic

Biliary colic is a type of visceral pain characterized by recurrent episodes of abdominal discomfort caused by temporary obstruction of the biliary tract, most commonly due to gallstones (cholelithiasis) impacting the cystic duct of the gallbladder. This obstruction prevents bile flow, leading to gallbladder contraction and distension, which triggers the colicky pain through stimulation of visceral afferent nerves.^[28]^[37] The primary cause is the formation of cholesterol-based gallstones from bile supersaturation, though pigment stones from excess bilirubin can also contribute. Risk factors include obesity, which promotes cholesterol secretion into bile, rapid weight loss that mobilizes cholesterol stores, female sex due to estrogen's effects on bile composition, and age over 40 years, as gallbladder motility declines.^[38]^[39] The hallmark symptoms of biliary colic typically onset postprandially, particularly after ingestion of fatty meals that stimulate cholecystokinin release and gallbladder contraction against the obstructing stone. Pain is usually severe and steady—rather than cramping—in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, often radiating to the interscapular region or right shoulder blade, and lasts from 30 minutes to several hours before resolving as the stone dislodges. Accompanying features may include nausea, vomiting, and bloating, but fever and jaundice are absent unless complications arise. This pattern distinguishes biliary colic from constant pain in inflammatory conditions.^[28]^[39] Epidemiologically, biliary colic is more common in women, with a 2- to 3-fold higher prevalence than in men, especially during reproductive years due to hormonal influences, and the risk escalates with age, affecting over 25% of women older than 60. In the United States, gallstones are present in 10% to 20% of adults, with approximately 1% to 3% developing symptomatic biliary colic annually, though only 10% to 20% of those with stones ever experience symptoms over their lifetime. Higher rates are observed in Western populations, Native Americans, and Hispanics compared to Asians or Africans.^[40]^[39] Untreated recurrent biliary colic carries risks of progression to more serious complications, such as acute cholecystitis, where sustained obstruction causes gallbladder wall inflammation and potential bacterial infection, or choledocholithiasis if stones migrate to the common bile duct. In severe cases, this can lead to cholangitis or pancreatitis, necessitating urgent intervention.^[37]^[38]

Renal Colic

Renal colic is a type of abdominal pain resulting from acute obstruction of the urinary tract, most commonly due to the passage of kidney stones (nephrolithiasis) from the renal pelvis into the ureter.^[41] This obstruction leads to distension of the renal capsule and ureter, triggering intense visceral pain through activation of nociceptors.^[42] While kidney stones are the primary cause, other etiologies include blood clots, which may form from hemorrhagic conditions or papillary necrosis, and tumors such as urothelial carcinomas that compress or invade the ureter.^[43] ^[44] The hallmark symptom of renal colic is severe, colicky flank pain that typically begins suddenly and radiates anteriorly to the lower abdomen, groin, or genitalia, often described as one of the most intense pains experienced by patients.^[45] This pain is usually unilateral, reflecting the affected side, and may fluctuate in intensity as peristaltic waves attempt to propel the obstructing material. Associated features include gross or microscopic hematuria from mucosal irritation, nausea, vomiting due to shared autonomic innervation, and occasionally urinary urgency or frequency if the stone reaches the distal ureter.^[46] ^[47] Epidemiologically, renal colic affects individuals with a lifetime risk of kidney stone formation estimated at 10-12% in the general population, rising to about 12% for white males and lower for females.^[48] Incidence is higher in men (male-to-female ratio of approximately 2:1) and in hot, arid climates where dehydration promotes stone crystallization.^[49] Recurrence is common, with up to 50% of patients experiencing a second episode within 10 years.^[47] The composition of kidney stones plays a critical role in pathogenesis and recurrence risk, with calcium oxalate being the most prevalent type, comprising approximately 80% of stones either in pure form or mixed with other minerals.^[50] These stones form due to supersaturation of urine with calcium and oxalate, often influenced by dietary factors, hypercalciuria, or metabolic disorders, leading to higher recurrence rates compared to other compositions like uric acid or struvite stones.^[51]

Infantile Colic

Infantile colic, also known as baby colic, refers to episodes of excessive irritability and inconsolable crying in otherwise healthy infants, typically defined by Wessel's criteria as crying or fussing lasting more than three hours per day, more than three days per week, for more than three weeks, in infants younger than four months of age.^[2] This condition is distinguished from other forms of colic by the absence of any underlying structural obstruction or organic pathology, presenting instead as a functional disorder characterized by paroxysmal crying without evident cause.^[3] The etiology of infantile colic is multifactorial, with proposed contributors including gastrointestinal immaturity, such as underdeveloped digestive motility and sensitivity to gas accumulation, as well as potential food allergies or intolerances, particularly to cow's milk proteins in formula-fed or breastfed infants.^[1] Imbalances in the gut microbiota and behavioral factors, like the infant's temperament or overstimulation, may also play roles, though no single cause has been definitively identified.^[52] Unlike obstructive colics in adults, infantile colic does not involve physical blockages and is considered a benign, self-limiting condition without evidence of true visceral pathology.^[3] Epidemiologically, infantile colic affects approximately 10% to 40% of infants worldwide, with equal prevalence among boys and girls, and no significant differences based on feeding method, socioeconomic status, or geographic region.^[52] Symptoms typically peak around six weeks of age, often occurring in the late afternoon or evening, and resolve spontaneously by three to four months without any long-term harm to the infant's health or development.^[1]^[3]

Equine Colic

Equine colic is a term encompassing abdominal pain in horses, most frequently resulting from gastrointestinal disorders, and represents the leading medical emergency and cause of death in the species, particularly in animals under 20 years of age.^[53] The condition arises from various disruptions in the equine digestive tract, which is uniquely susceptible due to its length and anatomy, including a large cecum and colon prone to displacement.^[54] Epidemiological data indicate an annual incidence of approximately 10.6 colic cases per 100 horse-years, though rates can vary from 4.2 to over 25 cases per 100 horses annually depending on management practices and population studied.^[55]^[56] Overall case fatality stands at about 11%, escalating significantly for strangulating lesions requiring surgery.^[53] The primary causes of equine colic include impaction of ingesta in the large intestine, gas distension from fermentation or obstruction, and displacements or torsions of intestinal segments such as the large colon.^[57]^[53] Risk factors prominently feature abrupt dietary changes, excessive concentrate feeding exceeding 5 kg per day, inadequate parasite control leading to heavy helminth burdens, and limited access to water or forage.^[58] Additional contributors encompass dental disorders impairing chewing and recurrent episodes in horses with poor body condition.^[58] These etiologies often share a pathophysiological basis with other colic forms, involving visceral distension that stimulates pain receptors.^[54] Characteristic signs distinguish equine colic through overt behavioral manifestations, including repeated pawing at the ground, violent rolling or lying down, and frequently gazing at or kicking the flanks.^[54]^[57] Physical indicators encompass progressive abdominal distension, especially on the right side for gas colic, reduced or absent manure production, sweating, and tachycardia with heart rates exceeding 50 beats per minute.^[57]^[53] These features underscore the urgency, as untreated cases can rapidly progress to shock or rupture. Management of equine colic diverges markedly from human approaches, emphasizing immediate veterinary assessment via physical examination, rectal palpation, and nasogastric intubation to decompress the stomach or deliver medications.^[53] Initial therapies focus on pain relief using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as flunixin meglumine, alongside intravenous fluid administration and laxatives like mineral oil passed via tube.^[53] While over 80% of cases resolve medically, severe displacements necessitate exploratory laparotomy, with survival rates post-surgery varying from 50% to 80% depending on lesion type and timeliness.^[54] Preventive strategies, endorsed by equine veterinary authorities, include consistent roughage-based diets, regular deworming, and minimizing stress from transport or stabling changes.^[59]

Symptoms and Signs

General Presentation

Colic is characterized by severe, spasmodic pain arising from distension, obstruction, or spasm within a hollow viscus, such as the intestines, biliary tract, ureters, or uterus, leading to a distinctive pattern of visceral discomfort across various clinical contexts.^[60] This pain typically manifests as intermittent cramps that build in intensity, peak, and then subside, reflecting the underlying peristaltic waves attempting to overcome the obstruction.^[61] In non-infantile colic, such as biliary or renal, episodes typically last 5 to 30 minutes, with intervals of relief; they often occur postprandially or in the evening, disrupting sleep and daily activities.^[28] In infantile colic, paroxysmal crying episodes can last more than three hours, peaking in the late afternoon or evening hours.^[3] Patients experiencing colic frequently display marked behavioral responses due to the pain's severity, including restlessness, pacing, doubling over, or repeatedly changing positions in an attempt to alleviate discomfort.^[46] In infants, this presents as paroxysmal, inconsolable crying, often accompanied by clenching fists, drawing up the legs, and facial grimacing, peaking in the late afternoon or evening hours.^[3] Similarly, in equine cases, affected animals exhibit agitation, such as pawing the ground, looking at the flanks, or attempting to roll, signaling acute abdominal distress.^[62] The overall duration of colic varies, with acute episodes resolving spontaneously or recurring over hours to days, whereas chronic or recurrent patterns may persist without immediate resolution.^[63] A shift from intermittent to constant pain often signifies a complication, such as progression to ischemia or complete obstruction, warranting urgent intervention.^[41] Common triggers include movement, ingestion of food or fluids that exacerbate distension, or positional changes that alter intra-abdominal pressure.^[28] While the precise location of pain differs by etiology—for instance, flank radiation in renal colic—these shared features define the general syndrome.^[61]

Associated Features

Colic episodes often trigger autonomic nervous system responses due to the intense visceral pain involved, including sweating, pallor, tachycardia, and vomiting.^[64] These manifestations arise from sympathetic activation and can be particularly pronounced in biliary and renal colic, where nausea and emesis accompany the primary discomfort.^[46] In gastrointestinal cases, such responses may exacerbate the cyclical nature of the pain, leading to further autonomic instability.^[65] Complications of colic can include dehydration in severe gastrointestinal variants involving obstruction, resulting from prolonged vomiting or reduced fluid intake.^[66] In extreme gastrointestinal cases, such as those involving obstruction, bowel perforation may occur, allowing intestinal contents to leak and cause peritonitis or sepsis.^[66] Infection risks heighten with perforation, potentially leading to systemic spread if untreated.^[67] Fever may develop in inflammatory colic associated with infection. In infantile colic, gut dysbiosis and elevated fecal calprotectin levels may indicate low-grade intestinal inflammation without fever.^[68] Importantly, in infantile colic, the absence of fever, poor weight gain, or bloody stools helps differentiate it from serious underlying conditions.^[52] In renal colic, oliguria can emerge in approximately 3% of cases due to obstruction-induced urinary retention.^[69] Recurrent colic episodes contribute to psychological impacts, including heightened anxiety, particularly in adults with repeated renal stone events where symptoms of anxiety and depression correlate with episode frequency.^[70] In children with a history of infantile colic, long-term follow-up reveals elevated scores for anxious/depressed behaviors and internalizing problems compared to controls.^[71]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of suspected colic varies by type and patient age. For adult forms such as renal, biliary, or gastrointestinal colic, it begins with a thorough history to characterize the pain and identify potential underlying causes. Patients typically report sudden onset of severe, episodic abdominal pain that waxes and wanes, often described as cramping or gripping in nature.^[72] The location varies by type—flank or lower abdomen for renal colic, right upper quadrant or epigastrium for biliary colic, and diffuse or periumbilical for gastrointestinal colic—but radiation to the back, groin, or shoulder may occur depending on the etiology.^[41]^[73] Aggravating factors include movement or jarring for renal colic and fatty meals for biliary colic, while relieving factors such as position changes are often absent or minimal.^[41]^[74] Associated symptoms provide key clues, including hematuria or dysuria in renal cases and jaundice or nausea in biliary presentations.^[41]^[73] For infantile colic, diagnosis is clinical and based on the "rule of three": episodes of inconsolable crying lasting more than three hours per day, occurring on more than three days per week, for more than three weeks, in an otherwise healthy infant under four months of age.^[52] A thorough physical examination is essential to rule out underlying conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux, infections, or allergies, focusing on growth parameters, abdominal assessment, and signs of distress like leg drawing up or facial flushing. No specific laboratory tests or imaging are routinely required unless red flags (e.g., fever, vomiting, poor weight gain) suggest an organic cause.^[3]^[4] Physical examination for adult colic focuses on vital signs and abdominal assessment to detect abnormalities and urgency. Vital signs may reveal tachycardia or hypotension in severe cases, with fever suggesting complicating infection.^[41] Abdominal palpation involves gentle inspection, auscultation for bowel sounds, and systematic palpation starting away from the painful area to identify tenderness, involuntary guarding, or palpable masses, such as in the right upper quadrant for biliary issues.^[75] Patients with colic often exhibit restlessness and inability to find a comfortable position, contrasting with immobility in peritonitis.^[41] Red flags during evaluation signal a potential surgical emergency requiring immediate intervention. Rebound tenderness, rigidity, or absent bowel sounds indicate peritonitis, often from perforation or ischemia complicating colic.^[72] Other concerning features include unexplained hypotension, persistent vomiting, or signs of systemic inflammation.^[76] Differential diagnosis during clinical evaluation aims to exclude life-threatening mimics of colic. Appendicitis may present with similar migratory pain but typically involves anorexia and localized right lower quadrant tenderness.^[72] In women of reproductive age, ectopic pregnancy must be ruled out, particularly if pain radiates to the shoulder or is associated with vaginal bleeding.^[77]

Diagnostic Tests

Diagnostic tests for colic aim to identify the underlying etiology through laboratory analysis and imaging, tailored to the suspected type such as biliary, renal, or gastrointestinal. For infantile colic, tests are not routine but may include stool studies or allergy testing if indicated by history. Laboratory evaluations for adult colic typically begin with a complete blood count (CBC) to assess for leukocytosis indicative of infection or inflammation, which is common in biliary and gastrointestinal colic cases.^[78]^[22] Urinalysis is essential for renal colic, detecting microscopic hematuria in approximately 85% of cases and signs of infection such as white blood cells or bacteria.^[41] For suspected biliary colic, liver function tests including aminotransferases (AST, ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and bilirubin levels help evaluate hepatobiliary involvement, with elevations suggesting obstruction or inflammation.^[79]^[80] Imaging modalities are selected based on clinical suspicion to confirm structural causes like stones or obstructions. Abdominal ultrasound serves as the first-line, non-invasive option for biliary and renal colic, detecting gallstones with sensitivity greater than 95%.^[81] For renal stones, ultrasound identifies hydronephrosis with 72-83% sensitivity but has lower accuracy (54% sensitivity) for small stones less than 3 mm.^[82]^[83] In gastrointestinal colic, such as suspected bowel obstruction, ultrasound can reveal dilated bowel loops greater than 2.5 cm proximal to collapsed segments.^[31] Computed tomography (CT) without contrast is the gold standard for complex cases, particularly renal and gastrointestinal colic, offering 98% sensitivity and 100% specificity for ureteral stones and precise localization of obstructions.^[41] Plain abdominal X-rays (KUB) detect 80-90% of radio-opaque stones in renal colic but miss radiolucent ones and are less useful in obese patients or with overlying bowel gas.^[41] Historically, intravenous pyelography (IVP) was used for renal colic to visualize the urinary tract but has been largely replaced by non-contrast CT due to higher radiation exposure and lower efficiency.^[84]^[85] Advanced procedures like endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) or endoscopy are reserved for biliary colic when ultrasound or CT suggests choledocholithiasis, providing both diagnostic visualization of the bile ducts and potential therapeutic intervention.^[86] These tests are not routine due to their invasive nature but confirm ductal stones with high accuracy in intermediate-risk cases.^[87]

Treatment

Initial Management

The initial management of colic emphasizes rapid pain control and supportive interventions to stabilize the patient and alleviate acute symptoms while awaiting diagnostic clarification. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as intravenous or intramuscular ketorolac at 30-60 mg, serve as first-line analgesics for renal colic, demonstrating superior efficacy over opioids in reducing pain intensity and duration without increasing adverse events.^[88] Opioids like morphine are reserved for cases where NSAIDs prove insufficient, administered judiciously to minimize risks such as respiratory depression and dependency.^[89] Antispasmodics, including hyoscyamine, provide symptomatic relief by relaxing smooth muscle spasms in biliary or renal colic.^[90] Supportive measures focus on maintaining physiological balance and addressing secondary symptoms. Intravenous fluids, typically normal saline at maintenance rates, are administered to correct dehydration and support renal perfusion, though evidence on their direct impact on stone passage remains mixed.^[89] Antiemetics such as metoclopramide (10 mg IV or IM) effectively control nausea and vomiting commonly associated with colic episodes.^[89] In gastrointestinal colic, bowel rest with nil per os (NPO) status is recommended to minimize intestinal stimulation and prevent complications like obstruction exacerbation.^[91] Ongoing monitoring involves serial assessment of vital signs and abdominal examination to track symptom resolution or deterioration.^[92] Emergency triage protocols mandate prompt surgical consultation if signs of peritonitis—such as rebound tenderness or systemic instability—emerge, indicating potential need for urgent intervention.^[72]

Specific Therapies

Specific therapies for colic target the underlying etiology, such as urinary stones, biliary obstruction, gastrointestinal impaction or volvulus, infantile gut immaturity, or equine intestinal disorders. For renal colic caused by ureteral stones, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) is often used for stones larger than 5 mm in the kidney or upper ureter, achieving stone-free rates of 74% for renal stones and 88% for ureteric stones after a single session.^[93] Ureteroscopy with laser lithotripsy is preferred for distal or mid-ureteral stones under 10 mm, with success rates of approximately 88-95% in achieving stone clearance.^[94] Most small stones (≤5 mm) pass spontaneously, with rates up to 90% aided by conservative measures like alpha-blockers and hydration, avoiding intervention.^[89] For biliary colic due to gallstones, laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the definitive treatment for recurrent episodes, as it removes the gallbladder and prevents further stone formation, with low complication rates in uncomplicated cases.^[95] In acute settings without recurrence, watchful waiting may suffice if symptoms resolve, but surgery is recommended for persistent or repeated pain to eliminate the risk of complications like cholecystitis.^[95] Gastrointestinal colic from fecal impaction is treated with laxatives such as polyethylene glycol (1-3 liters orally over 24 hours) or enemas to soften and evacuate the mass, often resolving symptoms without further intervention.^[96] For colonic volvulus, which causes mechanical obstruction, emergency surgical detorsion and fixation (e.g., cecopexy) are required if endoscopic decompression fails, as it addresses the twisting and prevents ischemia.^[97] In infantile colic, no medications are routinely recommended due to lack of proven efficacy and potential risks; simethicone drops, while commonly used for gas relief, show inconsistent results in reducing crying time.^[52] Probiotics containing Lactobacillus reuteri may reduce daily crying by 25-65 minutes in breastfed infants, particularly those with a family history of atopy, though benefits are less clear in formula-fed babies.^[98] Non-pharmacological parental techniques, such as swaddling, rhythmic motion, or white noise, provide symptomatic relief by promoting infant soothing and are the primary approach.^[52] For equine colic, medical management with intravenous fluids, analgesics (e.g., flunixin meglumine), and laxatives is first-line for impactions or mild displacements, resolving up to 90% of cases without surgery.^[99] Exploratory laparotomy is indicated for strangulating lesions like volvulus or severe impactions unresponsive to medical therapy, allowing direct correction of the obstruction, though it carries risks of postoperative complications in 20-30% of horses.^[99]

Prevention and Prognosis

Infantile Colic

Risk factors for infantile colic include maternal psychological stress during pregnancy, which has been associated with a threefold increased risk in infants. Dietary factors in breastfeeding mothers, such as consumption of certain foods like cheese, may also contribute to colic symptoms in infants. Promotion of exclusive breastfeeding can help reduce the incidence of infantile colic, as breast milk containing melatonin may improve infant sleep and alleviate excessive crying. Maternal dietary modifications, such as hypoallergenic diets eliminating dairy, eggs, nuts, wheat, and soy, have shown potential to significantly reduce colicky symptoms in breastfed infants.

Renal Colic

Dehydration is a key modifiable risk factor for renal colic due to kidney stone formation, as low urine volume promotes stone crystallization. To prevent renal colic, maintaining adequate hydration is essential, with recommendations to drink enough fluids to produce at least 2.5 liters of urine daily, typically requiring 2 to 3 liters of intake depending on individual factors. A low-oxalate diet, avoiding high-oxalate foods like spinach, rhubarb, nuts, and chocolate, can reduce urinary oxalate levels and lower the risk of calcium oxalate stones, the most common type. Lifestyle measures including regular exercise and weight management are protective, as higher physical activity levels independently reduce incident kidney stone risk in adults, while obesity increases susceptibility through metabolic changes.

Biliary Colic

A high-fat diet contributes to the risk of biliary colic by promoting cholesterol supersaturation in bile, leading to gallstone formation that can obstruct the cystic duct. For prevention, maintaining a healthy weight through balanced diet and exercise is crucial, as obesity elevates gallstone risk and rapid weight loss can exacerbate it. In high-risk patients, such as those with obesity, diabetes, or family history, ultrasound screening is recommended to detect asymptomatic gallstones early and guide preventive strategies.

Equine Colic

In horses, risk factors for colic include dietary imbalances and parasitic burdens, with irregular feeding or excessive grain contributing to gastrointestinal disturbances. Prevention strategies emphasize lifestyle management, such as providing a consistent daily routine, high-quality roughage-based diet, and minimizing stress from transport or changes in environment. Strategic deworming, guided by fecal egg counts, is a critical veterinary measure to reduce parasite burdens and prevent parasite-related colic while minimizing anthelmintic resistance.^[100]

Long-Term Outcomes

Most cases of colic, whether infantile or due to underlying causes such as gallstones or kidney stones, resolve without long-term sequelae, provided appropriate management addresses any precipitating factors.^[1] In infantile colic, episodes typically self-limit by 3 to 4 months of age, and while generally considered benign, some studies suggest associations with later behavioral problems, though causation is not established.^[101] Studies indicate that excessive crying in infancy does not predict long-term behavioral problems, though it may temporarily heighten parental stress.^[101] For renal colic associated with kidney stones, the prognosis is favorable with intervention, but recurrence remains common without preventive measures, affecting approximately 50% of patients within 10 years.^[47] In contrast, biliary colic from gallstones often achieves a curative outcome following cholecystectomy, with recurrent episodes being rare beyond 5 years postoperatively.^[102] Postcholecystectomy syndrome, involving persistent pain, occurs in a minority but does not typically lead to progressive complications if monitored.^[103] Untreated colic stemming from pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) carries risks of serious sequelae, including chronic pelvic pain syndromes and infertility due to tubal scarring, with up to 10% of affected women experiencing infertility.^[104] In cases linked to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), colic-like abdominal pain may signal flares, necessitating ongoing monitoring to prevent progression to complications such as strictures or fistulas.^[105] Follow-up typically involves regular clinical assessments, biomarker testing like fecal calprotectin, and imaging every 3 to 6 months in remission to detect subclinical activity early.^[106]

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COLIC Definition & Meaning - Dictionary.com
Severe abdominal pain, often caused by spasm, obstruction, or distention of any of the hollow viscera, such as the intestines. · A condition seen in infants less ...
[7]
COLIC Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Sep 27, 2025 · The meaning of COLIC is an attack of acute abdominal pain localized in a hollow organ and often caused by spasm, obstruction, or twisting.
[8]
colic noun - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes
colic. noun. /ˈkɒlɪk/. /ˈkɑːlɪk/. [uncountable]. jump to other results. severe pain in the stomach and bowels, suffered especially by babiesTopics Health ...
[9]
Colic: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology
Dec 13, 2023 · Colic is commonly described as a behavioral syndrome in neonates and infants that is characterized by excessive, paroxysmal crying.
[10]
Colic - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Colic, from late 14th c. English via Late Latin and Greek kolikos, means a disease with severe spasmodic abdominal pain, originally describing colon-related ...
[11]
colic, n. & adj. meanings, etymology and more
colic, n. & adj. meanings, etymology, pronunciation and more in the Oxford English Dictionary.
[12]
April 6, 2004: What is the history of lead poisoning?
Apr 6, 2004 · Hippocrates (370 B.C.) attributed a severe case of colic in a worker who extracted metals to lead poisoning, and Pliny the Elder (A.D. 23–79) ...
[13]
Sir George Baker (1722-1809) discoverer of the pathogenesis of ...
Sir George Baker (1722-1809) discoverer of the pathogenesis of Devonshire colic.<|control11|><|separator|>
[14]
Colic - Pediatrics - Merck Manual Professional Edition
Although the term colic suggests an intestinal origin, etiology is unknown. Colic typically appears within the first month of life, peaks at about age 6 ...
[15]
Crybabies | The New Yorker
Sep 10, 2007 · During the early nineteen-hundreds, theories about colic proliferated: some physicians believed that it was caused by immaturity of the nerves ...
[16]
Possible implications of animal models for the assessment of ...
It is important to note that the visceral organs are highly sensitive to traction, distension, ischemia and inflammation, which ultimately evoke visceral pain.
[17]
Abdominal Pain - Clinical Methods - NCBI Bookshelf
Localization. Visceral pain resulting from stretch of smooth muscle is localized in one of the three midline zones of the abdomen: epigastric, midabdominal, and ...Missing: contraction ischemia
[18]
Visceral Pain – the Ins and Outs, the Ups and Downs - PMC
In this review we describe the neuroanatomical bases of visceral pain signalling in the peripheral and central nervous system, comparing to somatic pains and ...
[19]
Drug Management of Visceral Pain: Concepts from Basic Research
Visceral convergence leads to cross-organ sensitization in which disease in one visceral organ increases the pain arising from another visceral organ innervated ...
[20]
Nociceptors: Their Role in Body's Defenses, Tissue Specific ...
Apr 1, 2022 · Visceral nociceptors can transmit signals to the central nervous system via the spinal cord and also via the vagus nerve. Cells whose axons ...
[21]
Novel Insights Into the Mechanisms of Abdominal Pain in ...
Jun 8, 2018 · Colon distention induces persistent visceral hypersensitivity by mechanotranscription of pain mediators in colonic smooth muscle cells. Am ...
[22]
Pain, Pathophysiological Mechanisms, and New Therapeutic ...
Mar 22, 2021 · Visceral pain is associated with stimulation of the autonomic system, which is manifested by nausea, vomiting, palpitations, sweating, and ...
[23]
16. Pain in chronic pancreatitis - PMC - PubMed Central
Apr 6, 2025 · Visceral pain is thus commonly associated with referred sensations and evokes strong autonomic and emotional responses, such as feelings of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Perspectives on paralytic ileus - PMC - NIH
Oct 4, 2020 · Intestinal obstruction could be mechanical, which presents with colicky pain from the increased peristalsis against the obstructive lesion, or ...
[25]
Small Bowel Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Jan 19, 2025 · Patients typically present with acute abdominal pain, which is often crampy and colicky, correlating with peristalsis as the bowel attempts to ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
[26]
Neuroanatomy of lower gastrointestinal pain disorders - PMC
Chronic abdominal pain accompanying intestinal inflammation emerges from the hyperresponsiveness of neuronal, immune and endocrine signaling pathways.Missing: obstruction | Show results with:obstruction
[27]
Disorders of the Gastrointestinal System - PMC - PubMed Central
Induce smooth muscle contraction cause pain. Complement components (C3a, C5a), Activate neutrophils and chemotaxis. Induce smooth muscle constriction. Induce ...
[28]
Visceral Pain and Gastrointestinal Microbiome - PubMed Central - NIH
Abnormal bowel gas accumulation may be linked to bacterial metabolism and abdominal bloating and may be further associated with visceral hypersensitivity ...
[29]
Evaluation of Acute Abdominal Pain in Adults - AAFP
Apr 1, 2008 · Colic (i.e., sharp, localized abdominal pain that increases, peaks, and subsides) is associated with numerous diseases of hollow viscera.
[30]
Physiology of Visceral Pain - Gebhart - 2016 - Wiley Online Library
Oct 1, 2016 · Pain arising from internal organs is produced by stimuli that include hollow organ stretch/distension, traction on the mesentery, organ hypoxia/ ...Visceral Afferent... · Mechanonociception · Ex Vivo Studies
[31]
Biliary Colic: What It Is, Symptoms & Treatment - Cleveland Clinic
Mar 4, 2024 · Biliary colic is a pattern of periodic abdominal pain that's caused by an obstruction in your biliary tract, usually in your bile ducts or gallbladder.
[32]
Managing patients with renal colic in primary care - BPJ 60 April 2014
It is estimated that 12% of males and 6% of females will experience an episode of renal colic at some stage in their life, with incidence peaking between age 40 ...
[33]
Biliary Colic - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Between 5 and 30% of any given population may harbour gallstones, and 15–25% of these individuals will become symptomatic in follow-up over 10–15 years. ...
[34]
Bowel obstruction: a narrative review for all physicians - PMC - NIH
Apr 29, 2019 · In bowel obstruction, abdominal pain is classically a colic onset due to an increase in motility to overcome occlusion. This is later replaced ...
[35]
Small-Bowel Obstruction - Medscape Reference
Dec 2, 2024 · The most common cause of SBO in developed countries is intra-abdominal adhesions, accounting for approximately 65% to 75% of cases, followed by hernias, Crohn ...
[36]
Managing irritable bowel syndrome in primary care - PubMed
The pain is typically colicky in nature and can occur at any site although most commonly it is on the left side. The abdomen feels flat in the morning and then ...
[37]
Management and outcomes of small bowel obstruction in older adult ...
Of the 53 patients who underwent surgery for SBO, adhesions were responsible for the majority of cases (49%), followed by hernias (43%) and malignancy (4%).
[38]
Gastrointestinal gas formation and infantile colic - PubMed
Symptoms from actual increases in intestinal gas volume are seen most frequently in children who swallow excessive amounts of air, have a dysmotility syndrome.
[39]
Guidelines on the irritable bowel syndrome - PubMed Central - NIH
Pain relieved by defecation or associated with changes in stool consistency or frequency is usually intestinal in origin. Pain without these associations ...
[40]
Cholelithiasis - Hepatic and Biliary Disorders - Merck Manuals
The most common symptom is biliary colic; gallstones do not cause dyspepsia or lead to fat malabsorption. More serious complications include cholecystitis; ...General References · Surgery · Treatment ReferencesMissing: epidemiology | Show results with:epidemiology
[41]
Gallstones - Symptoms & causes - Mayo Clinic
Inflammation of the gallbladder. A gallstone that becomes lodged in the neck of the gallbladder can cause inflammation of the gallbladder (cholecystitis).Missing: epidemiology | Show results with:epidemiology
[42]
Gallstones (Cholelithiasis) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jun 2, 2025 · Biliary colic manifests as intermittent right upper abdominal pain, often triggered by greasy or spicy foods, due to gallbladder contraction ...
[43]
Gallstones (Cholelithiasis) - Medscape Reference
Apr 1, 2019 · In a Danish study, gallstone prevalence in persons aged 30 years was 1.8% for men and 4.8% for women; gallstone prevalence in persons aged 60 ...
[44]
Acute Renal Colic - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Acute renal colic is a severe and sudden flank pain primarily caused by ureteral calculi obstructing the urinary tract.
[45]
Kidney Stone Emergencies - Endotext - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sep 13, 2018 · Renal colic can arise from three mechanisms: urinary obstruction, the most common cause, is due to a direct increase in intraluminal pressure ...
[46]
Flank Pain - Clinical Methods - NCBI Bookshelf
Blood clots can be produced by many pathologic lesions of the kidney, tumors being the most common cause. Renal papillary necrosis should be considered in ...Missing: non- | Show results with:non-
[47]
Obstructive uropathy: Overview of the pathogenesis, etiology and ...
Jun 25, 2024 · Kidney stones, infundibular stenosis secondary to infection or stones, urothelial tumors, blood clots or idiopathic causes can be possible ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
Acute Renal Colic - PubMed
Dec 23, 2024 · This condition is usually caused by an acute urinary tract obstruction due to calculus and is often associated with nausea and vomiting.
[49]
Kidney stones - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Apr 4, 2025 · Kidney stones have various causes. These include diet, extra body weight, some health conditions, and some supplements and medicines. Kidney ...
[50]
Renal Calculi, Nephrolithiasis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The 4 major types and causes of renal calculi include: Calcium stones: due to hyperparathyroidism, renal calcium leak, absorptive or idiopathic hypercalciuria, ...
[51]
Diagnosis and Initial Management of Kidney Stones - AAFP
Apr 1, 2001 · ... lifetime risk of developing a kidney stone is about 12 percent for white males. Approximately 50 percent of patients with previous urinary ...
[52]
Epidemiology of Kidney Stones - PMC - PubMed Central
Feb 2, 2023 · In this paper, we review the variables affecting prevalence and incidence, including age, gender, race, ethnicity, occupation, climate, geography, systemic ...
[53]
Kidney Stone Pathophysiology, Evaluation and Management: Core ...
Aug 9, 2023 · Approximately 80% of kidney stones are calcareous stones, the majority composed of calcium oxalate, with a small percentage made of calcium ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
What Causes Calcium Oxalate Kidney Stones to Form? An ... - MDPI
Approximately 80% of kidney stones are predominantly composed of calcium oxalate and/or calcium phosphate with a distribution of 50% pure calcium oxalate, 5% ...
[55]
Infantile Colic: Recognition and Treatment - AAFP
Oct 1, 2015 · Infantile colic is a benign, self-limited process in which a healthy infant has paroxysms of inconsolable crying. The standard diagnostic ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
VM177/VM139: Colic in Horses - University of Florida
This article reviews the most common causes of colic in horses and provides information for horse owners regarding prevention and treatment strategies.Missing: symptoms epidemiology
[57]
Colic in your horse | UMN Extension
Colic indicates a painful problem in your horse's abdomen. Because colic is often unpredictable and frequently unpreventable, it's a common concern for horse ...Missing: epidemiology | Show results with:epidemiology
[58]
Prospective study of equine colic incidence and mortality - PubMed
The crude incidence density rate of colic was 10.6 colic cases/100 horse-years, based on 104 cases/358,991 horse-days. The median farm specific incidence ...Missing: annual | Show results with:annual
[59]
Estimate of the national incidence of and operation-level risk factors ...
Results—Annual national incidence of colic in the US horse population was estimated to be 4.2 colic events/100 horses per year. Case fatality rate was. 11%, and ...
[60]
Colic: What are the Signs and How to Manage?
### Summary of Equine Colic from https://extension.psu.edu/colic-what-are-the-signs-and-how-to-manage
[61]
Incidence, risk factors, and therapeutic management of equine colic ...
Jul 9, 2023 · Colic is among the common health issues in equine health management. Gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are the most frequent causes of colic, ...
[62]
[PDF] 10 Tips for Preventing Colic | AAEP
Colic is not a disease, but rather a combination of signs that alert us to abdominal pain in the horse. Colic can range from mild to severe, but it should never.
[63]
Osgood-Schlatter Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
The provided content from StatPearls on NCBI Bookshelf (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441995/) pertains to Osgood-Schlatter Disease, not Biliary Colic. Therefore, there is insufficient relevant content regarding general visceral colic pain characteristics related to Biliary Colic. Below is a summary of the available content:
[64]
Nephrolithiasis Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination ...
Jun 5, 2025 · Pain in the acute phase is usually steady, increasingly severe, and continuous, sometimes punctuated by intermittent paroxysms of even more ...History · Location And Characteristics... · Phases Of Acute Renal Colic...<|control11|><|separator|>
[65]
Colic in Horses - Horse Owners - Merck Veterinary Manual
Signs include severe abdominal pain, increased heart rate, and retching. Once the stomach ruptures, the horse may act relieved or depressed. The outlook for ...
[66]
Colic Clinical Presentation: History and Physical Examination
Dec 13, 2023 · Colic is commonly described as a behavioral syndrome in neonates and infants that is characterized by excessive, paroxysmal crying.
[67]
Hemorrhagic corpus luteum: Clinical management update - PMC
Dec 10, 2020 · Visceral pain can also be related to emotional signs such as marked anxiety and autonomic signs such as pallor, sweating, nausea, vomiting, ...Missing: colic | Show results with:colic
[68]
Disorders of the Gastrointestinal System - PMC - PubMed Central
The most common serum biochemical abnormalities with diseases of the large or small intestine are electrolyte imbalances. Serum calcium concentrations are often ...
[69]
Cyclic vomiting syndrome - Symptoms & causes - Mayo Clinic
Sep 20, 2025 · Complications. Cyclic vomiting syndrome can cause these complications: Dehydration. Excessive vomiting causes the body to lose water quickly.Missing: colic | Show results with:colic<|separator|>
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Intestinal Perforation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Perforation and subsequent leakage of intestinal contents can lead to peritonitis and eventually sepsis if left untreated.
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Bowel Perforation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Sep 14, 2025 · Complications. Bowel perforation carries a high risk of morbidity and mortality, and complications may arise both in the acute setting and ...
[72]
Infant Colic Represents Gut Inflammation and Dysbiosis - PMC - NIH
Colic is linked with gut inflammation (as determined by fecal calprotectin) and dysbiosis, independent of mode of feeding, with fewer Bifidobacilli.
[73]
Correlation of Severity of Renal Colic With Clinical, Laboratory, and ...
Nov 8, 2022 · This study shows that pain scores can correlate with various parameters and predict the outcome and complications in these patients.
[74]
Anxiety and depression symptoms in recurrent painful renal lithiasis ...
These data suggest an association between recurrent renal colic and symptoms of both anxiety and depression.
[75]
Follow‐up of infants with colic into childhood: Do they develop ...
In addition, more children with a history of infant colic had emotionally reactive, internalising and total behaviour problems compared to the children of the ...Missing: recurrent | Show results with:recurrent
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Acute Abdomen - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Feb 15, 2025 · Acute abdominal pain is a common emergency room complaint, with causes ranging from benign to life-threatening conditions requiring urgent intervention.Acute Abdomen · Pathophysiology · History And Physical
[77]
Biliary Disease Clinical Presentation: History, Physical Examination
May 15, 2025 · Biliary disease often presents with upper abdominal pain. The pain quality is a penetrating, aching or tightness, typically severe and located ...
[78]
Gallstones (Cholelithiasis) Clinical Presentation
Apr 1, 2019 · Physical Examination Since the gallbladder is not inflamed in uncomplicated biliary colic, the pain is poorly localized and visceral in origin; ...
[79]
Abdominal Examination - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
In clinical assessment, the usual sequence involves obtaining the patient's history first, followed by a physical examination. However, in emergency situations ...Missing: colic | Show results with:colic
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Evaluation of the adult with abdominal pain - UpToDate
The history of a patient with abdominal pain includes determining whether the pain is acute or chronic and a detailed description of ...Missing: colic | Show results with:colic
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Ectopic Pregnancy - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 27, 2025 · Differential Diagnosis. Differential diagnoses to consider with ectopic pregnancies include: Ovarian torsion. Tubo-ovarian abscess. Appendicitis.Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Epidemiology · Evaluation
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Critical Care Aspects of Gallstone Disease - PMC - NIH
If a biliary colic lasts longer than about three hours or is associated with more severe symptoms such as fever, nausea, vomiting, jaundice, and leukocytosis, ...
[83]
A clinician's guide to gallstones and common bile duct (CBD) - NIH
Sep 12, 2023 · The duration of pain equal to or greater than 30 min, the pain is intermittent, but is not daily and is ascending to a constant level and is ...
[84]
Physiology, Gallbladder - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 1, 2023 · The gallbladder is a small hollow organ about the size and shape of a pear. It is a part of the biliary system, also known as the biliary tree or biliary tract.
[85]
Revised estimates of diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity in ...
Unadjusted sensitivity and specificity of ultrasound in evaluating patients with suspected acute cholecystitis are 0.94 (0.92 to 0.96) and 0.78 (0.61 to 0.96); ...
[86]
Sensitivity of emergency bedside ultrasound to detect ... - PubMed
Hydronephrosis on bedside ultrasound is a sign of a ureteral stone, and has a reported sensitivity of 72-83% for identification of unilateral hydronephrosis ...
[87]
Accuracy of ultrasonography for renal stone detection and size ...
Overall, the sensitivity and specificity of US was 54 and 91%, respectively. There was a significant association between sensitivity of US and stone size (P < ...
[88]
Intravenous Pyelogram - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 1, 2023 · Although unenhanced computed tomography has replaced intravenous pyelography (IVP) in the evaluation of flank pain, IVP might play a role in ...Missing: colic | Show results with:colic
[89]
Pediatric Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy and CT vs IVP for Flank ...
... intravenous pyelogram (IVP) in the evaluation of patients with renal colic. ... CT scanning will replace IVP in the evaluation of patients with acute renal colic.
[90]
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography for biliary system ...
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography may be useful in the diagnosis and management of biliary system parasites.
[91]
Linear echoendoscope-guided ERCP for the diagnosis of occult ...
Mar 5, 2013 · Linear EUS is safe and efficacious for the diagnosis of occult CBD stones in patients with intermediate risk for the disease. Keywords: Linear ...
[92]
EAU Guidelines on Urolithiasis - European Association of Urology
Stone incidence depends on geographical, climatic, ethnic, dietary, and genetic factors. The recurrence risk is basically determined by the disease or disorder ...Bladder Stones · References · Methods · Citation InformationMissing: epidemiology | Show results with:epidemiology<|separator|>
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Nephrolithiasis Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Jun 5, 2025 · Because nausea and vomiting frequently accompany acute renal colic, antiemetics often play a role in renal colic therapy. Several ...Emergency Management of... · Surgical Care · Medical Therapy for Stone...
[94]
Hyoscyamine: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action - DrugBank
Oral hyoscyamine is used to treat functional intestinal disorders, for symptomatic relief of biliary and renal colic, and symptomatic relief of acute rhinitis.
[95]
Abdominal Pain - EMRA
General concepts for the treatment of abdominal pain include a multi-modal analgesic approach with judicious and responsible use of opioid agents for moderate ...Nsaids · Evolving Analgesics... · Nil Per Os (npo) Status In...
[96]
Kidney Stones: Treatment and Prevention | AAFP
Apr 15, 2019 · Up to 75% of stones in pregnant women are composed of calcium phosphate, in contrast with other adults, in whom calcium oxalate stones are most ...
[97]
Extracorporeal Shock-wave Lithotripsy Success Rate and ... - NIH
Our initial data from this large, single-centre series shows an acceptable success rate of 74% (142/192) for renal stones and 88% (29/33) 88% for ureteric ...
[98]
Comparison of Shockwave Lithotripsy and Laser Ureterolithotripsy ...
Sep 9, 2021 · For ureteral stones <10 mm in the URS group, the stone-free rates were 82.8% (n=77) in the proximal ureter, 87.5% (n=63) in the mid-ureter, and ...
[99]
Nephrolithiasis: Background, Anatomy, Pathophysiology
Jun 5, 2025 · A lifetime risk of 2-5% has been noted for Asia, 8-15% for the West, and 20% for Saudi Arabia. In developing countries, bladder calculi are more ...
[100]
Surgical and Nonsurgical Management of Gallstones - AAFP
May 15, 2014 · The management of acute biliary colic mainly involves pain control with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or narcotic pain relievers. Oral ...
[101]
Fecal Impaction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
For proximal fecal impaction, the ideal laxative is polyethylene glycol. One may have to administer from 1 to 3 liters of polyethylene glycol over a period of ...Missing: colic | Show results with:colic
[102]
Volvulus (Twisting of the Colon) | UCSF Department of Surgery
To treat cecal volvulus, surgeons use a procedure called cecopexy to reposition the cecum and attach it to the abdominal wall. If the cecum is seriously damaged ...Missing: laxatives enemas impaction<|separator|>
[103]
Comparison of common interventions for the treatment of infantile colic
Feb 25, 2020 · High-level evidence showed that probiotics were most effective for reducing crying time in breastfed infants (range −25 min to −65 min over 24 ...
[104]
Overview of Colic in Horses - Digestive System
The most common sites of impaction are the pelvic flexure region of the left colon, the junction of the right dorsal colon with the transverse colon, and the ...Gastrointestinal Anatomy · Small Intestine · Cecum And Large Intestine<|control11|><|separator|>
[105]
Infantile Colic and Long-Term Outcomes in Childhood - PubMed
Jan 25, 2023 · The aim of this narrative review was to critically examine and discuss the available literature on long-term consequences of excessive crying and/or colic.
[106]
Twenty to thirty year follow-up after cholecystectomy - PubMed
Recurrent biliary colics and stones in the common bile duct are extremely rare later than five years after cholecystectomy and are not expected.
[107]
Postcholecystectomy Syndrome - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Post-cholecystectomy syndrome (PCS) is the term used to describe the persistence of biliary colic or right upper quadrant abdominal pain with a variety of ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
[108]
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) - ACOG
PID can lead to serious, long-term problems: Infertility—One in 10 women with PID becomes infertile. PID can cause scarring of the fallopian tubes. This ...
[109]
Current Approaches for Monitoring of Patients with Inflammatory ...
In IBD patients who have reached clinical and biochemical remission, the interval of monitoring should be between 3–6 months depending upon duration of ...
[110]
Disease Monitoring in Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Gastroenterology
Jan 28, 2022 · The role of monitoring is to ensure that our patients feel well as well as to ensure resolution of mucosal inflammation, because that is what ...