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Scarlet tiger moth

The Scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula), a member of the tiger moth subfamily Arctiinae in the family Erebidae, is a diurnal species renowned for its bold aposematic coloration that serves as a warning to predators of its chemical defenses.^[1] With a wingspan of 45–55 mm, adults feature glossy black forewings adorned with white or cream spots and bright scarlet hindwings bordered by black bands, though rare color variants exist, such as yellow hindwings or additional forewing spotting.^[2]^[3] This vivid patterning contrasts sharply against its preferred damp habitats, where it rests conspicuously on vegetation during the day.^[4] Native to much of Europe and extending into the Near East, including Turkey and northern Iran, the Scarlet tiger moth exhibits a localized distribution, with stronghold populations in southern and southwestern England, southern Wales, and isolated colonies in Kent in the United Kingdom.^[5]^[2] It thrives in wetland and coastal environments such as fens, marshes, riverbanks, floodplains, and upper beaches, but can also occupy gardens, woodland edges, road verges, and quarries where moisture is abundant.^[3]^[6] These habitats support its host plants, particularly common comfrey (Symphytum officinale), which is essential for larval development, alongside hemp agrimony, hound's-tongue, nettles, brambles, and various shrubs and trees.^[7] The species is univoltine, producing one generation per year, with adults active from late May to July, often flying in sunshine during late afternoons or early evenings, though they also take nectar at night.^[2]^[3] The life cycle begins with females laying clusters of eggs on host plants in summer, hatching into black caterpillars covered in black and white bristles, featuring yellow dashes and white dots for camouflage among foliage.^[3] Larvae feed voraciously from August through the following spring, overwintering in damp leaf litter or low vegetation as partially grown individuals, resuming activity in March when temperatures rise.^[7] Pupation occurs in late spring within a silken cocoon on the ground or among plants, lasting 10–15 days, after which adults emerge to mate and feed on nectar from flowers like buddleia and scabious.^[3]^[7] High overwintering mortality, often 35–80% in the wild due to desiccation or predation, underscores the species' reliance on consistently moist conditions.^[7] Notable for its genetic polymorphism—particularly in wing spotting patterns studied since the early 20th century at sites like Cothill in Oxfordshire—the Scarlet tiger moth has contributed significantly to research on fluctuating selection and drift in natural populations.^[8] In the UK, it is considered locally distributed and a priority for conservation due to habitat fragmentation, though not formally listed on the UK Biodiversity Action Plan; efforts focus on preserving wetland connectivity to support its specialized ecology.^[2]^[3]

Taxonomy

Classification

The scarlet tiger moth is scientifically classified as Callimorpha dominula (Linnaeus, 1758), with the basionym Phalaena dominula from Linnaeus's original description in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae.^[9] A former binomial name is Panaxia dominula (Linnaeus), reflecting earlier taxonomic assignments.^[10] Its taxonomic hierarchy places it within the following categories:

Rank	Classification
Kingdom	Animalia
Phylum	Arthropoda
Class	Insecta
Order	Lepidoptera
Family	Erebidae
Subfamily	Arctiinae
Tribe	Arctiini
Subtribe	Callimorphina
Genus	Callimorpha
Species	C. dominula

The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 under the genus Phalaena, a catch-all for moths at the time.^[9] In the 20th century, it was reassigned to Panaxia, but phylogenetic analyses in the early 21st century, including cladistic studies of adult morphology, supported its placement in the genus Callimorpha within subtribe Callimorphina of tribe Arctiini.^[12] Concurrent revisions elevated the former family Arctiidae to the subfamily Arctiinae under Erebidae, based on molecular and morphological phylogenies of Noctuoidea. A chromosome-level genome assembly published in 2024 has further confirmed this classification and enabled studies on its genetic diversity and chemical defenses.^[1] Within Arctiinae, Callimorpha dominula belongs to a group of brightly colored, diurnal tiger moths in Callimorphina, closely related to species such as Euplagia quadripunctaria (formerly Callimorpha quadripunctaria), which share similar warning coloration patterns.^[13]

Subspecies

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) exhibits significant intraspecific variation, particularly in forewing spot patterns and hindwing coloration, ranging from bright red to yellow or pinkish tones. These variations are often linked to local environmental adaptations and polymorphism within populations. Several infraspecific names, such as C. d. persona (Hübner, 1790), have been proposed for forms with yellow hindwings and reduced forewing spots due to melanism, while the typical form shows red hindwings with larger white forewing spots.^[14] Genetic studies, including analyses of colour polymorphism and inheritance patterns, demonstrate polygenic control over key traits such as melanism and hindwing coloration, with additive effects from multiple loci.^[14] Although comprehensive mitochondrial DNA analyses are limited, they align with nuclear genetic data in highlighting distinct lineages corresponding to geographic isolates. However, the validity of named subspecies remains debated due to the polytopic nature of variations and overlapping traits, with modern taxonomy often treating the species as monotypic.^[9]^[1]

Description

Adults

The adult scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) exhibits a wingspan ranging from 45 to 55 mm, with males typically slightly smaller than females.^[15]^[16] The forewings are predominantly metallic green-black, featuring 5–6 prominent round or oval spots that are white, cream, or yellow, with the veins clearly visible.^[15]^[1] The hindwings, which are concealed at rest, display a bright scarlet-red coloration bordered and spotted with black.^[15]^[2] The thorax is black with a green gloss and two short longitudinal yellow stripes, while the abdomen is black.^[15]^[17] Sexual dimorphism is present but subtle.^[15] Color variations occur, including rare forms with yellow hindwings or altered forewing spot patterns due to melanism, as seen in polymorphic populations.^[2]^[14] Subspecies may exhibit minor differences in coloration, such as reddish hues on the forewings in C. d. ligurica.^[18]

Immature stages

The eggs of the Scarlet tiger moth are small and spherical, pale yellow in color, and laid in clusters of 100–200 on the undersides of host plant leaves such as comfrey (Symphytum officinale) and hemp agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum).^[19]^[20] The larvae, known as caterpillars, attain a length of up to 40 mm and exhibit a dark gray-black body adorned with yellow longitudinal stripes, white speckles, and long black hairs that serve a defensive function. The patterning provides camouflage among foliage.^[21]^[3] They develop through 5–6 instars, with coloration darkening progressively; early instars are yellow with black spots and gregarious in behavior, while later instars become more solitary.^[7] These larvae also possess defensive bristles along their body.^[3] Larval feeding occurs primarily on herbaceous plants, with overwintering in the third instar under leaf litter.^[19] The pupae measure 20–25 mm in length and are dark brown, forming within a silk cocoon on the ground or in low vegetation such as leaf litter.^[20]^[7] Pupation takes place in late May to June, lasting 10–15 days, with the pupa initially whitish-yellow before darkening; the species does not overwinter in the pupal stage.^[7]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) is native to southern and central Europe, spanning from northern Spain and Portugal eastward to Ukraine and extending into the Near East, including Turkey, the Caucasus, and northern Iran.^[22]^[5] In the United Kingdom, populations are established mainly in southwest England, south Wales, isolated colonies in Kent, and occasional records on Jersey, marking the species' northern distributional limit.^[2] The moth is common and widespread in its core European range but occurs at low population densities in northern peripheral areas like the UK, where it is locally rare and restricted to coastal reserves and specific sites.^[23]^[24] During the 20th century, the species expanded northward across Europe in response to climate warming, with its British range increasing by 42% between 1970 and 2016 as part of broader moth distribution trends.^[24] Post-2020 records show a slight uptick in British sightings, including new occurrences in Norfolk, suggesting ongoing gradual spread as of 2025.^[25] Outside its Palearctic range, C. dominula has no established populations in the Americas, Africa, or Asia beyond the Near East.^[22]

Habitat preferences

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) primarily inhabits damp, open wetland environments across its range, favoring wet meadows, riverbanks, fens, marshes, and floodplain grasslands where moisture levels remain consistently high.^[2]^[3] It also occupies coastal areas, including scrub, rocky cliffs, and the upper zones of beaches, which provide similar humid conditions near the sea.^[2]^[26] Within these habitats, adults seek sunny, sheltered microhabitats for basking during the day, often resting on leaves in exposed but protected spots to regulate body temperature in late afternoon sunlight.^[2] Larvae require moist soil or litter layers for overwintering, burrowing into damp ground or vegetation debris to survive cold periods in stable, humid microenvironments.^[27] These preferences ensure access to suitable host plants and protection from desiccation.^[7] The species occurs from lowlands up to approximately 1,500 m in elevation, particularly in mountainous regions like the Caucasus, where it adapts to varied but consistently moist terrains.^[28]^[29] Habitat fragmentation poses challenges to population persistence, as the moth relies on connected wetland corridors for effective dispersal between colonies, enabling gene flow and recolonization of suitable patches.^[1]^[19] Isolated habitats limit this mobility, reducing overall viability in fragmented landscapes.^[30]

Life history and behavior

Life cycle

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) follows a univoltine life cycle, completing one generation annually in its native range across Europe. This cycle is synchronized with seasonal changes, allowing the species to exploit specific environmental conditions for survival and reproduction. The process spans approximately 10–11 months from egg to adult emergence, with adults living for 1–2 weeks.^[3]^[2] Eggs are laid in clusters during June and July by females on suitable host plants, typically in damp, vegetated habitats. Hatching occurs within 7–10 days, producing small, hairy black-and-yellow larvae that begin feeding immediately. The larval phase is the longest, lasting about 9 months overall; the caterpillars feed actively from August through October, reaching partial growth of around 15–20 mm before entering diapause. During this dormant period, they overwinter in leaf litter or ground debris, protecting them from cold winter conditions.^[31]^[20]^[3] In spring, from March to May, the larvae resume development, feeding voraciously to attain full size of up to 45 mm; their morphology features dense black hairs with yellow tufts, aiding camouflage and defense. Pupation follows in late May to early June, occurring within silken cocoons constructed in the soil or low vegetation near the ground. The pupal stage lasts 10–15 days, after which adults emerge between May and July, with peak activity in June. This timing ensures overlap with flowering plants for nectar feeding and mating opportunities.^[20]^[7]^[3]

Feeding and diet

The larvae of the scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) are polyphagous herbivores that feed on a variety of herbaceous plants across their development. In early instars, they primarily consume Symphytum officinale (common comfrey), along with Eupatorium cannabinum (hemp agrimony) and Cynoglossum officinale (hound's-tongue). As the caterpillars grow larger, their diet broadens to include Urtica dioica (common nettle), Rubus fruticosus (bramble), Salix species (sallows), Lonicera (honeysuckle), Filipendula ulmaria (meadowsweet), and other shrubs and trees. This dietary flexibility allows the larvae to exploit diverse wetland and damp habitat vegetation from late summer through spring, following diapause over winter.^[2]^[3] Through their host plants, particularly PA-containing species like comfrey, the larvae sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are stored in their tissues and carried over to the adult stage to bolster chemical defense and support the species' aposematic warning coloration. This sequestration process is characteristic of arctiid moths, enabling the incorporation of plant-derived toxins without significant metabolic cost during larval feeding. The pupal stage, lasting 10–15 days in a silken cocoon, involves no feeding, with the insect relying entirely on nutrient reserves accumulated as a larva.^[32]^[7] Adult scarlet tiger moths possess functional mouthparts and feed primarily on nectar from flowers, often foraging during sunny late afternoons or early evenings. They are attracted to a range of blooming plants in their wetland habitats, contributing to pollination while sustaining energy for flight and reproduction.^[3]

Reproduction and mating

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) primarily mates during the day, with males actively patrolling territories in sunny conditions to locate receptive females. Males typically fly at heights of 2–4 meters above the ground on warm midsummer afternoons and early evenings, relying on a combination of visual cues from patrolling flights and female-emitted sex pheromones, such as (3Z,6Z,9S,10R)-9,10-epoxyheneicosa-3,6-diene, to attract mates.^[33]^[34] Courtship involves males approaching females, often through rapid aerial pursuits, leading to copulation that can last up to several hours; following mating, females immediately seek out suitable vegetation for oviposition without any observed mate guarding. Females exhibit high fecundity, depositing 100–300 eggs in small clusters on host plants such as comfrey (Symphytum spp.) shortly after mating.^[35] Genetic studies in dense populations, including field observations near Oxford, have documented non-random mating patterns characterized by disassortative pairing, where females preferentially accept males of unlike genotypes (e.g., dominula with medionigra), promoting heterozygote maintenance and genetic diversity. This female-controlled behavior is influenced by scent cues and results in significantly higher mating success between dissimilar forms compared to like-genotype pairs.^[36]

Predators and defense

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) encounters a range of predators across its life stages. Adult moths are preyed upon by birds, bats, spiders, and small mammals, while larvae face threats from birds, rodents, insectivorous mammals, arthropods, spiders, and parasitoid insects such as tachinid flies (Phryxe vulgaris and Exorista fasciata).^[18]^[26]^[37] To counter these threats, the moth employs multiple anti-predator adaptations. Its aposematic coloration, featuring black forewings with white spots and vivid scarlet hindwings marked by black spots, serves as a warning signal of toxicity to visually hunting predators like birds.^[38] When disturbed, adults perform a deimatic display by abruptly revealing the scarlet hindwings to startle attackers, enhancing the effectiveness of the warning coloration.^[39] Larvae, which are covered in dense tufts of irritant hairs, use these structures to deter tactile predators and cause physical discomfort upon contact.^[40] Chemical defenses further bolster protection. Both adults and larvae sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids from host plants such as comfrey (Symphytum officinale), rendering them toxic and unpalatable to predators; these compounds are stored in body tissues and can be regurgitated or emitted as defensive secretions.^[41]^[38] The moth's primarily diurnal flight activity also helps minimize encounters with nocturnal bat predators.^[2] These defenses contribute to relatively high survival rates in natural populations, particularly through Müllerian mimicry with other alkaloid-sequestering tiger moths that share similar warning patterns, reinforcing predator avoidance learning.^[14] However, naive or specialized predators occasionally overcome these mechanisms, leading to predation events.^[42]

Conservation

Status

The Scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) has not been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and is considered not evaluated for threat status across Europe. Populations appear stable within its core range in central and southern Europe, where it remains locally common in suitable damp habitats.^[9] In the United Kingdom, the species is classified as Least Concern based on a comprehensive review of macro-moth status, with records from 412 ten-kilometer grid squares documented between 2000 and 2014. It is nonetheless locally rare, primarily restricted to southern and western England, southern Wales, and isolated populations such as those in Kent, with occasional records further north and in Jersey. Butterfly Conservation describes it as local overall, with no national priority listing under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. In parts of eastern Europe, such as Ukraine, it is also not formally evaluated but maintains a native presence without noted rarity.^[43]^[2]^[44] Population trends show a historical scarcity in the UK during the late 20th century, but records indicate an increase and gradual eastward spread since the 2000s, particularly in regions like Norfolk and the Midlands. This expansion coincides with wetland habitat management, leading to stabilization in previously fragmented populations by the 2010s; post-2020 data suggest continued positive momentum, though monitoring remains ongoing.^[25]^[6]^[45] The Scarlet tiger moth lacks species-specific legal protections under the UK Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, though individuals are indirectly safeguarded in designated sites like Sites of Special Scientific Interest where habitat disturbance is regulated. Within the European Union, it is not included in Annex V of the Habitats Directive, which addresses exploitable species, but benefits from broader biodiversity directives in member states supporting wetland conservation.^[46]

Threats

The primary threat to Scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula) populations is habitat loss, driven by the drainage of wetlands for agriculture, intensification of farming practices, and urban expansion, which have significantly reduced the availability of damp meadows and floodplain habitats essential for the species. In the UK, where the moth is locally distributed, over 90% of wetland habitats have been lost since the early 20th century due to these anthropogenic pressures.^[47]^[48] Climate change poses an additional risk through altered precipitation patterns that disrupt larval overwintering, potentially leading to higher mortality rates during vulnerable life stages. Warmer temperatures may facilitate a northward range shift for the species, as evidenced by recent expansions into new areas like the West Midlands from traditional southern strongholds.^[49] Pollution, particularly from herbicides applied to host plants like comfrey and honeysuckle, directly impacts larval food sources, while atmospheric nitrogen deposition promotes the growth of competitive invasive grasses that outcompete native vegetation in wetland areas. These effects contribute to broader declines in moth biodiversity across the UK, with nitrogen pollution linked to reduced species richness in nutrient-sensitive habitats.^[50]^[51] Other factors include invasive species, which exacerbate issues by disrupting access to food plants through habitat alteration. Conservation efforts, such as community-led habitat improvement projects in areas like Stourbridge, aim to mitigate these threats by enhancing wetland connectivity and host plant availability.^[52]

References

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The Scarlet Tiger Callimorpha dominula is a day-flying moth with blue-black forewings marked with cream and white spots, and striking red and black hindwings.
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Habitat. Frequents a variety of wetland and coastal habitats, including fens, riverine habitats, floodplains and the upper parts of beaches. The species can ...Missing: Panaxia erythronota
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Day-flying species (also comes to light) found in damp areas such as fens, marshes, river banks, as well as rocky cliffs near the sea.
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The wingspan is 3 - 4 cm. The wingspan is 3 - 4 cm. Aon noctuiformis is a butterfly from the spider Aon noctuiformis family (Erebidae).
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Summary of each segment:
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Host plants: Asterales: Asteraceae, » Cirsium oleraceum (L.) Scop. Boraginales: Boraginaceae, » Pulmonaria obscura Dumort.<|control11|><|separator|>
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