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Search theory

Search theory is a branch of microeconomics that analyzes how economic agents, such as workers or consumers, make decisions when facing uncertainty and costs in acquiring information to find suitable trading partners or opportunities.^[1] It models scenarios where buyers and sellers cannot instantly match, leading to frictions that affect market outcomes like prices, wages, and unemployment. Core concepts include sequential search—where agents evaluate one option at a time—and the reservation price or wage, the threshold below which an offer is rejected in favor of continued searching.^[2] The field originated in the 1960s with George Stigler's 1961 work on consumer search for prices, which introduced the idea of fixed-sample-size search to explain price dispersion despite competition.^[3] This was extended to dynamic sequential models, notably by John J. McCall in 1970 for job search, where unemployed workers balance search costs against the value of better offers, leading to the reservation wage concept.^[4] In the 1970s, economists like Peter Diamond incorporated search into equilibrium models, showing how frictions can sustain monopolistic outcomes even with many agents.^[5] Further advancements in the 1980s and 1990s developed search and matching frameworks, integrating individual search behavior with aggregate market dynamics. Dale Mortensen and Christopher Pissarides built the canonical Diamond-Mortensen-Pissarides (DMP) model, which explains frictional unemployment as arising from matching inefficiencies in labor markets.^[6] Their contributions, along with Diamond's foundational work, earned the 2010 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for analyzing markets with search frictions.^[7] Search theory has broad applications beyond labor economics, including housing markets where tenants search for affordable units, consumer product search amid online price comparisons, and monetary economics for understanding liquidity. Recent developments incorporate heterogeneous agents, endogenous search intensity, and computational methods to model complex equilibria, with ongoing research addressing digital markets and policy interventions like unemployment insurance.^[2]

Fundamentals

Core Concepts and Assumptions

Search theory in operations research focuses on developing mathematical models to optimize the allocation of limited search resources, such as time, personnel, or sensors, to maximize the probability of detecting a hidden target that may be stationary or moving.^[8] It quantifies uncertainties in the target's location, path, and detectability, using concepts like probability of containment (the chance the target is within the searched area) and probability of detection given containment (dependent on effort applied and environmental factors).^[9] The overall probability of success is the product of containment and detection probabilities, guiding optimal search planning to minimize resource waste.^[9] Key assumptions include: the target exists and is somewhere in the search space with a known prior probability distribution (e.g., uniform or based on intelligence); detection is probabilistic, modeled by a detection function that relates search effort to detection probability, often assuming independence of detections; resources are limited, requiring trade-offs in effort distribution; and the environment affects visibility, speed, and sensor performance (e.g., weather, terrain).^[8] Models often assume rational optimization to maximize detection probability or minimize expected search time, with extensions for moving targets using kinematic models of motion.^[10] These assumptions capture real-world frictions in military, SAR, or wildlife tracking scenarios, where exhaustive search is impractical. The foundational framework is the optimal allocation problem, where search planners distribute effort across space and time to maximize the cumulative detection probability. For a stationary target, this involves solving for effort density that equalizes the marginal increase in detection per unit effort across areas.^[11] Below a certain effort threshold, additional search in low-probability areas yields diminishing returns, prompting focus on high-likelihood regions. This embodies utility maximization: planners continue allocating effort where the expected gain in success probability exceeds the marginal cost in resources. Such principles underpin advanced models, including dynamic programming for adaptive searches.^[12]

Simultaneous versus Sequential Search

In search theory, simultaneous search involves deploying multiple search units or resources concurrently across different areas or paths to cover more ground in parallel, typically incurring fixed costs for coordination and logistics, such as multiple aircraft in a SAR operation. This approach assumes commitment to the full coverage plan upfront, allowing rapid accumulation of effort but requiring accurate prior estimates of target location to optimize allocation. For example, in antisubmarine warfare, convoys might use several ships searching sectors simultaneously to compare detections and refine estimates. The expected value is modeled as the integral of detection probability over the joint effort:
P_d = 1 - \prod_{i=1}^n (1 - p_i(e_i)),
where p_i(e_i) is the detection probability in area i given effort e_i, and n is the number of simultaneous units, subject to total effort constraint \sum e_i \leq E.^[8] In contrast, sequential search deploys resources one at a time or in phases, observing outcomes (e.g., no detection) to update probabilities via Bayes' theorem and adapt subsequent effort, common in ground searches or single-asset scenarios like a lone rescue helicopter sweeping areas serially. This allows for conditional stopping or redirection if a detection occurs or new information emerges, but risks delaying success due to serial processing. The process incorporates discounting for time-sensitive targets (e.g., drifting vessels), often over a finite horizon. The expected detection probability balances updated posteriors against costs:
V_t = \max_{A} \left[ P(C_t | A) P(D | C_t, e_t) + (1 - P(D | C_t, e_t)) \beta V_{t+1} \right] - c_t,
where V_t is the value at time t, A is the action (area chosen), P(C_t | A) is containment probability, P(D | C_t, e_t) is detection given containment and effort, \beta is the discount factor, and c_t is the cost per period.^[9] This enables Bayesian updates for refining search areas, but introduces risks from incomplete early coverage. The key differences lie in resource utilization and adaptability: simultaneous search accelerates coverage and reduces time to detection in resource-rich environments, lowering variance in outcomes but demanding high upfront commitment and precluding real-time adjustments based on interim results.^[12] Sequential search conserves resources through adaptive planning and is suited to information-scarce or dynamic settings, though it prolongs exposure time and may miss optimal paths due to path dependencies.^[10] These approaches trade off based on operational constraints. Simultaneous search is efficient in scenarios with abundant assets and stationary targets, such as multi-unit aerial patrols maximizing broad-area containment.^[8] Sequential search excels in limited-resource or highly uncertain environments, like single-vehicle tracking of moving targets, where updating beliefs conserves effort. Historically, simultaneous models emerged in WWII convoy protection optimizations, while sequential extensions developed in post-war SAR planning with Bayesian methods.^[9]

Search with Known Offer Distributions

Homogeneous Search Costs

In the homogeneous search costs framework, the searcher faces a known probability distribution F(p) of offers, such as wages in job search or prices in consumer markets, with a constant marginal cost c > 0 incurred for each independent draw from this distribution. The model typically assumes an infinite horizon with a discount factor \delta \in (0,1), where the searcher sequentially observes offers one at a time and decides whether to accept or continue searching, without recall of previous offers. This setup captures the trade-off between the cost of additional information and the potential benefit of better offers, leading to an optimal strategy characterized by a reservation value. The optimal policy is a reservation rule: accept an offer x if x \geq r and reject otherwise, where the reservation value r solves the equation

\int_r^\infty (x - r) \, dF(x) = \frac{c}{1 - \delta}.

This condition equates the expected benefit of one more search—the integral representing the anticipated gain from surpassing r—to the present value of the search cost over the infinite horizon. The left side decreases in r, ensuring a unique solution under standard assumptions on F, such as continuity and positive density above some lower bound. Under this strategy, the number of searches until acceptance follows a geometric distribution with success probability q = 1 - F(r), yielding an expected number of searches of $1/q = 1 / (1 - F(r)). The expected total search cost is thus c / (1 - F(r)), while the expected duration (in periods) is similarly $1 / (1 - F(r)) if one search occurs per period. These quantities highlight how the reservation value balances frictions: a higher r shortens expected duration but risks forgoing acceptable offers. Several implications follow from the reservation equation. Greater variance in F raises r, as the potential upside from searching increases relative to the mean, prompting more selective behavior. Conversely, a lower search cost c decreases r, encouraging extended search to exploit the known distribution more fully. In job search applications, this implies that more variable wage offers lead to higher reservation wages and prolonged unemployment spells. A representative example arises in consumer goods markets with prices drawn from a uniform distribution F(p) = p / \bar{p} on [0, \bar{p}], where \bar{p} is the maximum price. Here, r is the maximum acceptable price, and it satisfies \frac{r^2}{2 \bar{p}} = \frac{c}{1 - \delta}, illustrating how r increases with c to equate the expected savings from potentially lower prices below r against discounted costs, often resulting in limited search unless c is small relative to price dispersion. The homogeneity of costs imparts a memoryless property to the optimal rule: the reservation value r remains constant across searches and independent of past rejected offers, yielding myopic decisions that simplify computation and reveal how uniform frictions promote stationary behavior in decentralized markets.

Heterogeneous Search Costs

In search theory with known offer distributions, the heterogeneous search costs model extends the framework to scenarios where the cost c_i of inspecting option i varies across a finite set of alternatives, while each option draws its value x_i independently from the same known distribution F(x).^[13] This setup captures realistic frictions, such as travel costs in housing markets where agents evaluate properties at different distances, or dealership visits in consumer product search differentiated by location. The agent's objective is to select an order of inspection to maximize expected net payoff, accounting for the irrevocable decision to pay c_i upon inspecting option i and the option to stop and accept the best observed value. The optimal strategy involves computing a reservation value r_i for each option i, defined by the indifference condition where the expected gain from inspection equals the cost:

\int_{r_i}^{\infty} (x - r_i) \, dF(x) = c_i.

This equation yields a higher r_i for lower c_i, as the expected improvement must justify the smaller cost. Options are then ranked and searched in decreasing order of r_i, meaning lower-cost options are inspected first since they offer the highest reservation threshold. The search proceeds sequentially, updating the best observed value after each inspection, and stops when this best value exceeds the reservation values of all remaining uninspected options; this generalized reservation rule ensures cost-effectiveness by prioritizing options with the greatest potential relative improvement per unit cost, where the ratio \int_{r_i}^{\infty} (x - r_i) \, dF(x) / c_i = 1 serves as the uniform threshold for viability. This directed search approach allows agents to select subsets or sequences that minimize total expected cost, often resulting in only a fraction of options being inspected and leading to segmented search patterns. For instance, in housing markets, agents with heterogeneous travel costs focus searches on nearby segments, creating distinct pools of inspected properties that limit market integration.^[14] A representative example is consumer search for automobiles, where search costs rise with distance to dealerships (estimated at €148 per kilometer on average); closer dealerships receive higher search intensity, with consumers typically visiting only about two dealers, thereby reducing overall market coverage and increasing average prices by 13% relative to full-information scenarios.^[15] A key result is that cost heterogeneity amplifies dispersion in search intensity across options: low-cost alternatives are searched more intensively, concentrating evaluation efforts and potentially generating price stickiness in high-cost segments due to reduced competitive pressure from fewer inspections.^[16] Compared to the homogeneous search costs case, where a single reservation price applies uniformly and search order is irrelevant under identical distributions, heterogeneity introduces path dependence—the sequence of inspections influences outcomes through early stopping—and imposes finite search horizons, as agents may halt before exhausting all options.

Advanced Search Models

Endogenous Price Distributions

In models of endogenous price distributions within search theory, firms compete in a monopolistic setting where consumers incur a known positive search cost c to observe each successive price offer from a large number of potential sellers. Assuming unit marginal production costs normalized to 1 and unit consumer demand, firms strategically select prices p \geq 1 to maximize expected profits, recognizing that search frictions limit the extent to which consumers compare offers across the market.^[17]^[18] Equilibria in these models are symmetric Nash equilibria in mixed strategies, where identical firms randomize prices according to a cumulative distribution function G(p) with compact support [p_{\min}, p_{\max}] and p_{\min} = 1, the marginal cost. This randomization ensures that no firm can profitably deviate to a pure strategy price within the support, as consumers' search behavior responds endogenously to the prevailing price distribution.^[18] The consumer's reservation price r (the maximum price they are willing to accept), which determines whether to accept the current offer or continue searching, satisfies the indifference condition

c = \int_{1}^{r} (r - x) \, dG(x),

where the integral represents the expected benefit (savings) from one additional search. Firms mix over prices to maintain consumer indifference across the support, yielding zero expected profits at p_{\min} while balancing lower sales probabilities at higher prices with increased margins.^[18] A foundational insight is the Diamond (1971) paradox, which shows that even vanishingly small search costs c > 0 result in a unique equilibrium of rigid monopoly pricing, where all firms charge p = 2 (the full markup over marginal cost of 1), as consumers effectively search only once due to the anticipated uniformity of high prices.^[17] In contrast, the Burdett-Judd (1983) framework with sequential search—where consumers visit stores one by one and decide whether to search further based on the current offer—produces equilibria featuring price dispersion, with G(p) strictly increasing over [1, p_{\max}] and p_{\max} > 2, even among homogeneous agents.^[18] These results highlight how search costs erode price competition, elevating average markups above competitive levels; furthermore, higher c intensifies this effect by expanding the range of the price distribution and reducing the mass at low prices.^[17]^[18] In retail markets, such endogenous pricing manifests through loyalty programs that reduce effective search costs for repeat customers, enabling firms to offer lower prices to frequent searchers while sustaining higher markups from less mobile buyers.

Unknown Offer Distributions

In search models with unknown offer distributions, the searcher begins with prior beliefs about the cumulative distribution function F(p) of offers, typically parameterized by unknown parameters, and observes offers sequentially in a sequential search protocol. Each observation incurs a search cost, and the searcher updates their beliefs using Bayes' rule after each draw, incorporating the new information into the posterior distribution. The optimal strategy involves dynamically adjusting the reservation value r_t at each period t, where the searcher accepts an offer if it meets or exceeds r_t and continues searching otherwise, balancing the immediate cost against the expected benefit from future information.^[19] The optimal policy in this setting generally requires solving an exploration-exploitation trade-off, as continuing to search yields both potential better offers and valuable information about the distribution, while the reservation value r_t evolves based on the tightening posterior. If search costs are constant and the horizon is infinite, the policy can be myopic, meaning the searcher acts as if there is only one remaining period, though this simplifies only under specific prior assumptions like uniformity. In more general cases, the reservation value decreases over time as uncertainty resolves, reflecting discouragement from high observed offers or optimism from low ones. A seminal analysis by Rothschild (1974) examines finite samples drawn from a multinomial distribution with a Dirichlet prior (equivalent to uniform for equal parameters), demonstrating that the initial reservation value is high due to uncertainty, leading to more selective acceptance early on, and converges toward the true expected value as observations accumulate and the posterior sharpens.^[20]^[19] Unknown offer distributions effectively increase search costs compared to known cases, as the searcher must allocate effort to learning, which can lead to overestimation of the distribution's variance and premature stopping if early observations suggest low prospects. For instance, in job search models, an unemployed worker with prior beliefs on the wage distribution may encounter early low wage offers that update the posterior downward via Bayesian inference, prompting a lower reservation wage and reduced search intensity to avoid prolonged unemployment costs. In finite-horizon settings, the optimal r_t is derived via backward induction, yielding time-varying thresholds that decline more rapidly than in known-distribution models, whereas infinite-horizon approximations often rely on stationary policies adjusted for learning. These dynamics highlight how ignorance amplifies the value of information, influencing search duration and outcomes in uncertain environments.^[20]^[21]

Equilibrium and Matching Frameworks

Search Equilibria

In search theory, equilibria in frictional markets arise from integrating individual search behaviors with market-clearing conditions in large economies featuring free entry on both sides. Firms post vacancies at rate μ, while unemployed workers search at rate ν, leading to matching through Poisson arrival processes where the market tightness θ is defined as θ = μ / ν, representing the ratio of vacancies to searchers. This setup captures the bilateral nature of matches in decentralized markets without full information, where agents decide on search intensity and entry based on expected returns. A stationary equilibrium is characterized by constant search intensities, offer prices or wages, and free entry such that expected profits for entrants are zero, ensuring market balance. In this equilibrium, the Beveridge curve illustrates the inverse relationship between unemployment and tightness θ, as higher θ reduces job-finding rates but increases vacancy-filling probabilities. Key results highlight efficiency losses due to congestion externalities, where individual searchers impose costs on others by competing for limited matches; the Hosios (1990) condition achieves constrained efficiency when the bargaining share of the searching side equals the elasticity of the matching function with respect to searchers, aligning private incentives with social optima. Wage determination in these equilibria often relies on Nash bargaining in bilateral matches, yielding the wage w = β p + (1 - β) b + β c θ, where β is the worker's bargaining share, p is productivity, b is the worker's reservation utility (typically unemployment benefits), and c θ reflects search costs scaled by tightness. This formula derives from splitting the match surplus according to bargaining power, incorporating reservation values from individual search models where agents accept offers above a threshold. Implications include the effects of policy interventions like unemployment insurance (UI), which raise reservation utilities b and thus increase θ by encouraging entry, potentially reducing mismatches but elevating search costs and unemployment duration. For example, in frictional unemployment equilibria, workers adjust search effort in response to benefits: higher UI increases b, prompting more intensive search (higher ν) that tightens the market (rising θ) and boosts wages via the bargaining formula, though it may amplify congestion if entry does not fully adjust. This dynamic underscores how search equilibria propagate policy effects through market tightness, balancing individual gains against aggregate frictions.

Matching Theory

Matching theory extends search models to two-sided markets where agents on both sides, such as workers and firms, actively search and form pairs based on heterogeneous attributes like productivity or preferences. In a typical bipartite setup, workers are characterized by skill levels x \in [0,1] and firms by productivity y \in [0,1], with match output given by a function f(x,y) that reflects complementarities between types. Agents form strict ordinal preferences over potential matches, and meetings occur randomly through frictional processes, such as the urn-ball model where agents are drawn without replacement from finite pools to simulate limited interactions, or phone models where agents initiate contacts but face random responses. Unmatched agents receive a reservation payoff, often normalized to zero, while frictions prevent instantaneous sorting into optimal pairs.^[22] A central concept is the stable matching, defined as an assignment where no pair of agents prefers each other over their current partners, ensuring no blocking pairs that could destabilize the outcome. The Gale-Shapley algorithm (1962) provides a constructive method to find such a stable matching through deferred acceptance: one side proposes in rounds, and the other side tentatively accepts or rejects based on preferences, iterating until no further proposals occur. This yields the proposer-optimal stable matching, which is stable and individually rational. The set of all stable matchings forms a lattice under a suitable partial order, where the proposer-optimal and receiver-optimal matchings bound the extremes, and any convex combination of stable matchings is also stable. This structure, established in Roth and Sotomayor (1990), implies multiple stable outcomes are possible, with varying degrees of assortative pairing.^[23]^[24] Frictional extensions incorporate ongoing search dynamics via the Diamond-Mortensen-Pissarides (DMP) framework, where aggregate matches are governed by a constant-returns-to-scale function m(u,v) linking unemployed workers u and vacancies v, often specified as Cobb-Douglas m(u,v) = \mu u^\gamma v^{1-\gamma} with elasticity \gamma \in (0,1). Recent computational methods, such as deep learning techniques, enable global solutions and calibration of these models with heterogeneous agents and aggregate shocks.^[25] Upon meeting, agents bargain over the match surplus—the difference between joint output and continuation values from further search—using Rubinstein's alternating-offer protocol, which converges to a subgame-perfect equilibrium splitting the surplus according to discount rates and outside options. In high-friction environments (low meeting rates), random search leads to positive assortative matching (high types pairing together) only under strong supermodularity conditions, such as log-supermodularity of payoffs, as weaker complementarities result in cross-type matches or unemployment. Directed search, where agents target specific submarkets based on posted terms, facilitates better sorting by allowing price-like signals to guide applications, achieving positive assortative matching under milder conditions than random search, though multiplicity persists. Advances in artificial intelligence are enhancing labor market matching by leveraging data-driven algorithms to reduce frictions and improve outcomes.^[26]^[2]^[27] Key results highlight the multiplicity of equilibria, where coordination failures can trap markets in suboptimal stable matchings with mismatches, such as low-productivity pairings, even when superior alternatives exist. For instance, in random search with high frictions, agents may settle for inferior matches due to fear of prolonged unemployment, reducing overall efficiency. Subsidies, such as hiring incentives or reduced search costs, can shift equilibria toward more stable and assortative outcomes by altering bargaining shares or meeting probabilities, improving welfare without eliminating frictions. An illustrative example is college admissions, implemented via the Gale-Shapley deferred acceptance algorithm where students propose and colleges respond, ensuring stability in quota-constrained matching. Similarly, marriage markets with search costs exhibit frictional stable pairings, where frictions lead to delayed or mismatched unions despite ordinal preferences over partners.^[28]^[22]

Applications and Extensions

Labor and Housing Markets

In labor markets, job search models, such as the canonical sequential search framework developed by McCall (1970), explain duration dependence in unemployment through the gradual decline in workers' reservation wages as the value of continued search diminishes over time. Empirical analyses of unemployment insurance (UI) data further demonstrate that higher benefit levels elevate reservation wages, thereby prolonging job search durations, with evidence showing reservation wages falling faster when UI durations are shorter.^[29] Data from the Current Population Survey (CPS) reveal that informal networks account for around 30-50% of job findings, outperforming formal methods like public employment services in terms of speed and wage outcomes, which underscores the role of social connections in mitigating search frictions.^[30] The Diamond-Mortensen-Pissarides (DMP) model extends these ideas to aggregate dynamics, where labor market tightness—measured by the ratio θ of vacancies to unemployment—fluctuates over business cycles, driving cyclical unemployment through varying matching efficiency.^[2] Calibrations of DMP frameworks indicate that search frictions contribute substantially to business cycle fluctuations in unemployment, as imperfect information and matching inefficiencies amplify shocks to productivity and separations. Key empirical patterns include a mean U.S. unemployment duration of about 24.5 weeks as of August 2025, as reported by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, alongside search costs equivalent to 6.5-14% of the average accepted wage, reflecting time and effort expenditures in job hunting.^[31]^[32] Housing markets apply similar sequential search principles, where buyers incur significant moving costs and sequentially evaluate offers, resulting in segmented submarkets divided by geography and property types that limit broad exploration.^[33] These models predict persistent price dispersion arising from location-specific heterogeneity, as searchers prioritize nearby options to minimize relocation expenses, leading to localized pricing inefficiencies.^[34] For instance, broad searchers who connect segments help equalize prices across areas, but narrow local search dominates, sustaining up to 20-30% dispersion in comparable properties.^[35] Policy implications in these domains center on unemployment insurance design, which optimally trades off moral hazard—where benefits reduce search effort and extend unemployment spells—against consumption insurance for the risk-averse unemployed.^[36] Randomized trials, such as those in Hungary varying UI durations and monitoring, confirm that longer benefits or reduced oversight can increase completed unemployment spells, validating the moral hazard channel while highlighting the need for experience-rated premiums to curb distortions.^[37] These bilateral aspects align with broader matching theory frameworks, emphasizing coordinated search by workers and firms. Recent evidence through 2025 shows that the post-COVID surge in remote work has reduced spatial frictions in both labor and housing search, effectively lowering the per-period search cost c by enabling wider geographic job and home options without commuting penalties.^[38] This shift accounted for over half of U.S. house price growth from 2019 to 2023 and accelerated job matching across regions, as workers bypassed traditional location constraints.^[38] As of 2025, ongoing integration of AI in recruitment platforms, such as automated matching on LinkedIn, has further decreased search frictions by 10-20% in matching efficiency according to recent studies.^[39]

Consumer Product Search and Recent Developments

In consumer product search models, buyers sequentially compare prices across retailers or e-commerce platforms, where the internet has drastically lowered search costs c, thereby reducing consumers' reservation price r—the maximum price at which they are willing to purchase without further searching.^[40] This reduction in c intensifies price competition, as modeled in sequential search frameworks adapted to online settings, where consumers face low physical and informational barriers to accessing multiple offers.^[41] Empirically, despite these low costs, price dispersion persists in markets like Amazon, with studies showing 16-22% variation in prices for homogeneous goods, largely attributable to branding and consumer loyalty that limits full price sensitivity.^[42] A seminal result in this domain is Varian's (1980) model of sales, which explains price dispersion through mixed strategies: firms randomize prices to capture sales from informed shoppers while securing loyal customers at higher markups, leading to equilibrium dispersion even under low search costs.^[43] In online contexts, this extends to directed search via platforms like Google Shopping, where consumers target specific products and compare prices algorithmically, reducing sequential effort but still yielding dispersed outcomes due to seller differentiation and platform fees.^[44] Recent developments from 2010 to 2025 have integrated big data and AI into personalized search, with recommendation algorithms functioning as a form of directed search by predicting and surfacing offers based on user history, thereby lowering effective search costs while tailoring price exposure.^[45] For instance, joint household search models account for couples' coordinated decisions in product purchases, incorporating shared preferences and bargaining that amplify efficiency gains from digital tools, as explored in frameworks extending classical search to multi-agent settings.^[46] The rise of mobile apps has further reduced sequential search costs, with empirical evidence indicating that updated apps decrease browsing time by up to 1,446 seconds per session, enabling quicker price comparisons and higher purchase rates.^[47] Post-2020 studies highlight how AI chatbots endogenize price distributions F(p) through dynamic pricing, where algorithms adjust offers in real-time based on chat interactions and demand signals, creating endogenous variation that influences consumer search behavior.^[48] These digital frictions, while lowering average markups by enhancing competition (e.g., 5-15% transaction price drops post-platform redesigns), also increase sorting by consumer type, as personalized recommendations match high-value buyers to premium offers.^[49] Policy implications include data privacy regulations, which can enhance search efficiency by building trust but may raise effective costs if they limit personalization, potentially reducing welfare for privacy-sensitive users.^[50] An illustrative example is Uber's surge pricing, which generates a real-time endogenous price distribution responsive to local supply and demand, effectively directing consumer search toward available rides while balancing platform equilibrium.^[51]

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Moral Hazard versus Liquidity and Optimal Unemployment Insurance
This paper presents new evidence on why unemployment insurance (UI) benefits affect search behavior and develops a simple method of calculating the welfare ...Missing: trials | Show results with:trials
[33]
Randomised control trials of unemployment benefits - CEPR
Apr 30, 2008 · A quarter of the control group had stopped claiming benefit after 102 days but among the treatment group a quarter had gone by only 85 days. ( ...
[34]
Housing Demand and Remote Work | NBER
May 13, 2022 · We show that the shift to remote work explains over one-half of the 18.9 percent increase in U.S. real house prices from 2019 to 2023.
[35]
Consumer search on the Internet - ScienceDirect.com
Competition and consumer search costs can lead to price dispersion in an oligopoly. IO research has long identified the existence of search costs and ...
[36]
[PDF] Consumer Search and Pricing Behavior in Internet Markets
Despite the mixed empirical evidence, many economists hold the view that Internet will promote competition, thereby lowering prices and price dispersion and ...
[37]
Within-retailer price dispersion in e-commerce - Oxford Academic
Aug 5, 2022 · This article investigates the prevalence and the magnitude of online within-retailer price dispersion over time.
[38]
[PDF] A Model of Sales - Hal R. Varian
Nov 25, 2003 · As in the Shilony model, I will allow for the possibility of randomized pricing strategies by stores. I will be interested in characterizing the.
[39]
Price-Directed Search, Product Differentiation and Competition - PMC
We study the effects of product differentiation and search costs on competition and market outcomes in a tractable model of price-directed consumer search.
[40]
Artificial intelligence and recommender systems in e-commerce ...
This study shows how AI can improve e-commerce recommender systems. In e-commerce, intelligent search algorithms have improved efficiency and effectiveness. The ...
[41]
[PDF] Joint-search theory New opportunities and new frictions
Joint search can create new opportunities when couples are risk-averse, but new frictions when spouses have multiple job offers and costs of living apart.Missing: core | Show results with:core
[42]
The version effect of apps and operating systems in mobile commerce
Feb 1, 2023 · Using an up‐to‐date app decreases consumer search activities by 129.34 product pages or 1446.48 seconds spent browsing compared to using a ...Empirical Context And Data · Analysis And Results · Estimation Results
[43]
https://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~hal/Papers/model-of-sales.pdf
[44]
[PDF] Consumer Price Search and Platform Design in Internet Commerce
In online commerce, physical search costs are low, yet price dispersion is common. We use browsing data from eBay to estimate a model of consumer search and ...
[45]
Frontiers: The Intended and Unintended Consequences of Privacy ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Privacy Measures May Stifle Entry and Innovation by Entrepreneurs and Small Businesses Who Are More Likely to Serve Niche Consumer Segments. ...Introduction · Access to Consumer Data Can... · Which Consumers Care Most...
[46]
[PDF] Using Big Data to Estimate Consumer Surplus: The Case of Uber
In practice, the surge price that consumers face is not random; it reflects local demand and supply conditions. There is, however, a component of Uber pricing ...