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Second tithe

The second tithe, known in Hebrew as ma'aser sheni, is a biblical commandment in Jewish law requiring Israelite landowners to separate one-tenth of their agricultural produce—after allocating the priestly portions (terumah) and the first tithe (ma'aser rishon)—during the first, second, fourth, and fifth years of the seven-year sabbatical cycle, to be consumed by the owner, their household, and invited guests in Jerusalem while in a state of ritual purity.^[1]^[2] This tithe, distinct from the first tithe given to the Levites and the poor tithe allocated in the third and sixth years, emphasizes personal gratitude toward God and communal celebration at the central sanctuary.^[3] The obligation originates in the Torah, particularly Deuteronomy 14:22–27, which instructs: "You shall tithe all the yield of your seed, which comes out of the field year by year. And you shall eat before the Lord your God, in the place that He will choose... the tithe of your grain, your new wine, and your oil, and the firstlings of your herd and flock," underscoring its role in fostering reverence for the Divine through shared meals in the holy city.^[2]^[1] Produce subject to the second tithe includes grains, wine, and oil, with the firstlings of herds and flocks also required to be eaten in Jerusalem; it applies only to produce grown in the Land of Israel and is exempt during the sabbatical (Shemittah) year.^[1] In practice, the tithed produce was transported to Jerusalem for consumption during the three pilgrimage festivals (Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot), where it could be eaten, sold locally, or redeemed for money if distance or quantity made transport burdensome; redemption involved adding a fifth to the value, and the funds were then used to buy food and drink in Jerusalem, again consumed in purity.^[2]^[1] This system not only supported the owner's pilgrimage but also promoted social cohesion by encouraging hospitality, including sharing with Levites, thereby building communal bonds in ancient Israelite society.^[3] Since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, the second tithe cannot be consumed as prescribed, leading to rabbinic customs where it is symbolically redeemed by placing produce on a coin and discarding it, or nullified through other means, rendering it permissible for ordinary use today.^[1] Despite its non-observance in full, the second tithe remains a key element in understanding biblical economics, religious pilgrimage, and the Torah's vision of a society balanced between individual prosperity and collective welfare.^[3]

Biblical Foundations

Scriptural Sources

The second tithe, also known as the festival or rejoicing tithe, is primarily established in the Torah through passages in Deuteronomy that outline its annual separation and consumption. The term "second tithe" is a later designation for the tithe described in Deuteronomy 14:22–27, distinct from the first tithe given to the Levites. In Deuteronomy 14:22-27, the text commands: "You shall tithe all the yield of your seed that comes from the field year by year. And before the Lord your God, in the place that he will choose, to make his name dwell there, you shall eat the tithe of your grain, of your wine, and of your oil, and the firstborn of your herd and flock, that you may learn to fear the Lord your God always." This provision requires Israelite farmers to set aside one-tenth of their grain, wine, oil, and livestock produce annually for personal and familial consumption at the central sanctuary, implied to be Jerusalem, emphasizing communal feasting and reverence for God.^[4]^[5] Verses 28-29 provide for a tithe every third year to be stored locally for the Levites, sojourners, orphans, and widows, ensuring their support without travel to the sanctuary.^[6]^[7] A related declaration rite appears in Deuteronomy 26:12-15, recited every third year after distributing the tithe: "When you have finished paying all the tithe of your produce in the third year, which is the year of the tithe... you shall say before the Lord your God, 'I have stored up the holy portion... I have not eaten of the tithe while I was in mourning...'" This affirms compliance, invokes divine blessing, and reinforces the tithe's sacred status for the vulnerable, including Levites who lack inheritance.^[8]^[5] These texts distinguish the second tithe from earlier provisions, such as the general tithe law in Leviticus 27:30-33, which declares all seed and animal tithes holy to the Lord without specifying consumption, and the Levitical tithe in Numbers 18:21-24, allocated to the Levites as their inheritance for temple service.^[9]^[10]^[11] Composed as part of the Deuteronomic code, these laws reflect reforms attributed to the late 7th century BCE, during King Josiah's reign, when a "book of the law" was reportedly discovered in the Jerusalem Temple, prompting centralization of worship and social welfare measures.^[12]^[13]

Purpose and Regulations

The primary purpose of the second tithe, known as ma'aser sheni, was to encourage joy, pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and communal feasting among families, thereby strengthening spiritual reverence for God and fostering national unity among the Israelites.^[1]^[14] This tithe, established in Deuteronomy 14:22–27, required that the separated portion be consumed "before the Lord" in Jerusalem to promote ongoing fear and appreciation of divine providence. Regulations for the second tithe applied specifically to produce grown in the Land of Israel, including grain, new wine, and oil, with one-tenth separated after the priestly gifts and first tithe had been removed.^[1]^[14] According to traditional Jewish interpretation, the second tithe was obligatory in the first, second, fourth, and fifth years of the seven-year Shemitah (sabbatical) cycle, during which the tithe had to be transported to Jerusalem and eaten there in a state of ritual purity by the owner, their household, Levites, and others without inheritance in the land.^[1]^[14] In contrast, the third and sixth years of the cycle designated the tithe for the poor (ma'aser ani), which was distributed to the needy, widows, orphans, and resident aliens rather than consumed in Jerusalem (Deuteronomy 14:28–29).^[1] If the distance to Jerusalem was too great for transporting the produce, the biblical law allowed for its exchange for money (Deuteronomy 14:24–26), to be used to purchase food, drink, or oil for consumption in Jerusalem. According to Jewish law, based on Leviticus 27:31, the owner adds a fifth (20%) to the value when redeeming.^[14]^[1] This provision ensured the tithe's sanctity and purpose could still be fulfilled without undue burden, while maintaining its restriction to edible items suitable for joyous meals in the holy city.^[1]

Rabbinic Elaboration

In the Mishnah

The tractate Ma'aser Sheni (Second Tithe), part of the Seder Zeraim in the Mishnah, was compiled around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah the Prince (Yehudah HaNasi) and consists of five chapters that codify the procedures for separating, designating, redeeming, and consuming the second tithe as an expansion of the biblical commandments in Deuteronomy 14:22–27.^[15] The tractate addresses the sacred status of the tithe, requiring that once produce is separated as second tithe during the first, second, fourth, and fifth years of the sabbatical cycle, it becomes consecrated and must be consumed in Jerusalem or redeemed for use there.^[16] Designation of the second tithe can occur verbally by declaring the produce as such or through action by setting it aside, rendering it sacred and prohibiting its sale, pledge, or exchange outside of redemption.^[16] Redemption involves exchanging the tithe for money, to which the owner must add one-fifth of its value (effectively 25% of the principal) if redeeming their own produce, calculated at the prevailing market rate for non-sacred food and drink; the minimum redemption value is one perutah (a small coin).^[16]^[17] The proceeds from redemption must be spent in Jerusalem on permissible non-sacred items such as food or drink for eating and anointing, excluding sacred offerings like heave-offering and leavened products during Passover, when any remaining second tithe or fourth-year fruit must undergo biur (removal and declaration for disposal).^[18]^[16]^[19] Procedures for transportation emphasize bringing the tithe produce or redemption money to Jerusalem, where the produce cannot be removed once entered, though money may be taken out after use; defilement risks are highlighted, as impure tithe must be redeemed immediately, and if purchased items become defiled, they require burial or other disposal to avoid misuse of sacred funds.^[20]^[16]^[21] Exemptions include produce grown outside the Land of Israel, as well as minimal amounts below the threshold—such as less than a kav (about 1.2 liters) per type of produce or less than an issar (a small coin's worth)—which are exempt from tithing obligations.^[22]^[16]^[1]

In the Talmud

The Jerusalem Talmud, compiled between the 3rd and 5th centuries CE, expands on the Mishnaic framework for the second tithe through detailed Gemara discussions in tractate Ma'aser Sheni, analyzing legal nuances and practical applications.^[23] These elaborations address interpretive challenges arising from biblical commandments, often resolving ambiguities through rabbinic reasoning and scriptural derivations. A central debate concerns the validity of verbal designation in conferring sanctity upon the second tithe. The Gemara in Ma'aser Sheni 1:1 examines whether a spoken declaration alone suffices to sanctify produce as second tithe, with some amoraim maintaining that verbal intent acquires holiness immediately, while others require physical separation or additional ritual acts to prevent inadvertent desecration.^[24] This discussion underscores tensions between intention and action in ritual law, ultimately leaning toward the efficacy of verbal designation under controlled conditions to facilitate observance.^[14] The handling of defiled second tithe receives significant attention, particularly regarding impurity from contact with unclean sources. In Ma'aser Sheni 2:1, the rabbis debate whether impure tithe must be burned like defiled terumah or can be redeemed for consumption elsewhere. The consensus permits redemption even within Jerusalem, allowing the proceeds to purchase non-impure food, as burning would waste the sacred portion without biblical mandate.^[25] Redemption calculations, including the added fifth, are clarified in Ma'aser Sheni 4:1 and elaborated in Bavli tractates such as Kiddushin 24a and Bava Metzia 54a. The formula requires adding one-fifth to the principal value—e.g., redeeming produce worth 100 units demands 125 units total, where the extra 25 serves as a penalty to deter delayed redemption.^[26]^[27] Debates focus on whether the fifth applies to the original value or the total sum, with the halakhah adopting the latter to align with Leviticus 27:31's intent for full restitution.^[14] Expansions extend to new fruits and their integration with bikkurim (first fruits), as explored in Ma'aser Sheni 5:1 alongside Bikkurim 2:4's Gemara. The rabbis apply second tithe rules to untithed new produce, mandating separation before bikkurim offerings to maintain sanctity hierarchies, ensuring that first fruits do not mix with untithed portions during Temple presentation.^[28] This integration prevents ritual invalidation and reinforces the sequential tithing process for seasonal harvests.^[29] Rules for second tithe on purchased produce are outlined in Ma'aser Sheni 3:1, requiring buyers of Israeli-grown goods to separate the tithe post-purchase if ownership transfers before tithing. The Gemara emphasizes stringencies for items bought with second tithe funds, prohibiting resale and mandating immediate consumption in Jerusalem to preserve holiness.^[30] Penalties for misuse are framed as sacrilege (me'ilah) in tractate Me'ilah, where unauthorized consumption or diversion of second tithe incurs liability for double repayment plus a fifth, akin to Temple property violations. The Bavli in Me'ilah 9b specifies that even non-deliberate misuse demands restitution, reflecting the tithe's quasi-sacred status.^[31] Theologically, the Talmud portrays the second tithe as a mechanism for promoting joy through owner-led feasting in Jerusalem, distinct from priestly or Levitical allocations to emphasize personal and communal rejoicing over clerical support. Discussions in Ma'aser Sheni 5:2 derive this from Deuteronomy 14:26, highlighting its role in fostering gratitude and social bonds without diverting portions to the Temple elite.^[32]

Historical Practice

During the Second Temple Period

Following the return from Babylonian exile in the late 6th century BCE, tithing practices, including the second tithe, were part of the broader religious reforms under Persian rule led by Ezra and Nehemiah, who sought to reinstitute Mosaic laws in the restored community of Judah. These reforms emphasized the separation of tithes to support Temple worship and communal observance, integrating the second tithe with the pilgrimage festivals of Shavuot and Sukkot, where participants consumed the tithe in Jerusalem to foster sacred feasting and rejoicing before God.^[2]^[33] In daily agricultural life during this period, Judean farmers separated the second tithe from their grain, wine, oil, and fruit harvests after allocating the priestly gifts and first tithe, typically designating one-tenth of the remaining produce for transport to Jerusalem. This involved ritual declaration and, if the produce could not be carried, redemption for coinage augmented by a fifth, which was then spent on food and drink in the holy city, excluding anything associated with mourning. These pilgrimages not only fulfilled the religious obligation but also stimulated Jerusalem's economy by infusing rural produce and funds into urban markets, while strengthening social ties among Israelites through shared meals that included Levites, strangers, orphans, and widows.^[34]^[35] Historical records from the era affirm the second tithe's observance, with Flavius Josephus detailing in his Antiquities of the Jews (Book 4, Chapter 8) the requirement of an annual festival tithe distinct from the Levite's portion, to be consumed in Jerusalem for sacred banquets, alongside a triennial poor tithe. The Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly variants in the Temple Scroll (11QT) and Copper Scroll (3Q15), reference storage chambers for tithes and firstfruits in the Temple complex, indicating structured handling of the second tithe within sectarian and broader Judean practices up to the 1st century CE; these texts also highlight its economic role in sustaining Temple agriculture and priestly needs in Judea. Rabbinic traditions from the late Second Temple era, as later codified, further guided separation and redemption procedures.^[34]^[33]^[36] The second tithe's sanctity faced challenges during the Hellenistic period under Seleucid rule in the 2nd century BCE, as Greek cultural influences promoted syncretism and questioned ritual purity laws, leading some Jews to neglect tithe observance amid pressures for assimilation. The Hasmonean dynasty, rising after the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), responded by enforcing stricter adherence to tithing as part of their campaign to purify Temple practices and assert Jewish autonomy, with figures like John Hyrcanus redirecting tithe revenues to bolster national institutions while combating residual Hellenistic encroachments. This enforcement helped sustain the practice until the Temple's destruction in 70 CE.^[37]^[38]

Post-Temple Adaptations

Following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, rabbinic authorities permitted the full redemption of second tithe produce into money, eliminating the biblical requirement to consume it in Jerusalem. This decree, recorded in the Mishnah, allowed owners to transfer the sanctity of the tithe to coins for practical use while preserving the obligation's ritual integrity. At the rabbinic academy in Yavneh around 90 CE, under Rabban Gamliel II, the sages decreed that second tithe must still be separated from produce in Israel, but could be fully redeemed for money without the added fifth, rendering it permissible for use anywhere.^[39] The redeemed money, imbued with the tithe's sanctity, was then brought to Jerusalem or, in cases of danger, to the Dead Sea, where it was discarded after symbolic declaration to neutralize its holy status and prevent misuse.^[40] These adaptations stemmed from Talmudic precedents that emphasized halakhic continuity amid changing circumstances. In the medieval period, the Rishonim systematized these post-Temple practices, with Maimonides in his Mishneh Torah establishing redemption as the normative approach for second tithe observance. He ruled that while full-value redemption was ideal for the pious—mirroring Temple-era requirements—the Sages had instituted a minimal redemption, such as one perutah regardless of the produce's worth, to ease compliance in exile.^[41] This codification reflected broader efforts to sustain agricultural laws in a Temple-less world. In certain communities, particularly in Europe and the Islamic lands, the redeemed funds were redirected toward charitable causes or the sustenance of Torah study, serving as proxies for the original festive and sacred consumption in Jerusalem.^[42] Adaptations in the Diaspora further minimized second tithe observance, as the biblical mandate applied exclusively to produce grown within the borders of Israel, rendering it largely inapplicable to expatriate Jewish populations.^[14] Nonetheless, sporadic revivals emerged during pseudo-messianic movements, such as the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE), where adherents anticipated Temple restoration and reinstituted tithe separations alongside other ritual observances.

Contemporary Observance

In Orthodox Judaism

In contemporary Orthodox Judaism, the second tithe, known as ma'aser sheni, is separated from Israeli-grown produce after the removal of terumah (priestly portion) and ma'aser rishon (first tithe to the Levites), constituting approximately one-tenth of the remaining produce.^[1]^[43]^[44] This practice applies specifically in the first, second, fourth, and fifth years of the seven-year Shemittah (sabbatical) cycle, with the third and sixth years designated for the poor tithe (ma'aser ani) instead.^[1]^[45]^[44] The separation process begins with a verbal declaration to designate the portion, such as reciting a formula like "This is ma'aser sheni" or a more detailed statement transferring its sanctity.^[43]^[44] Following designation, the tithe is immediately redeemed to desanctify it, as consumption in Jerusalem is not feasible without the Temple; redemption involves transferring the sanctity to a small coin equivalent to a perutah (roughly 5 agorot in modern terms), plus an additional 25% of its value, after which the coin is discarded, often by throwing it into the sea or burying it.^[1]^[43]^[45] Once redeemed, the produce becomes permissible for personal consumption anywhere, without the biblical restriction to Jerusalem.^[1]^[45] This obligation pertains exclusively to produce grown in the Land of Israel, including grains, wine, oil, fruits, and vegetables, though the latter two are rabbinically mandated.^[1]^[45]^[44] Rabbinical supervision is essential for certified fruits and vegetables, often handled by organizations like the Chief Rabbinate or kosher certification bodies to ensure compliance before sale or export.^[43]^[44] Deadlines for separation and redemption align with the new year for each crop type: Rosh Hashanah for grains and most vegetables, and Tu B'Shvat for fruits, preventing the produce from being considered tevel (untithed and forbidden).^[1]^[43] Despite the absence of the Temple, Orthodox Jews view the separation and redemption of ma'aser sheni as fulfilling the biblical mitzvah symbolically, maintaining continuity with post-Temple redemption rules.^[1]^[45] In some communities, the redeemed coin's value, being sacred and earmarked for holy purposes, is directed toward Jerusalem-related charity, such as supporting institutions or the needy in the city.^[45]

Variations Across Communities

In Conservative Judaism, the second tithe (ma'aser sheni) is reinterpreted symbolically, encouraging adherents to allocate 10% of their income to charitable causes as a modern adaptation, often framed as a social justice fund rather than ritual separation of produce. This approach emphasizes ethical giving over literal agricultural tithing, aligning with broader tzedakah obligations while reducing emphasis on physical separation of fruits and vegetables grown in Israel.^[46]^[47] Reform Judaism regards the second tithe primarily as a historical practice tied to ancient Temple rituals, promoting instead an ethical form of tithing directed toward tzedakah without any requirement for ritual separation or redemption. This interpretation draws on the welfare-oriented themes in Deuteronomy, viewing the tithe as a model for contemporary charitable giving to support community needs and social repair, rather than a binding agricultural law.^[48] Among secular and non-religious Jews in Israel, observance of ma'aser sheni is minimal, with many forgoing personal separation of tithes from produce; however, some engage in cultural forms of tithing through voluntary donations or taxes that indirectly support social welfare programs. Agricultural exemptions for exported fruits and vegetables, overseen by the Chief Rabbinate for kosher certification, often apply regardless of the farmer's observance level.^[49]^[50] In contrast to Orthodox standards, Karaite Judaism rejects rabbinic adaptations for redeeming and repurposing ma'aser sheni, adhering strictly to the literal biblical mandate that prohibits its consumption outside Jerusalem unless properly redeemed for use there. This insistence on scriptural literalism without oral law interpretations means Karaites do not incorporate post-Temple modifications, such as using redeemed funds for general charity.^[51]

Interpretations and Criticisms

Theological Significance

In traditional Jewish theology, the second tithe, or ma'aser sheni, symbolizes profound gratitude to God for agricultural abundance, transforming the act of eating into a sacred expression of joy and divine presence. Deuteronomy 14:26 explicitly permits the redeemed tithe to be used for whatever the heart desires—cattle, sheep, wine, or strong drink—provided it is consumed in rejoicing before the Lord in Jerusalem, thereby infusing everyday sustenance with holiness and spiritual elevation. Rabbinic sources interpret this as a mechanism to instill humility and thankfulness, reminding the tither that all provision originates from God and that physical enjoyment must be sanctified through intentional pilgrimage and communal feasting. This fosters family bonding, as the entire household participates in the Jerusalem meals, reinforcing intergenerational ties and the shared experience of divine favor. Socially, the second tithe strengthens community cohesion by mandating shared meals in the holy city, where Israelites from diverse regions converge, promoting equality and a collective sense of belonging. Participants, including the owner, their household, and Levites, partake in the meals, cultivating bonds of reciprocity and public-spiritedness that transcend individual status. Rabbi Jonathan Sacks highlights this as a foundational element of Jewish citizenship, where the tithe's consumption in Jerusalem creates social capital—networks of trust and mutual support—essential for a resilient society, drawing on rabbinic insights from the Sifrei and Sefer ha-Chinnuch.^[52] Medieval interpreters expanded these themes, with Maimonides viewing the second tithe as promoting gatherings in Jerusalem to strengthen brotherly love and friendship among the people. In his Guide for the Perplexed (3:46), he explains that the requirement to spend the tithe on food in Jerusalem obliges the owner to travel there several times a year to meet relatives and friends.^[53] Kabbalistic traditions further mystify this, linking ma'aser sheni to the sefirot of joy (simcha in Tiferet) and sustenance (flowing from Chesed through Malchut), where the act of tithing elevates material consumption into a cosmic alignment of divine energy with human action, ensuring spiritual nourishment alongside physical.^[54] The tithe's theological role extends to enhancing festival observance, particularly Shavuot and Sukkot, when pilgrims brought and consumed it in Jerusalem, amplifying themes of harvest thanksgiving and national unity. Rabbinic law aligns its redemption and eating with these pilgrimage festivals, turning the tithe into a ritual amplifier of joy and covenantal renewal central to the holiday liturgy.

Scholarly Perspectives

Scholars have long debated the historical development of the second tithe, identifying key discrepancies between the Priestly and Deuteronomic traditions in the Hebrew Bible. The Priestly code, as outlined in Numbers 18:21-32, mandates a tithe of produce and livestock primarily for the support of Levites and priests, framing it as a sacred due without provisions for personal consumption or pilgrimage. In contrast, the Deuteronomic formulation in Deuteronomy 14:22-29 and 26:12-15 describes a second tithe that Israelites consume themselves during festal gatherings at the central sanctuary, with a triennial allocation for Levites, strangers, orphans, and widows, emphasizing communal feasting and social welfare. These differences reflect distinct compositional layers, with the Deuteronomic version likely postdating the Priestly by centuries and incorporating reforms to adapt earlier practices.^[5]^[55] Moshe Weinfeld interprets the Deuteronomic second tithe as part of a broader centralization reform enacted by 7th-century BCE Judean kings, such as Hezekiah and Josiah, to consolidate worship and political authority in Jerusalem, transforming decentralized local practices into a unified national cult. This reform, evident in Deuteronomy 12 and 14, required tithes to be brought to the chosen site, curbing syncretistic shrines and enhancing royal oversight of religious economy. Weinfeld's analysis, grounded in comparative study of ancient Near Eastern monarchic policies, posits that such measures strengthened Judah's identity amid Assyrian threats, though they may have intensified tensions with peripheral communities.^[56]^[57]^[58] From an economic perspective, the second tithe stimulated trade and commerce in Jerusalem by mandating annual pilgrimages where families redeemed and consumed their tithed produce, injecting rural agricultural surplus into urban markets and fostering economic interdependence. This mechanism not only supported temple-related activities but also alleviated poverty through the third-year tithe, which redistributed resources to vulnerable groups, promoting social stability in an agrarian society. However, critics argue that the cumulative burden of multiple tithes—potentially exceeding 20% of annual yield—disproportionately strained small farmers, who lacked the scale to absorb such deductions without risking subsistence, exacerbating inequalities in ancient Israel's land-based economy.^[59]^[60]^[61] In comparative religion, the biblical second tithe exhibits parallels with ancient Near Eastern practices, particularly Ugaritic tithes documented in texts like PRU III 16.153, where villages collectively rendered a tenth of produce and property to the king for royal and official use, blending fiscal obligation with communal feasting. Both systems imposed mandatory tithes on agricultural goods without strict sacred-secular divides, though the biblical version infuses theological motivation absent in Ugarit's more secular royal tax. Scholars such as Richard E. Averbeck and Moshe Weinfeld conclude that Ugaritic influences shaped the Pentateuchal tithe, especially Deuteronomy's emphasis on centralized consumption, reflecting broader Canaanite cultural exchanges during Israel's formative period.^[62] Christian appropriations of the second tithe often reinterpret it as a precursor to general, voluntary giving rather than a binding ritual law, aligning with New Testament emphases on grace over legalism. For instance, passages like 2 Corinthians 9:7 promote "cheerful" contributions proportionate to means, fulfilling the tithe's social and worshipful aims without fixed percentages, as the Mosaic system is viewed as abrogated under the new covenant. David A. Croteau and others in evangelical scholarship argue this shift universalizes the principle, applying it to church support and charity, though debates persist on whether a 10% guideline endures as a minimum.^[63]^[64] Contemporary critiques from feminist perspectives underscore the second tithe's provisions for widows and orphans as a progressive inclusion of marginalized women, challenging patriarchal norms by institutionalizing their economic access to communal resources in Deuteronomy 14:29 and 26:12. This framework positions the tithe as a tool for gender justice, ensuring widows—often heads of vulnerable households—participate in festal life and receive sustenance, countering their exclusion from inheritance laws. Postcolonial scholars, such as Mitri Raheb, critique land-based obligations like the tithe in modern Israel as complicit in settler-colonial narratives, where biblical land promises justify territorial claims and economic disparities, displacing indigenous Palestinians and perpetuating inequities rooted in ancient agrarian mandates.^[65]^[66]^[67]

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Jun 17, 2015 · Thereupon he issued the following ruling: If one buys produce from an am ha-aretz one must separate from it the first tithe and the second tithe ...
[33]
The Priestly Tithe in the First Century A.D. - BYU Studies
One of the Dead Sea Scrolls, known as the Temple Scroll, also mentions places for storage of firstfruits and tithes. By the time of Christ, the rabbis ...
[34]
Antiquities of the Jews, Book IV - Josephus
Containing the Interval of 38 Years. From the rejection of that Generation to the death of Moses. Chapter 1. The fight of the Hebrews with the Canaanites, ...Missing: 4.240 | Show results with:4.240
[35]
Book Note | Land and Temple: Field Sacralization and the Agrarian ...
Jan 9, 2022 · This book contributes to our understanding of the economy of ancient Judea by examining the Jerusalem Temple's role as an economic point of ...
[36]
The Dead Sea Temple Scroll | Religious Studies Center
Two years later the jars turned up in a pawnshop in Philadelphia. One year later the shepherd turned up in a pawnshop in Philadelphia and neither was claimed.
[37]
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Judaism/Hellenistic-Judaism-4th-century-bce-2nd-century-ce
[38]
The Hasmonean Dynasty - Chabad.org
Generally righteous, Jochanan enacted several decrees to improve the spiritual level of the people, the most famous of which was the requirement of tithing any ...
[39]
Mishnah Maaser Sheni 1
**Summary of Mishnah Ma'aser Sheni Chapter 1:**
[40]
[PDF] Jean Ajdler - Talmudic Metrology IV: Halakhic Currency
- The coins used for redeeming the second tithe took over the sanctity of maaser sheni and, when there was no longer a Temple, this money had to be brought to ...
[41]
Maaser Sheini - Chapter 4 - ChabadofVenice.com - Chabad.org
Featuring a modern English translation and a commentary that presents a digest of the centuries of Torah scholarship which have been devoted to the study of ...Missing: debates | Show results with:debates
[42]
https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/pdf/10.18647/3041/JJS-2011
[43]
Separating Terumah and Maaser - OU Kosher Certification
May 4, 2004 · When the Temple was extant, Maaser Sheni was eaten in Jerusalem, or it was redeemed and the money was used to purchase food in Jerusalem. Today, ...
[44]
Laws of ma'aser sheni - Torah VeHa'aretz Institute
The Mishnah (Ma'aser Sheni 4:3) qualifies that this additional fifth, chomesh, is given only when a person redeems his own produce, yet this is unnecessary ...Missing: entry | Show results with:entry
[45]
Maaser Sheni (Second Tithe) - Aish.com
Within the seven year cycle, Maaser Sheni is required in years 1, 2, 4 and 5 – with years 3 and 6 designated as tithe for the poor, and the seventh Sabbatical ...
[46]
[XLS] Sheet1 - The Rabbinical Assembly
This is your Tevel. 18, SECTION 3, MA'ASER RISHON, FIRST TITHE. 19, Multiply line 17 by .1 (10%). This sum is your allocation for the first tithe, whose purpose ...
[47]
Rebranding Tzedakah: From Charity to Sacred Spending
a tithe (10 percent) for religious services. In ancient times, this supported the landless priests and Levites who ran the Temple, taught ...
[48]
Eco-Kosher's Biblical Roots | Reform Judaism
Aug 22, 2011 · But to tithe is to give a piece of yourself to another; whether in the form of money, clothing, time, or energy. Tithing is not voluntary; it is ...
[49]
[PDF] Is there an Obligation to Separate Teruma and Ma'aser?
This is limited to when final processing occurs outside Israel; however, when final processing occurs in Israel, there is no exemption for [Israeli] fruits fo~ ...
[50]
Orlah and terumot and ma'aserot for fruits and vegetables exported ...
The Bach (YD 331, incipit ve'im nikbe'u lema'aser) and Mahari Kurkus (Rambam, Hilchot Ma'aser 13:4) hold that this produce is exempt regardless.Missing: modern | Show results with:modern
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None
Summary of each segment:
[52]
Deuteronomic tithe laws and their humanitarian implications for Africa
Aug 10, 2025 · The different contexts or traditions for the concept of tithing in the Old Testament, whether Priestly, Deuteronomic or Prophetic, present the ...
[53]
Deut Weinfeld ABD
These reforms are reflected in Deuteronomy not only in the law of centralization but also in: (1) the prohibition against pillars in the worship of YHWH (16:22) ...
[54]
Deuteronomy: Religious Centralization or Decentralization?
Aug 17, 2014 · Deuteronomy's centralization of worship (in Jerusalem) is commonly seen as increasing the power of the cult. However, it is also part of Deuteronomy's ...
[55]
Moshe Weinfeld, “Deuteronomy,” in Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 5 ...
This entry in the Encyclopedia Judaica delves into the book of Deuteronomy, discussing its etymology, structure, significant themes, and historical context ...Missing: 7th | Show results with:7th
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[PDF] Tithing in Deuteronomy 14:22-29 as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation ...
Nov 14, 2024 · It is also the set of steps taken in an economic and humanitarian way to eradicate poverty in a country.Missing: trade | Show results with:trade
[57]
Tithe - International Standard Bible Encyclopedia
The general principle was that "everything that is eaten, that is watched over, and that grows out of the earth" must be tithed.<|separator|>
[58]
Review and Reaction, E.P. Sanders, Judaism Practice and Belief
Sanders' main point seems to be that the religion was not burdensome. "Financial hardship has more often than not been the fate of small farmers" throughout the ...<|separator|>
[59]
[PDF] TITHING IN UGARIT AND THE PENTATEUCH - Semantic Scholar
The tithe in Ugarit is of direct relevance to the Pentateuch tithe, especially to its for- mulation and application in the Old Testament. In comparing the ...
[60]
[PDF] Toward a Theology of Giving in the New Covenant Era - CORE
This dissertation provides a biblical and theological analysis of tithing, toward a theology of giving in the New Covenant Era.<|separator|>
[61]
The Three Tithes of the Old Testament - Ministry Magazine
Thus the second tithe was dedicated to the good of man himself, for a vacation and specifically, a vacation with a religious purpose, such as going to camp ...
[62]
[PDF] Romancing the Widow - Classics@ Journal
In this article, I will argue that the use of ´almānā in the Hebrew Bible indicates the plight of the lowest end of the financial spectrum of widows in biblical ...
[63]
Laws Concerning Orphans and Widows in the Bible - Sharon Wilharm
Aug 22, 2022 · In Deuteronomy 14:29 God provided for widows by requiring that every third year the Israelites were to bring out the tithe of their produce, and ...
[64]
How the Bible has been used to colonize Palestine - Mondoweiss
Aug 16, 2023 · Mitri Raheb's latest book is a provocative examination of how the Bible has been used to support Israeli settler colonialism.Missing: tithe | Show results with:tithe