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Self-regulated learning

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a self-directive process through which learners transform their mental abilities into academic skills by actively monitoring, regulating, and controlling their cognition, motivation, behavior, and environment to achieve specific educational goals.^[1]^[2] It encompasses metacognitive strategies for planning and evaluating progress, motivational beliefs such as self-efficacy to sustain effort, and behavioral actions like time management and strategy adaptation.^[3] Unlike passive learning, SRL emphasizes learners' autonomy and proactive engagement, making it essential for academic success and lifelong learning across diverse contexts, including traditional classrooms and online environments.^[2]^[4] Rooted in social cognitive theory, SRL has evolved from late 20th-century educational research on metacognition and self-efficacy to a multifaceted framework recognized in contemporary scholarship.^[1] Influential models, such as Barry J. Zimmerman's cyclical phases model, describe SRL as an iterative process involving three core stages: forethought (goal setting and strategic planning), performance (self-control and observation of progress), and self-reflection (evaluation and adaptation of methods).^[1]^[3] Other prominent models, including those by Winne and Hadwin (information processing focus) and Boekaerts (dual processing of goals and emotions), highlight variations in emphasis on metacognition, motivation, and emotional regulation, yet converge on SRL's role in enhancing achievement and reducing learning barriers.^[3] These frameworks underscore that SRL is not innate but can be developed through instruction, modeling, and supportive environments.^[1] Empirical evidence links strong SRL skills to higher academic performance, greater persistence, and better adaptation to challenges, particularly in higher education and digital learning settings.^[2]^[4] Reviews of over 100 studies from 2016 to 2020 confirm SRL's applicability in areas like e-learning, teacher training, and addressing learning disabilities, though challenges in measurement and contextual support persist.^[2] As of 2025, emerging research highlights SRL's integration with generative AI and immersive technologies to enhance learning outcomes.^[5] Educational interventions promoting SRL, such as scaffolded goal-setting and feedback mechanisms, have shown promise in fostering these skills from primary through adult education levels.^[3] Overall, SRL represents a critical competency in modern education, enabling individuals to navigate complex, self-directed learning demands effectively.^[2]

Definition and Core Concepts

Definition

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is defined as a proactive, self-directive process through which individuals actively manage their cognition, motivation, behavior, and environmental factors to acquire knowledge and skills and meet personal learning goals. This definition, rooted in social cognitive theory, emphasizes learners' personal agency in transforming mental abilities into academic performance, distinguishing SRL from passive reception of instruction.^[6] Unlike related concepts such as metacognition, which focuses primarily on awareness and control of one's thinking processes, or general self-control, which pertains to impulse regulation across domains, SRL is specifically goal-directed and learning-oriented. It involves a cyclical nature—encompassing planning, monitoring, and evaluation—that enables learners to adapt strategies iteratively based on feedback, fostering autonomy rather than reliance on external direction. The concept of SRL emerged in the 1980s, evolving from earlier psychological theories of self-regulation, particularly Albert Bandura's social cognitive framework, and was advanced by educational researchers including Barry J. Zimmerman and Philip H. Winne through their foundational works on academic applications. Zimmerman's seminal cyclical model, introduced in the late 1980s and refined in subsequent decades, provided a structured lens for understanding SRL as an integrated set of subprocesses.^[7] At its core, SRL comprises three interrelated subprocesses: metacognitive elements, such as goal setting, strategic planning, and self-monitoring of comprehension; motivational elements, including self-efficacy beliefs and intrinsic goal orientation; and behavioral elements, such as enacting learning strategies, managing time, and seeking help when needed.^[6] These components operate interdependently within the cyclical phases of forethought, performance control, and self-reflection, enabling learners to regulate their efforts effectively across educational contexts.

Importance and Benefits

Self-regulated learning (SRL) significantly enhances academic achievement by enabling students to set goals, monitor progress, and adapt strategies, leading to improved persistence and adaptability in educational settings. A meta-analysis of 84 intervention studies involving primary and secondary school students found that SRL training programs yielded an average effect size of 0.69 on academic performance, indicating substantial gains equivalent to nearly three-quarters of a standard deviation.^[8] This improvement is particularly evident in core subjects like mathematics and reading, where targeted SRL interventions foster metacognitive awareness and motivational self-talk, resulting in higher grades and better problem-solving skills. Longitudinal research further demonstrates SRL's role in sustaining long-term academic success. In a study tracking 1,163 Chinese college students over multiple semesters, SRL strategies—such as goal setting and time management—positively predicted grade point average (GPA), with higher SRL proficiency associated with greater likelihood of GPA improvements (e.g., increases of at least 1.0 points in some students).^[9] Similarly, in higher education contexts, stronger SRL self-efficacy has been linked to reduced dropout intentions, as students with robust self-regulation report greater motivation and lower intention to drop out.^[10] These findings extend to K-12 levels, where SRL interventions in diverse classrooms have enhanced resilience against academic setbacks. Beyond education, SRL promotes lifelong learning and professional success by cultivating adaptive skills essential for continuous personal and career development. Individuals proficient in SRL are better equipped to pursue ongoing education and workplace training, with studies indicating that early SRL development correlates with higher career adaptability and job performance in dynamic professional environments.^[11] On the mental health front, SRL bolsters self-efficacy, which in turn reduces anxiety and supports emotional well-being; for instance, training programs have been shown to reduce test anxiety through enhanced perceived control over learning processes.^[12] Societally, SRL addresses equity gaps by empowering underrepresented minority students to overcome systemic barriers, as interventions targeting strategic learning have enhanced skills and fostered independence among these groups in resource-limited settings, potentially aiding persistence.^[13]

Theoretical Foundations

The social-cognitive perspective on self-regulated learning (SRL) is rooted in Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory, which posits that human behavior, including learning processes, arises from triadic reciprocal causation involving personal factors (such as cognitive and affective states), behavioral patterns, and environmental influences.^[14] In this framework, SRL is viewed as an agentic process where individuals proactively influence their own motivation and learning through self-influence mechanisms, rather than merely reacting to external stimuli.^[15] Central to this theory are self-efficacy beliefs—individuals' judgments of their capabilities to execute actions required for desired outcomes—which play a pivotal role in initiating and sustaining self-regulatory efforts in academic contexts.^[16] Key mechanisms within this perspective include the interplay of self-efficacy with goal setting and outcome expectations, where stronger self-efficacy leads to more challenging goals and anticipated positive results, thereby enhancing engagement in regulatory strategies like planning and monitoring.^[17] Observational learning further supports SRL by allowing individuals to acquire regulatory skills through modeling the behaviors of peers, teachers, or proficient others, which fosters vicarious experiences that bolster self-efficacy and adaptive learning practices.^[18] These social interactions within the environment reciprocally shape personal agency, emphasizing that SRL is not isolated but embedded in dynamic social contexts that provide opportunities for feedback and reinforcement.^[14] Barry J. Zimmerman extended this social-cognitive foundation into a model tailored to academic learning, integrating triadic influences into a framework that highlights how self-regulatory processes operate through interdependent personal, behavioral, and environmental determinants specific to educational settings.^[19] Zimmerman's approach underscores the role of social sources, such as peer modeling and teacher guidance, in developing SRL competencies, positioning self-efficacy as a mediator between environmental cues and behavioral regulation.^[20] Empirical evidence supports these mechanisms, with studies demonstrating that self-efficacy beliefs significantly predict the use of SRL strategies and subsequent academic achievement; for instance, higher self-efficacy correlates with increased strategy deployment and better performance outcomes across various educational levels.^[16] Meta-analytic reviews further confirm that interventions enhancing self-efficacy through social modeling lead to moderate improvements in SRL strategy use and achievement, highlighting the predictive power of these beliefs in real-world learning scenarios.^[21]

Information-Processing Perspective

The information-processing perspective on self-regulated learning (SRL) frames it as a cognitive mechanism for monitoring and controlling the flow of information during learning activities, drawing from models in cognitive psychology that emphasize internal mental operations such as perception, memory, and executive functions. This view posits learners as active processors who regulate cognition by evaluating task demands and applying tactical adjustments to enhance comprehension and retention, distinct from broader motivational or social influences.^[22] A foundational framework is provided by Winne (2001), who describes SRL as involving metacognitive judgments on task conditions—such as assessing environmental cues and personal resources—to select and deploy strategies that optimize information encoding into long-term memory and subsequent retrieval during application. Key processes within this model include ongoing monitoring of comprehension through error detection, where learners identify discrepancies between current understanding and task goals, and adaptive modifications via feedback loops in working memory that allow real-time strategy refinement, such as shifting from summarization to elaboration if initial encoding proves insufficient.^[22] Butler and Winne (1995) further elaborate this by integrating feedback as a core element, inherent to metacognitive monitoring and essential for calibrating judgments of learning to improve strategy efficacy in encoding and retrieval.^[23] Metacognition is central to these operations, encompassing conditional knowledge of when and why to use specific strategies (e.g., recognizing that rehearsal suits rote tasks while elaboration aids conceptual integration) and executive control over attentional allocation and memory management to prioritize relevant information amid distractions.^[22] This executive oversight ensures that cognitive resources are directed toward goal-aligned processing, preventing overload in working memory and facilitating sustained regulation. Empirical support comes from experimental studies in hypermedia learning environments, where SRL proficiency demonstrably enhances knowledge transfer. Azevedo (2005) reviewed evidence showing that learners who engage in active comprehension monitoring and strategy adaptation—such as planning navigation paths and evaluating content relevance—achieve superior shifts in mental models and application of complex topics like the circulatory system, compared to those relying on passive exposure, underscoring SRL's role in fostering deeper, transferable understanding.^[24]

Volitional and Operant Perspectives

The volitional perspective in self-regulated learning focuses on the mechanisms that enable individuals to translate intentions into actions despite internal and external obstacles. Julius Kuhl's 1985 theory of action control posits that volition serves as a mediator between cognition and behavior, emphasizing processes like selective attention to shield goal-directed efforts from distractions and emotion regulation to maintain motivational commitment.^[25] In this framework, self-regulated learners actively engage volitional strategies during the performance phase to bridge the intention-behavior gap, ensuring sustained effort toward learning goals.^[26] For instance, a student intending to study might use volitional control to prioritize task-relevant stimuli over competing impulses, such as social media notifications.^[27] The operant perspective, drawing from B.F. Skinner's 1953 foundational work on operant conditioning, conceptualizes self-regulated learning as a form of self-management through reinforcement contingencies. Skinner argued that behaviors, including learning activities, are shaped by their consequences, and self-regulation occurs when individuals apply self-reinforcement schedules—such as rewarding completion of study sessions with a preferred activity—to sustain adaptive habits.^[28] This view highlights how learners can automate skills over time by systematically reinforcing productive behaviors, reducing reliance on external prompts.^[29] For example, a learner might establish a token economy for themselves, earning points for consistent reading that can be exchanged for breaks, thereby fostering long-term persistence in academic tasks.^[30] Integrating these perspectives enhances understanding of self-regulated learning by addressing both immediate motivational protection and habitual reinforcement. Volitional processes safeguard against distractions during goal pursuit, complementing operant mechanisms that build automated behaviors through repeated self-reinforcement, with overlaps to social-cognitive elements like self-efficacy in sustaining effort.^[31] Recent research (as of 2025) underscores this integration by demonstrating that volitional strategies mediate the positive effects of self-regulated learning on academic performance in primary education settings.^[32]

Cyclical Phases and Components

Forethought Phase

The forethought phase represents the preparatory stage in self-regulated learning (SRL), where learners engage in processes to anticipate and plan their learning efforts before actual performance begins. According to Zimmerman's cyclical model of SRL, this phase encompasses two primary subprocesses: task analysis and self-motivation, which collectively influence the quality and direction of subsequent performance and self-reflection phases. Task analysis involves goal setting, where learners establish specific, proximal objectives to guide their efforts, and activating prior knowledge to understand task demands. For instance, a student preparing for an exam might set a goal to master one chapter per day and recall relevant prior concepts to contextualize new material. Strategic planning follows, in which learners select appropriate methods and allocate resources, such as choosing note-taking techniques or scheduling study sessions to optimize efficiency.^[33] Self-motivation in the forethought phase builds commitment through beliefs that foster engagement, including self-efficacy—learners' confidence in their ability to succeed, drawn from social-cognitive theory—and intrinsic interest in the task. Visualizing success, such as imagining completing a project effectively, can enhance this motivation by increasing perceived value and outcome expectations. Zimmerman emphasizes that forethought processes are proactive and recursive, shaping the entire SRL cycle; for example, strong forethought beliefs correlate positively with performance outcomes and self-evaluative reflections in later phases.^[33] Research underscores the impact of forethought subprocesses on learning outcomes, particularly goal setting. Studies demonstrate that specific, challenging goals in the forethought phase predict higher task performance by directing attention and effort more effectively than vague or distal goals. For example, novices in athletic skills, such as basketball free throws, who engage in detailed forethought planning show greater skill acquisition compared to those relying on general intentions, as experts use hierarchical goals and adaptive strategies during this phase. Similarly, proximal goal setting has been shown to cultivate self-efficacy and persistence in academic tasks.^[33]

Performance Phase

The performance phase in self-regulated learning represents the execution stage where learners actively implement their plans from the forethought phase while exerting volitional control over their cognitive, motivational, and behavioral processes to sustain task engagement.^[1] This phase emphasizes real-time management to translate goals into actions, with subprocesses centered on self-control and self-observation.^[1] Self-control involves deploying strategies to regulate attention and resources, such as focusing concentration by minimizing distractions (e.g., selecting a quiet study environment) or managing time through structured scheduling to optimize productivity.^[1] Common techniques include imagery, where learners visualize successful task completion to maintain motivation, and self-instruction, using verbal cues to direct behavior during challenging activities.^[1] These efforts build directly on forethought planning, ensuring goal activation guides ongoing performance.^[1] Self-observation complements self-control by enabling learners to track and evaluate their progress in real time, often through self-recording methods like noting behavioral occurrences (e.g., instances of task avoidance) or logging instrumental actions (e.g., time spent on subtasks).^[1] This subprocess facilitates judgments about efficacy, allowing adjustments to effort or strategies as discrepancies arise between intended and actual performance.^[1] In Zimmerman's model, the performance phase integrates these elements as a dynamic volitional control mechanism, linking preparatory planning to adaptive execution.^[1] Empirical evidence from real-time studies, such as those employing think-aloud protocols during task engagement, indicates that vigilant self-observation during performance correlates with enhanced strategy adaptation, as learners frequently transition back to forethought to refine approaches based on monitored outcomes.^[34] For instance, higher-achieving individuals exhibit more frequent positive regulatory actions, including monitoring-driven adjustments, which improve task efficiency across varied contexts like clinical reasoning simulations.^[35]

Self-Reflection Phase

The self-reflection phase constitutes the evaluative stage of self-regulated learning (SRL), occurring after task performance to assess outcomes and generate insights for future cycles. In Barry Zimmerman's cyclical model, this phase enables learners to judge their efforts against goals and react accordingly, fostering iterative improvement.^[33] It emphasizes metacognitive awareness, where individuals analyze what worked, why, and how to adapt, distinguishing adaptive learners who use reflection to build efficacy from those who do not.^[33] This phase encompasses two key subprocesses: self-judgment and self-reaction. Self-judgment involves systematic self-evaluation, where learners compare actual performance—such as test results or project outputs—to established standards, which may include personal goals, prior achievements, or normative benchmarks.^[33] Concurrently, causal attribution occurs as learners identify reasons for outcomes, such as effort, strategies, or external factors, influencing perceptions of controllability.^[33] Self-reaction follows, incorporating affective responses like satisfaction or frustration that impact motivation; positive reactions reinforce commitment, while negative ones can prompt planning for adaptations, such as revising study techniques, or lead to defensive avoidance if unaddressed.^[33] The adaptive function of self-reflection lies in its role to close the SRL cycle, directly informing the subsequent forethought phase by refining goals, self-efficacy, and strategies. For example, attributing a poor performance to a modifiable factor like ineffective time management—rather than fixed ability—encourages proactive adjustments and sustains motivation for long-term growth.^[33] This process enhances overall learning efficacy, as reflected learners develop stronger intrinsic interest and resilience. Common practices in this phase include journaling to document outcomes, attributions, and planned changes, which supports structured self-judgment and reaction by prompting detailed analysis of experiences. Similarly, integrating peer feedback allows learners to incorporate external evaluations into their reflections, enriching causal attributions and adaptation planning through diverse perspectives. Empirical research underscores feedback's critical role in facilitating effective self-reflection within SRL. In their 2007 review of meta-analyses on feedback, Hattie and Timperley reported an average effect size of d=0.79 on achievement, with self-regulation-focused feedback particularly potent for promoting reflective judgment and strategy refinement.^[36] Such feedback aids error detection and attribution by addressing process and self-regulation levels, enabling learners to adapt more precisely than task-level comments alone. Further meta-analytic evidence confirms that interventions targeting reflection, including feedback integration, yield moderate to large effects on SRL competencies and outcomes.^[37]

Development and Influences

Developmental Origins

Self-regulated learning (SRL) skills begin to emerge in infancy through foundational precursors such as self-soothing behaviors, which enable infants to manage distress and arousal independently, laying the groundwork for later emotional and behavioral regulation.^[38] These early regulatory efforts, including attention shifting and simple calming techniques, transition into more structured self-control as children enter toddlerhood, supported by responsive caregiving that models and scaffolds these processes.^[39] During the preschool years, executive function components like inhibitory control— the ability to suppress impulsive responses—underpin the growth of SRL by facilitating sustained attention and goal-directed behavior in learning contexts.^[40] Inhibitory control, in particular, helps young children delay gratification and focus on tasks, contributing to the development of metacognitive awareness that distinguishes self-regulated learners from their peers.^[41] This period marks a critical window where neural maturation in prefrontal areas supports the integration of cognitive and emotional regulation, essential for academic readiness.^[42] From childhood through adolescence, formal schooling plays a pivotal role in cultivating metacognition, the self-awareness of one's learning processes, through structured activities that encourage planning, monitoring, and evaluation—core elements of SRL.^[43] Vygotsky's concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) further illuminates the social origins of these skills, positing that guided interactions with more knowledgeable others enable learners to internalize regulatory strategies beyond their independent capabilities, fostering autonomous SRL over time.^[44] School-based practices, such as reflective prompts and collaborative tasks, thus scaffold the shift from externally supported to self-initiated regulation during this developmental stage.^[45] In adulthood, SRL evolves amid lifespan cognitive changes, where declines in fluid intelligence—encompassing novel problem-solving and processing speed—are often offset by gains in crystallized intelligence, which bolsters the application of accumulated SRL strategies like strategic planning and reflection. This compensation allows adults to leverage domain-specific knowledge and habitual self-regulatory routines to maintain learning efficacy despite reduced cognitive flexibility.^[46] Zimmerman's cyclical phases of forethought, performance, and self-reflection serve as enduring developmental tools across these shifts, adapting to support lifelong SRL proficiency.^[1] Recent research underscores the motivational dimensions of early childhood SRL, with a 2025 integrative review synthesizing evidence that training in motivational self-regulation can enhance task engagement and overall wellbeing in young children by promoting adaptive coping during challenging activities.^[47] These findings highlight how early motivational SRL not only predicts academic outcomes but also buffers against stress, linking foundational skills to long-term psychological health.

Sources of Self-Regulation

Individual sources of self-regulation in self-regulated learning (SRL) include inherent psychological and cognitive traits that influence learners' ability to monitor and control their learning processes. Temperament, characterized by individual differences in reactivity and self-control, plays a foundational role; children with higher effortful control aspects of temperament demonstrate better capacity for inhibitory control and attention shifting, which underpin SRL behaviors such as goal setting and persistence.^[48] Prior knowledge also serves as a critical individual source, enabling learners to activate metacognitive strategies more effectively during task engagement, as those with stronger domain-specific knowledge are better equipped to evaluate their understanding and adjust strategies accordingly.^[49] Self-efficacy, defined as one's belief in their capability to execute actions necessary for learning outcomes, is a key motivator in SRL; higher self-efficacy fosters greater effort, persistence, and strategic use of learning tactics, as outlined in social cognitive theory.^[15] Additionally, genetic influences contribute to executive functions like working memory and inhibitory control, which are heritable to a moderate degree (around 50%) and form the neurocognitive basis for self-regulatory processes in learning.^[50] Environmental sources significantly shape SRL by providing external supports that either enhance or constrain internal regulatory capacities. Teacher scaffolding, involving structured guidance such as prompting self-assessment and feedback, helps learners internalize regulatory strategies, particularly during the performance phase of SRL where real-time adjustments occur.^[51] Peer modeling, drawn from social cognitive principles, allows learners to observe and emulate effective self-regulatory behaviors from classmates, boosting motivation and strategy adoption through vicarious experiences.^[52] Classroom structure, especially autonomy-supportive environments that emphasize choice and intrinsic motivation over control, promotes SRL by satisfying basic psychological needs for competence and relatedness, leading to higher engagement in forethought and self-reflection phases.^[53] Cultural influences modulate the expression and development of self-regulation in SRL, varying by societal orientations. In individualist societies, such as those in Western cultures, self-regulation often emphasizes personal agency and independent goal pursuit, aligning with SRL models that prioritize intrinsic motivation and self-directed strategies.^[54] Conversely, in collectivist societies, like those in East Asia, self-regulation tends to incorporate interdependent elements, such as harmony with group norms and relational goal setting, which can enhance shared regulatory practices but may limit emphasis on individual autonomy in learning.^[55] These differences arise from cultural values that shape how learners perceive control and responsibility in educational contexts.^[56] Socioeconomic factors act as barriers to SRL by limiting access to resources that foster regulatory development. Lower socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with reduced use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in learning, as families in these contexts often face constraints on educational materials, stable routines, and enriching experiences that build executive functions.^[57] This disparity perpetuates achievement gaps, with children from low-SES backgrounds showing lower self-regulatory competence due to heightened environmental stressors and fewer opportunities for practice.^[58] Interventions targeting these barriers, such as equitable access to supportive learning tools, are essential to mitigate their hindering effects.^[59]

Applications in Practice

Educational Settings

In educational settings, self-regulated learning (SRL) is integrated through classroom strategies that emphasize goal-setting and strategic planning to foster student autonomy. Teachers often conduct goal-setting workshops where students learn to establish specific, achievable learning objectives, monitor progress, and adjust strategies accordingly, drawing from established SRL frameworks.^[60] These workshops enhance students' forethought processes, such as task analysis and self-motivation, leading to improved academic planning and persistence. Additionally, SRL is embedded into curricula via methods like reciprocal teaching, an interactive approach where students collaboratively apply strategies such as predicting, questioning, clarifying, and summarizing during reading activities, thereby promoting self-monitoring and regulation within group dynamics.^[61] This integration supports the cyclical phases of SRL—forethought, performance, and reflection—by aligning lesson planning with students' active involvement in their learning processes. Technology plays a pivotal role in supporting SRL in schools and universities through adaptive learning software that prompts self-monitoring and personalized feedback. These tools analyze student interactions in real-time, offering nudges for goal adjustment and strategy refinement, which helps learners regulate their cognitive and metacognitive efforts more effectively.^[62] A 2025 systematic review highlights AI-empowered applications in higher education that enhance SRL by integrating tools for goal setting, metacognitive monitoring, and reflection, particularly in complex subjects.^[63] Such integrations not only scaffold SRL but also adapt to individual paces, making them particularly valuable in higher education environments where independent inquiry is emphasized. Targeted interventions like Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) have been widely adopted to teach SRL explicitly in subjects such as writing and mathematics. SRSD involves a structured sequence of instruction where students master genre-specific strategies (e.g., POW+TREE for narrative writing or self-instruction for math problem-solving) alongside self-regulation techniques like goal-setting and self-evaluation, enabling independent application over time.^[64] Developed within SRL paradigms, this approach has demonstrated efficacy in diverse classroom contexts, from elementary to secondary levels.^[65] These strategies and interventions yield positive outcomes, particularly in enhancing engagement among diverse learners, including those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For instance, SRL training improves on-task behavior, academic performance, and self-efficacy in students with ADHD by addressing deficits in metacognition and executive functioning.^[66] Overall, such applications in educational settings promote sustained motivation and deeper learning, with meta-analyses confirming moderate to large effect sizes on achievement across student populations.

Professional and Lifelong Contexts

Self-regulated learning (SRL) plays a pivotal role in workplace training, where employees increasingly engage in self-directed programs to adapt to evolving job requirements. Employee self-training initiatives, often supported by digital platforms, enable workers to set personal learning goals, monitor progress, and adjust strategies independently, fostering autonomy in skill development. For instance, meta-analyses indicate that SRL interventions in work-related training enhance knowledge acquisition and transfer to job tasks, with effect sizes demonstrating moderate improvements in performance outcomes.^[67] In dynamic professional environments, such as technology or healthcare sectors, volitional strategies within SRL— including goal commitment and resource allocation—help individuals update skills amid rapid changes, mitigating obsolescence and boosting adaptability. Research highlights that these strategies correlate with higher proactive learning behaviors in volatile job markets, where formal training alone is insufficient.^[68] Beyond professional settings, SRL extends to health and personal domains, particularly in habit formation for sustained behaviors like exercise adherence. Self-monitoring apps facilitate SRL by allowing users to track physical activity, set realistic goals, and reflect on barriers, thereby promoting long-term engagement through metacognitive awareness and behavioral adjustments. Studies show that theory-based apps incorporating SRL elements, such as feedback loops and self-evaluation, significantly increase exercise adherence rates, with users in a pilot study reporting approximately 50% more exercise bouts per week after eight weeks compared to non-SRL approaches, alongside enhanced self-efficacy.^[69] In lifelong learning contexts, adult education models increasingly integrate SRL to support continuing professional development, especially in online formats. A 2024 study in Nurse Education Today examined SRL in clinical wards, finding that nurses' self-regulatory practices—such as planning and reflection—enhance competence in dynamic healthcare environments, with implications for online continuing education programs that emphasize adaptive strategies. These models underscore SRL's role in fostering motivation and autonomy among adult learners, enabling them to navigate self-paced courses effectively.^[70] Despite these benefits, professionals, particularly aging workers, face challenges in balancing intense work demands with SRL efforts. High job pressures can deplete cognitive resources needed for self-regulation, leading to reduced engagement in learning activities and heightened fatigue among those over 55. Research on aging workforces reveals that while older professionals often employ robust self-regulatory strategies for knowledge updating, competing demands like extended hours exacerbate difficulties in maintaining consistent SRL, potentially accelerating skill gaps. Interventions targeting time management and support systems are essential to address these barriers and sustain lifelong employability.^[71]

Measurement and Assessment

Methods of Measurement

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is typically assessed through a variety of methods that target its core phases—forethought, performance, and self-reflection—to capture motivational, metacognitive, and behavioral components.^[72] These approaches range from subjective self-reports to objective behavioral traces, each offering unique insights into learners' regulatory processes while addressing limitations like retrospective bias or ecological validity.^[73] Self-report scales are among the most widely used tools for measuring SRL, relying on learners' perceptions of their motivation and strategy use. The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), developed by Pintrich and colleagues, is a seminal instrument consisting of 81 items that assess motivation (e.g., intrinsic goal orientation, self-efficacy) and learning strategies (e.g., elaboration, metacognitive self-regulation) on a 7-point Likert scale.^[72] It has been validated across diverse educational contexts, demonstrating strong reliability (α > .70 for most subscales) and predictive validity for academic performance.^[74] Other scales, such as the Academic Self-Regulation Questionnaire, complement the MSLQ by focusing on autonomy in learning goals.^[73] Trace methods leverage digital learning environments to objectively capture SRL behaviors through learning analytics, minimizing self-report biases. These involve analyzing log data from platforms like learning management systems (LMS) to track indicators such as time on task, navigation patterns, and help-seeking frequency, which reflect monitoring and control during the performance phase.^[75] For instance, sequence mining of trace data can model SRL processes as temporal events.^[76] This approach has gained prominence with the rise of online education, enabling real-time inference of regulatory strategies.^[77] Performance-based assessments provide direct evidence of SRL in action, often through observational or artifact-based techniques. Think-aloud protocols require learners to verbalize their thoughts during tasks, revealing metacognitive strategies like planning and evaluation in real time; for example, coding transcripts for SRL phases has shown experts exhibiting more frequent transitions between forethought and reflection than novices.^[76] Portfolio assessments, including electronic portfolios (e-portfolios), evaluate goal attainment and self-evaluation by compiling artifacts such as reflections and revisions, fostering evidence of self-regulation over time.^[78] These methods emphasize observable outcomes, with interrater reliability often exceeding .80 in structured coding schemes.^[79] Multimethod approaches integrate self-reports, traces, and performance measures to enhance validity and triangulate SRL constructs, addressing the limitations of single methods. For example, combining MSLQ scores with LMS traces and think-aloud observations has demonstrated convergent validity (correlations of .30–.50 across measures) and improved prediction of learning outcomes by 20–30% compared to unimodal assessments.^[73] Such integrations are particularly effective in educational research, providing a comprehensive profile of SRL across phases.^[79]

Evaluation of Interventions

Evaluating the effectiveness of self-regulated learning (SRL) interventions typically relies on rigorous frameworks such as randomized controlled trials (RCTs), which compare pre- and post-intervention changes in SRL behaviors and associated outcomes like academic achievement.^[80] These trials often employ clustered designs to account for group-based implementations in educational settings, measuring outcomes at multiple time points to assess immediate and sustained impacts.^[81] For instance, a 2025 pragmatic clustered RCT protocol evaluates a self-regulation intervention across primary school grades, tracking improvements in self-regulation at 6 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months post-intervention using validated scales.^[80] Meta-analyses of SRL interventions provide key metrics on their overall impact, revealing small-to-moderate effect sizes on learning outcomes. A 2021 three-level meta-analysis of 251 effect sizes from extended SRL training programs found positive effects on students' SRL activity (d = 0.50) and academic achievement (d = 0.49).^[82] Similarly, a 2024 meta-analysis of studies from 2017–2022 in online and blended environments reported a moderate overall effect (g = 0.65) on learning outcomes, with stronger gains in achievement measures.^[83] Recent 2025 studies highlight sustained gains particularly among underperforming or less-prepared students, where interventions enhance monitoring and strategy use to bridge performance gaps.^[84] Despite these promising results, evaluating SRL interventions faces significant challenges, including high attrition rates in long-term studies that can bias outcomes toward more motivated participants.^[85] Cultural adaptations also pose difficulties, as SRL strategies developed in Western contexts may not align with diverse learners' values and practices, necessitating tailored implementations to ensure equitable effectiveness.^[86]^[54] Looking ahead, future directions in evaluation emphasize AI-enhanced methods to track real-time SRL processes in digital environments, enabling more dynamic and personalized assessments.^[87] For example, 2025 studies explore generative AI tools like ChatGPT integrated with SRL protocols to evaluate strategy application during tasks, offering scalable insights into adaptive learning behaviors.^[88] These approaches build on established measurement methods to provide ongoing feedback and refine intervention designs.^[89]

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It deals with the prominent roles played by cognitive, vicarious, self-reflective, and self-regulatory processes in psychosocial functioning.
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Social cognitive theory of self-regulation - ScienceDirect.com
In social cognitive theory human behavior is extensively motivated and regulated by the ongoing exercise of self-influence.
[15]
Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Academic Settings - Frank Pajares, 1996
The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self ...
[16]
Self-efficacy beliefs in academic settings. - APA PsycNet
Examines the contribution made by the self-efficacy component of A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation ...
[17]
Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory - Simply Psychology
Mar 31, 2025 · Key concepts include self-efficacy, observational learning, and the idea that individuals have agency and can self-regulate their actions.Reciprocal Determinism · Observational Learning · Self-Efficacy (Belief in One's...
[18]
A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning.
The social cognitive conception of self-regulated learning presented here involves a triadic analysis of component processes and an assumption of reciprocal ...
[19]
[PDF] A Social Cognitive View of Self-Regulated Academic Learning
Social cognitive theorists assume that self- efficacy is a key variable affecting self-regulated learning. (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978; Schunk, ...
[20]
The effectiveness of self-regulated learning (SRL) interventions on ...
Oct 27, 2022 · It is therefore assumed that SRL interventions are effective in fostering L2 learning achievement, SRL strategy use and levels of self-efficacy.
[21]
Self-regulated learning viewed from models of information processing
Self-regulated learning refers to a process of regulating one's motivation, cognition, and metacognition by using different learning strategies.
[22]
Feedback and Self-Regulated Learning: A Theoretical Synthesis
Specifically, we begin by synthesizing a model of self-regulation based on contemporary educational and psychological literatures. Then we use that model as a ...
[23]
Using Hypermedia as a Metacognitive Tool for Enhancing Student ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Research shows that learners of all ages have difficulties deploying key cognitive and metacognitive self-regulatory skills during learning ...
[24]
Historical Perspectives in the Study of Action Control - SpringerLink
This example illustrates a strategy of voluntary regulation which presumably facilitates cognition-behavior consistency. Whether or not a cognition suggesting a ...
[25]
Volitional aspects of self-regulated learning. - APA PsycNet
Presents some general theory on volition, establishing its importance for ongoing research on self-regulation in school learning.
[26]
A Theory of Self‐regulation: Action versus State Orientation, Self ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Nevertheless, Kuhl's (1985) suggestion that action control takes different forms during three stages of goal-oriented behavior (i.e., before, ...
[27]
[PDF] SCIENCE AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR - B. F. Skinner Foundation
Operant conditioning. The place of operant reinforcement in self-control is not clear. In one sense, all reinforcements are self-administered since a ...
[28]
Operant Theory and Research on Self-Regulation - SpringerLink
Most theories of self-control advance a view of human behavior that is to one degree or another self-determined.
[29]
Operant theory and research on self-regulation. - APA PsycNet
Provides a brief overview of general operant theory from which the operant view of self-regulation is directly derived, provides an overview of ...
[30]
Self-Regulated Learning: A Volitional Analysis - SpringerLink
This chapter attempts to characterize the role of volition in self-regulated learning (SRL). Most conceptions of SRL include aspects of volition.
[31]
Self-Regulation & Volitional Control for Academic Achievement
The results showed that students with higher levels of self-regulated learning achieve better academic outcomes and more frequently employ volitional control ...
[32]
https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/14/5/285
[33]
Novice and expert self-regulated learning phase transitions in ...
Jul 7, 2025 · In this paper, we investigate whether novices and experts differ in the frequency and sequence of SRL phases using think-aloud protocols while ...
[34]
How individual differences shape positive and negative regulation ...
Our study addresses this gap by examining how self-reported SRL skills and prior academic achievement predict regulatory behaviors observed through think-aloud ...
[35]
Acquiring Self-Regulation - From Neurons to Neighborhoods - NCBI
Self-regulation involves mastering tasks, managing emotions, and deploying emotions effectively in relationships, not just suppressing them.EARLY REGULATORY TASKS · REGULATION OF ATTENTION...
[36]
Developing Self-Control From 0-12 Months | ZERO TO THREE
Babies have very little self-control, but with your help, babies are gradually learning about and gaining some self-control across the first year.
[37]
A Guide to Executive Function & Early Childhood Development
Executive function and self-regulation skills act like an air traffic control system in the brain, helping us manage information, make decisions, and plan ...Missing: inhibitory | Show results with:inhibitory
[38]
[PDF] Executive Function and Self Regulation in Early Childhood
Executive function skills are cognitive processes which include flexible control of attention, inhibitory control, and working memory. These skills are critical ...
[39]
Strengthening Executive Function and Self-Regulation Through ...
This study aimed to improve working memory and inhibitory control of preschool children who were attending schools in most disadvantaged districts in Ghana. The ...
[40]
Metacognition and self-regulation | EEF
Metacognition and self-regulation approaches support pupils to think about their own learning more explicitly, often by teaching them specific strategies.
[41]
(PDF) Developing self-regulation: The Vygotskian view
Aug 5, 2025 · According to Vygotsky, context is considered to be a vital factor in the development of self-regulation (Leong, 2006) . In the Zone of Proximal ...
[42]
The social origins of self-regulation (Chapter 5) - Vygotsky and ...
Jun 5, 2012 · In development, the infant's eidetic, rudimentary memory processes are gradually transformed into the capacity for voluntary memory and the use ...Missing: learning | Show results with:learning
[43]
Development Aspects of Self-Regulated Learning
Jun 8, 2010 · Self-regulated learners understand, value, and engage academic learning in ways that are fundamentally different than their peers who have difficulty in school.
[44]
Normal Cognitive Aging - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Concepts of crystallized and fluid intelligence are used to describe patterns of cognitive change over the lifespan. Crystallized intelligence refers to skills, ...
[45]
Development of motivational self-regulation in childhood—An ...
Motivational self-regulation is an important skill supporting task engagement, achievement, and wellbeing during learning and other potentially strenuous ...
[46]
Development of motivational self-regulation in childhood—An ...
Motivational self-regulation is an important skill supporting task engagement, achievement, and wellbeing during learning and other potentially strenuous tasks.
[47]
[PDF] Temperamental Effortful Control (Self-Regulation)
Self-regulation is critical because it affects the quality of children's social interactions and their capacity for learning. ... Handbook of personality and self ...
[48]
The influences of self-regulated learning support and prior ...
Prior knowledge has effects on students' SRL behaviors in the performance phase. •. The SRL support system was helpful to remove the gap of learning performance ...
[49]
Genetic and Environmental Links Between Executive Functioning ...
For instance, shared genetic influences among EF and EC would support an integrated conceptualization of self-regulation whereas independent genetic influences ...
[50]
Scaffolding Self-Regulated Learning Through Self-Assessment and ...
In this chapter, we therefore explore the relationship between two AfL practices, namely, self-assessment and peer assessment, and SRL.
[51]
Teaching self-regulation through role modeling in K-12 - Frontiers
Feb 2, 2023 · This study suggested findings of a teacher professional development training aimed at role modeling strategy implementation at K-12 level.
[52]
[PDF] Autonomy-supportive teaching: Its malleability, benefits, and ...
Feb 1, 2021 · Autonomy-supportive teaching is the adoption of a student-focused attitude and an understand- ing interpersonal tone that enables the ...
[53]
Cultural Differences in the Use of Strategies for Self-Regulated ...
This article reports the results of a study that compared the strategies used by three different groups of upper secondary school students to regulate their ...
[54]
The Influence of Culture on the Development and Organisation of ...
Aug 9, 2025 · This research examined how components of SRL are influenced by cultural variables, by testing models for individualist vs collectivist contexts, ...Missing: societies | Show results with:societies
[55]
Culture, Motivation, Self-Regulation, and the Impactful Work of ...
Mar 4, 2023 · McInerney researched culture's role in motivation, developed measurement tools, and championed Indigenous research, emphasizing culture's ...
[56]
Socioeconomic Differences in the Use of Self-Regulated Learning ...
Conclusions: These findings show a clear and consistent impact of SES on the use of SRCSs, potentially contributing to persistent academic disparities, and ...
[57]
Developmental Connections Between Socioeconomic Status, Self ...
Children from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds are at particularly heightened risk for developing later externalizing problems.
[58]
Middle class and marginal? Socioeconomic status, stigma, and self ...
In four studies, the authors investigated the proposal that in the context of an elite university, individuals from relatively lower socioeconomic status ...Publication History · Affiliation · Tests And Measures<|control11|><|separator|>
[59]
[PDF] Goal Setting and Self-Efficacy During Self-Regulated Learning By
Bandura and Schunk (1981) gave children with low subtraction skills instruction and practice over seven sessions using seven sets of material. Some children ...
[60]
Integrating self-regulation in whole-class reciprocal teaching
In this classroom intervention study, reciprocal teaching (RT) of reading strategies was combined with explicit instruction in self-regulated learning (SRL)Missing: curriculum | Show results with:curriculum
[61]
Supporting students' self-regulated learning in online learning using ...
Jun 26, 2023 · The purpose of this study is to explore students' perceptions of the use of AI applications to support SRL and to identify the pedagogical and psychological ...Missing: software | Show results with:software
[62]
Designing artificial intelligence chatbots for self-regulated learning ...
This paper reviews 78 studies from 2018 to 2025 on how AI chatbots can be created to support self-regulated learning (SRL) by leveraging technology, social ...3. The Present Study · 4. Results · 5. Discussion
[63]
Self-regulated strategies development in writing - APA PsycNet
Self-regulated strategies development in writing: Development, implementation, and scaling up. Citation. Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Santangelo, T. (2013).
[64]
[PDF] Self-Regulated Strategy Development - Institute of Education Sciences
Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) is a six-step intervention to improve academic skills, teaching academic strategies and self-regulation skills.
[65]
A critical review of self‐regulated learning interventions for children ...
May 16, 2018 · This paper examines the outcome literature on self-regulated learning (SRL) interventions for youth with ADHD by systematically reviewing the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
A meta-analysis of self-regulated learning in work-related training ...
This review examines the current state of research on self-regulated learning and gaps in the field's understanding of how adults regulate their learning.
[67]
Self-regulated learning: A person-centric approach to training
Mar 7, 2025 · Teaching employees to self-regulate their learning may be more effective than formal training because most workplace learning occurs informally ...Missing: programs | Show results with:programs
[68]
A Theory-Based Exercise App to Enhance Exercise Adherence - NIH
Jun 15, 2016 · The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a theory-based, self-monitoring app on exercise and self-monitoring behavior over 8 weeks.
[69]
Nurses' self-regulated learning in clinical wards - ScienceDirect.com
Nurse Education Today · Volume 137, June 2024, 106179. Nurse Education Today ... Self-regulated learning ability, metacognitive ability, and general self ...
[70]
Never too late to learn: Unlocking the potential of aging workforce in ...
Older workers usually use different learning strategies (self-planning, self-regulation, and self-evaluation) to link newly acquired knowledge to residual ...
[71]
[PDF] Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire - ERIC
ABSTRACT. This manual 13 a guide to the "Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire" (MSLQ) for assessing college students'.
[72]
Multimethod assessment of self-regulated learning in primary ...
Microanalysis is a special form of think-aloud protocol (Perels et al., 2020), which asks a learner to verbalise every thought they have while working on a ...
[73]
(PDF) Revisiting the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire
Aug 7, 2025 · The Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) has dominated self-regulated learning research since the early 1990s.
[74]
[PDF] Trace-Based Measurement of Self-Regulated Learning
In most research studies, however, learner engagement in SRL processes is measured via self-reports that represent learners' perceptions of their own beliefs ...
[75]
Temporal Assessment of Self-Regulated Learning by Mining ...
Nov 3, 2021 · The think-aloud method captures students' utterances of their activities as they occur, thereby generating data that can be modeled to reflect ...Abstract · Introduction · Materials and Methods · Discussion
[76]
[PDF] Trace-based micro-analytic measurement of self-regulated learning ...
The findings of the work presented in this paper indicate that future research can gain substantially by using learning analytics based on users' trace data and ...
[77]
E-Portfolios for self-regulated and co-regulated learning: A review
Nov 20, 2022 · Self-assessment is considered part of self-regulated learning processes and a key component in e-Portfolio compilation journeys.Introduction · Conceptual models · Review of evidence · Recommendations and...
[78]
Multimethod assessment of self-regulated learning in college students
Jan 11, 2021 · The present study used a multimethod approach to investigate convergence between and across different measures as well as their predictive validity for ...
[79]
Pragmatic clustered randomised control trial to evaluate a self ...
Apr 3, 2025 · This study protocol seeks to adapt the Schunk et al. (2022) randomised trial to the Australian content and extend it to grades levels 2, 4 and 6.
[80]
Pragmatic clustered randomised control trial to evaluate a self ...
The primary outcome will be improved self-regulation assessed at 6 weeks, 6 months and 12 months post the intervention.Missing: randomized | Show results with:randomized
[81]
A Meta-Analysis of Self-Regulated Learning Interventions Studies ...
Sep 1, 2024 · It was determined that self-regulated learning strategies had a “moderate” effect (Q= 0.65) on learning outcomes in online and blended environments.Missing: volitional | Show results with:volitional
[82]
Improving self-regulated learning of less-prepared college students ...
Students often struggle to accurately monitor their understanding which harms their ability to engage in effective self-regulated learning.
[83]
Evaluation of a self-instructional self-regulated learning material in ...
Self-regulated learning interventions appear to benefit students across different performance levels. In their meta-analysis, Donker et al. (2014) reported ...
[84]
Measuring the Complexity of Self-Regulated Learning and ... - NIH
Dec 15, 2023 · This study provides a validated self-report measure for educators and researchers to examine adolescents' SRL practices and academic challenges.Missing: attrition | Show results with:attrition
[85]
Supporting Culturally Diverse Students with Self-Regulated Learning
Dec 14, 2017 · Educators may struggle to meet the learning needs of children in culturally diverse classrooms. This study is part of a larger longitudinal ...Missing: attrition | Show results with:attrition
[86]
Enhancing self‐regulated learning and learning experience in ...
May 5, 2025 · Generative AI tools, like ChatGPT, can enhance learning but require support. Learners often struggle to apply SRL strategies without guidance.Abstract · INTRODUCTION · LITERATURE REVIEW · METHOD
[87]
Implementing the self-regulated learning structured interview ...
These studies highlight a range of approaches, including interviews, classroom observations, microanalysis, sequential and temporal analysis, and self-reporting ...
[88]
A qualitative systematic review on AI empowered self-regulated ...
May 3, 2025 · This systematic review explores the burgeoning intersection of Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications and self-regulated learning (SRL) in higher education.