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1946

1946 marked the first full year of peace after the Allied victory in , characterized by the formal dissolution of the ineffective and the operational commencement of the through its inaugural session in January. The year saw the conclusion of the International Military Tribunal at , where 19 of 22 major Nazi leaders were convicted of war crimes, including , establishing precedents for international justice. Early fissures of the emerging became evident with Winston Churchill's March 5 speech in , warning of an "Iron Curtain" descending across amid Soviet expansionism. In military and scientific domains, the conducted , the first postwar nuclear tests at in July, assessing atomic effects on naval assets and signaling the arms race's onset. Globally, stirrings and civil conflicts persisted, including the Greek Civil War's intensification and the Great Calcutta Killings in on August 16—sparked by the Muslim League's Direct Action Day, killing 4,000–10,000 people—leading to partition's prelude, while technological advances like the computer's public unveiling heralded the computing age. These events underscored 1946's role as a transitional juncture from wartime devastation to bipolar geopolitical tensions and institutional rebuilding.

Overview

Post-World War II Global Recovery

Following the of in 1945, global economies in 1946 grappled with transitioning from wartime production to peacetime reconstruction amid widespread infrastructure damage, labor shortages, and inflationary pressures. In , war-torn nations like and initiated and basic rebuilding efforts under Allied occupation, with the British zone in focusing on decentralizing industry and restoring agriculture to avert . The , relatively unscathed with its industrial capacity intact, emerged as the dominant economic force, boasting a GDP that had doubled during the war and unemployment rates below 2% by mid-1946. A pivotal development was the operational launch of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, later part of the ) on June 25, 1946, aimed at providing loans for postwar rebuilding and development in devastated regions. Established at Bretton Woods in 1944, the IBRD's inaugural board meeting occurred in , in March 1946, marking the start of multilateral financing to catalyze private investment in reconstruction. In the US, President signed the Employment Act on February 20, 1946, creating the to monitor and promote maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, reflecting a commitment to countering recession risks through federal policy coordination rather than direct intervention. By late 1946, wartime controls—including price caps, , and resource allocations—were largely dismantled, unleashing pent-up for automobiles (new cars costing around $1,125) and , with car surging from 70,000 in 1945 to over 2 million units. In the UK, the government's of the coal industry via the Coal Industry Nationalisation Act on January 22, 1946, sought to streamline energy critical for , though measures persisted amid export drives to balance payments. , under General Douglas MacArthur's occupation, began land reforms and economic democratization in 1946, dissolving conglomerates to foster competition and avert collapse. These efforts laid groundwork for broader , though full stabilization awaited subsequent aid like the 1948 .

Onset of Cold War Tensions

In February 1946, Soviet leader delivered an election speech in on February 9, accusing capitalist powers of instigating through their economic rivalries and asserting that future conflicts between and capitalism were inevitable due to inherent systemic antagonisms. This address, interpreted by Western diplomats as a declaration of ideological hostility, prompted U.S. diplomat to send the "Long Telegram" from to on February 22, an 8,000-word analysis portraying Soviet as driven by paranoid insecurity and Marxist-Leninist ideology, necessitating a U.S. strategy of firm rather than to counter Soviet without direct military confrontation. These communications crystallized emerging U.S. policy amid Soviet consolidation of control in , where communist regimes were being imposed through rigged elections and suppression of opposition, as seen in Poland's January referendums. On March 5, former British , speaking at Westminster College in , at the invitation of President Harry Truman, publicly warned of an "" descending across Europe from Stettin in the Baltic to in the Adriatic, behind which the was extinguishing democratic freedoms and erecting barriers to Western influence. Churchill's address, the first high-profile articulation of the division, urged Anglo-American unity and military preparedness to deter Soviet aggression, marking a rhetorical shift from wartime alliance to open acknowledgment of bipolar rivalry. Practical tensions manifested in the Iran crisis, where Soviet forces, occupying northern since 1941 under Allied agreement, refused to withdraw by the January 1, 1946, deadline set at the 1945 Tehran Declaration, instead backing the separatist regime and seeking oil concessions. Under U.S. pressure via diplomatic protests and the newly formed —where lodged a complaint on January 19—Stalin announced a withdrawal on March 24, completing it by May 9 after extracting a promise of an oil deal that the Iranian parliament later rejected, exposing Soviet opportunism and testing Western resolve without escalation to armed conflict. Atomic rivalry intensified with the U.S. presentation of the on June 14 to the Atomic Energy Commission, proposing an International Atomic Development Authority to oversee global production, inspect facilities, and eventually eliminate nuclear weapons stockpiles, contingent on enforceable sanctions against violators. The rejected the plan in September, demanding prior U.S. and veto powers in the UN, reflecting mutual distrust over and highlighting the failure of cooperative amid the U.S. monopoly on atomic bombs until 1949. These 1946 developments laid the groundwork for doctrine, formalized later in the and , as empirical evidence of Soviet —evident in and —contrasted with U.S. efforts at multilateral diplomacy.

Demographic and Economic Shifts

In the United States, the economy shifted from wartime mobilization to peacetime expansion following the demobilization of over 10 million service members by mid-1946, with contracting by approximately 11 percent in real terms during the year due to the end of that had comprised 40 percent of GDP in 1945. The Employment Act of 1946, signed on February 20, established the and mandated policies for maximum employment, production, and purchasing power, reflecting concerns over potential mass amid reconversion challenges like strikes and peaking at 18 percent. Despite a brief , pent-up consumer demand for automobiles, housing, and appliances—suppressed by —drove rapid recovery, with industrial production rebounding and stabilizing below 4 percent by year's end, facilitated by sharp cuts reducing top marginal rates from 94 percent. In , economic conditions remained dire, with output averaging 50-60 percent of pre-war levels amid widespread destruction of , including 20 percent of Europe's housing stock and key transport networks. production had fallen by 25 percent continent-wide, leading to and black markets; in , eroded savings until the currency reform of June 1948, while Britain's economy strained under debt equivalent to 250 percent of GDP and shortages that idled factories. Initial efforts focused on bilateral and the dismantling of assets in occupied zones, but systemic shifts toward market-oriented policies were nascent, with the beginning limited operations in March 1946 to stabilize currencies under the Bretton Woods framework established in 1944. Demographically, 1946 marked the onset of the baby boom in the United States and several Western allies, with 3.4 million births recorded—a 20 percent increase over 1945's 2.8 million—driven by returning veterans, economic , and deferred family formation during the . This surge, averaging 4.24 million annual births through 1964, elevated the fertility rate to 24.1 per 1,000 population and contributed to a 1.7 percent annual rate, reshaping labor markets and suburban development in subsequent decades. Similar patterns emerged in , , and parts of , though constrained by ongoing hardships. Mass population displacements persisted as a defining feature, with approximately 11 million displaced persons—liberated forced laborers, prisoners of war, and ethnic minorities—languishing in camps across , , and , including over 250,000 Jewish survivors facing anti-Semitism and limited options. Forced expulsions under agreements displaced 12-14 million ethnic Germans from between 1944 and 1950, with 1.9 million transferred to the American occupation zone in 1946 alone, entailing high mortality from exposure, disease, and violence estimated at 500,000 to 2 million across the process. These movements, involving also 400,000 Poles and 150,000-200,000 refusing Soviet , strained resources and foreshadowed long-term ethnic homogenization in .

Events

January

![Project Diana antenna at Camp Evans, New Jersey][float-right] On January 1, 1946, Japanese Emperor publicly renounced his divinity in a statement to the Japanese , declaring himself an ordinary human and emphasizing the emperor's role as a symbol of national unity rather than a , a move aimed at aligning with Allied demands for demilitarization and reform following . This declaration facilitated the transition to under the impending new constitution. On January 3, British traitor , known as "" for his Nazi propaganda broadcasts during the war, was executed by hanging at Wandsworth Prison in for high treason, marking one of the first major post-war accountability actions against collaborators. In early January, widespread unrest erupted among U.S. Army personnel stationed overseas, as thousands participated in strikes and protests demanding accelerated , with incidents in the , , and stemming from frustration over prolonged service despite the war's end and perceived broken promises by the War Department. These mutinies, involving up to 20,000 troops in some bases, highlighted tensions in the rapid transition from wartime to peacetime forces but were resolved without violence through negotiations and policy adjustments. On January 6, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh's , held its first general election, resulting in a near-unanimous victory for the communist-dominated bloc amid reports of limited opposition and coercive measures in some areas. This vote aimed to legitimize the provisional government established after the but occurred against the backdrop of ongoing French efforts to reassert colonial control. On January 7, was granted autonomy within the under King , who proclaimed independence from direct French oversight, though retained significant influence and presence, setting the stage for future nationalist movements. January 10 marked dual milestones in international and scientific history: the convened its inaugural session in with delegates from 51 nations, focusing on establishing organizational protocols, mechanisms, and addressing post-war reconstruction amid emerging superpower rivalries. Concurrently, at Camp Evans in , the U.S. Army ' team successfully bounced the first signals off the , detecting echoes after a 2.5-second delay, proving the feasibility of extraterrestrial communication and advancing technology for potential and applications. This experiment, conducted using a modified system, heralded the dawn of and inspired subsequent endeavors. Throughout the month, the International Military Tribunal at continued proceedings against major Nazi war criminals, with prosecutors presenting evidence on aggressive war and , underscoring the Allies' commitment to judicial reckoning despite debates over victors' justice.

February

On February 1, of assumed office as the first , having been selected by the General Assembly to administer the organization amid postwar efforts to foster international cooperation. On February 8, Béla Bartók's Third Piano Concerto received its world premiere in , performed posthumously after the composer's death in , marking a significant cultural event in the classical music world as his final completed work. On February 9, Soviet leader delivered an election speech in , attributing the to inherent contradictions in and asserting that future wars remained possible under such systems unless prevailed globally; Western analysts, including U.S. State Department officials, interpreted the address as ideologically aggressive and a signal of Soviet expansionist intentions, accelerating perceptions of an emerging East-West divide. The Act 1946 took effect on February 14, transferring the Bank's capital stock to public ownership under the government as part of broader postwar policies aimed at centralizing economic control, with private shareholders compensated via government stock. That same day, engineers and unveiled the (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) at the , the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, capable of 5,000 additions per second and programmed via switches and cables for artillery trajectory calculations; a public demonstration followed on February 15, highlighting its role in advancing computational technology beyond wartime applications. On February 15, Canadian authorities initiated arrests stemming from the Gouzenko Affair, where Soviet cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko's 1945 defection had exposed a extensive espionage network targeting atomic secrets and Western governments, prompting revelations of Soviet infiltration that heightened Allied suspicions of communist subversion. The Soviet Union cast its first veto in the UN Security Council on February 16, blocking a U.S.-backed resolution to investigate the Franco regime in Spain, underscoring early fractures in the organization's consensus and the USSR's defense of non-intervention in ideological allies despite Allied concerns over authoritarianism.

March

On March 5, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his "Sinews of Peace" address, known as the Iron Curtain speech, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, at the invitation of U.S. President Harry Truman. In the speech, Churchill warned of expanding Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, stating that "from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent," highlighting the division between Western democracies and Soviet-dominated states. This public articulation signaled the emerging ideological confrontation that would define the Cold War, though it initially drew mixed reactions, with some U.S. officials viewing it as alarmist while others saw it as a realistic assessment of Soviet intentions based on postwar territorial gains and political maneuvers in Poland, Romania, and elsewhere. The Nuremberg Trials continued with significant proceedings at the International Military Tribunal in . On March 8, the defense phase began after the prosecution rested its case against 22 major Nazi leaders. , the highest-ranking surviving Nazi, commenced his testimony on March 13, defending the regime's actions while the tribunal examined evidence of crimes, crimes against peace, and . Cross-examination of Göring occurred from March 18 to 22, led by British prosecutor Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, who pressed on topics including and aggressive planning, with Göring maintaining that Nazi policies were responses to perceived threats. These sessions underscored the trials' focus on individual accountability for systematic atrocities, drawing on documented orders, memos, and witness accounts from across . In , the Ho-Sainteny Agreement was signed on March 6 between Vietnamese leader and French representative Jean Sainteny, under which recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam—proclaimed in 1945—as a "free state" with its own government, army, and parliament, but within the and with continued French economic and cultural ties. This provisional accord followed the Franco-Chinese agreement of February 28, which facilitated the withdrawal of Chinese occupation forces north of the 16th parallel, allowing French troops to re-enter on March 18 amid tensions with forces. However, underlying disagreements over territorial control in and full sovereignty eroded the deal, setting the stage for escalated conflict later in the year, as French reinforcements clashed with Vietnamese nationalists in incidents like the Battle of on March 21, where hundreds of combatants and civilians died in . Greece held parliamentary elections on March 31, the first since liberation from Axis occupation, amid postwar instability and lingering divisions from the 1944-1945 Dekemvriana clashes between communist-led ELAS forces and British-backed government troops. The Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and associated groups boycotted the vote, denouncing it as rigged under monarchical influence, resulting in a victory for right-wing and centrist parties favoring restoration of the monarchy, with turnout estimated at 58% of eligible voters. This outcome prompted communist partisans to resume guerrilla operations shortly thereafter, reigniting the Greek Civil War as Democratic Army of Greece units, supported by Yugoslav and Albanian sanctuaries, challenged government control in northern regions, exacerbating economic ruin from wartime destruction and contributing to Britain's request for U.S. aid under emerging containment policies.

April

On April 1, 1946, a struck near in the , , generating a trans-Pacific that devastated Scotch Cap on , killing all five personnel there, and reached approximately five hours later, where waves up to 30 feet high killed 159 people and caused over $26 million in damage (equivalent to about $400 million in 2023 dollars). The event highlighted vulnerabilities in early warning systems, as no alerts were issued despite the earthquake's detection, prompting later improvements in Pacific . Also on April 1, approximately 400,000 miners in the United States, represented by the , initiated a nationwide strike demanding higher wages, improved and welfare benefits, and enhanced safety measures amid postwar labor unrest. The action, part of the broader 1945–1946 U.S. strike wave involving over 4.6 million workers across industries, disrupted production critical for steel and electricity, leading President to seize mines under executive authority and eventually negotiate the Krug-Lewis Agreement in May, which established a and retirement fund financed by a royalty on tonnage. On April 19, the League of Nations, established in 1920 to prevent future wars but undermined by the absence of major powers like the and failures to curb aggressions in , formally dissolved during its final assembly in , with its assets, archives, and remaining staff transferred to the nascent . The dissolution marked the end of an organization that had proven ineffective against expansion, as evidenced by its inability to enforce sanctions or , paving the way for the UN's more robust structure under the 1945 Charter. In the Pacific theater's postwar reckoning, the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, established to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes, announced procedural rules on April 25 and formally convened on April 29 in , with indictments served against 28 defendants, including former Prime Minister , on charges of conspiracy, crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and related to atrocities across . The tribunal, dominated by Allied judges and prosecutors, faced criticisms for victors' justice but documented extensive evidence of systematic abuses, such as the treatment of prisoners and civilian massacres, influencing subsequent developments.

May

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, prosecuting Japanese leaders for war crimes committed during , convened its first public session in on May 3, 1946, with proceedings continuing until November 1948. The tribunal indicted 28 high-ranking officials, including former Prime Minister , on charges including crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and , reflecting Allied efforts to establish accountability analogous to the process but focused on Pacific theater atrocities. From May 2 to 4, 1946, a violent escape attempt dubbed the "Battle of Alcatraz" erupted at the federal penitentiary on Alcatraz Island, involving six inmates led by Bernard Coy who seized weapons from guards, resulting in the deaths of two correctional officers and three prisoners, with two other inmates executed following convictions for murder. U.S. Marines provided support to quell the riot, underscoring the facility's reputation as an escape-proof maximum-security prison amid post-war challenges in federal corrections. On May 5, 1946, voters participated in a on a proposed drafted by the , which emphasized a strong unicameral assembly but was ultimately rejected, necessitating a second assembly and delaying the establishment of the Fourth Republic. King of abdicated on May 9, 1946, in favor of his son Umberto II, amid public resentment over the 's acquiescence to Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and wartime alliance with , paving the way for a June that abolished the . A nationwide railroad strike commenced on May 24, 1946, involving over 1 million workers demanding wage increases to match post-war , prompting President to deliver a radio address threatening government seizure of the railroads and potential use of military personnel as strikebreakers to avert economic disruption. The action highlighted escalating labor tensions in the U.S., where strikes across industries affected 4.6 million workers that year, testing executive authority under the wartime transition to peacetime economy. In late May 1946, Canadian authorities initiated deportations of , with approximately 4,000 individuals—many Canadian-born—shipped to war-devastated between May and December under orders stemming from wartime policies justified on grounds despite the internees' loyalty oaths and contributions to the Allied .

June

On June 2, 1946, conducted a national alongside elections for a , with voters choosing between retaining the or establishing a ; the prevailed with approximately 54 percent of the vote, totaling over 12 million ballots cast, marking the end of the House of Savoy's 85-year rule. King Umberto II initially refused to accept the outcome, citing irregularities, but departed into exile on June 13 after the government affirmed the results and Christian Democrats, the largest party in the assembly, endorsed the republican shift.
On June 8, 1946, hosted the Allied Victory Parade, a military procession involving over 9,000 British troops and representatives from Allied nations, including detachments from the , , and , to commemorate the defeat of in ; the event featured flyovers by aircraft and drew large crowds amid ongoing postwar and efforts. On June 14, 1946, U.S. representative presented the to the Atomic Energy Commission in , proposing an international authority to control atomic development, inspect facilities, and eventually destroy national stockpiles, including America's, as a step toward eliminating nuclear weapons; the plan conditioned control on verifiable and enforcement powers, reflecting U.S. concerns over Soviet acquisition amid emerging divisions. The later rejected it, insisting on prior U.S. unilateral , which underscored irreconcilable trust gaps in early nuclear diplomacy. In Mandate Palestine, tensions escalated when Jewish militants kidnapped five British officers from a Tel Aviv club on June 18 in retaliation for death sentences against two members convicted of train bombings; two officers were wounded in the incident, prompting British authorities to impose an indefinite on starting June 19 to aid searches, highlighting the intensifying against colonial rule. On June 26, 1946, Nationalist leader ordered a comprehensive military offensive against Chinese Communist forces, deploying over 1.1 million troops in 26 operations aimed at securing key regions like within months, resuming full-scale after a fragile truce brokered by U.S. mediator George Marshall; the campaign initially captured territory but strained Nationalist logistics and fueled Communist guerrilla resilience. Canada's enacted the Canadian Citizenship Act on June 27, 1946, establishing a distinct national citizenship separate from status for the first time, granting rights like passports and while preserving allegiance to ; the law, effective January 1, 1947, symbolized growing autonomy within the and addressed postwar immigration needs.

On July 1, the United States conducted the Able test of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, detonating a 23-kiloton plutonium implosion device from an aerial drop, marking the fourth atomic explosion overall and the first postwar nuclear test to assess effects on naval vessels. The test targeted 78 ships and over 90 aircraft, simulating combat conditions, though it caused limited damage due to inaccuracies in the drop. July 4 marked the independence of the from the , formalized by the Treaty of signed in the Philippine capital, with President issuing Proclamation 2695 to recognize the new sovereign republic after nearly 48 years of American administration under the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. The ceremony in involved lowering the U.S. flag and raising the Philippine one, amid ongoing reconstruction from Japanese occupation during , though the U.S. retained military bases and economic ties via the Philippine Trade Act. On July 22, the , a Zionist paramilitary group, bombed the King David Hotel in , which served as the British Mandate's administrative and military headquarters, killing 91 people—including British officials, Arabs, and Jews—and injuring 46 others. The attackers disguised as milkmen placed explosive-laden milk churns in the basement after issuing three warnings via phone and notes, which British authorities dismissed as hoaxes; the operation aimed to destroy incriminating documents seized during Operation Black Sabbath but escalated amid rising tensions over Jewish immigration restrictions. The Baker test followed on July 25, with a 21-kiloton plutonium bomb detonated 90 feet underwater beneath a landing ship at Bikini Atoll, generating a massive radioactive water column and contaminating target ships, revealing severe challenges in decontamination and biological hazards from fallout. Unlike the airburst Able shot, Baker's subsurface explosion vaporized the support vessel and rendered many ships unsalvageable, prompting reevaluation of nuclear weapon survivability for fleets and highlighting environmental persistence of radiation. The Paris Peace Conference convened on July 29 at the , bringing together delegates from 21 Allied nations to review draft treaties prepared by the Council of Foreign Ministers for , , , , and , addressing territorial adjustments, reparations, and war guilt amid emerging East-West divisions. Sessions continued until October 15, producing treaties signed in 1947 that imposed demilitarization and economic penalties on the defeated Axis satellites while straining relations between the U.S., , and Western allies over influence in .

August

On August 1, 1946, U.S. President signed the into law, establishing the five-member Atomic Energy Commission to assume civilian oversight of nuclear research, production, and weapons from the U.S. Army's Manhattan Engineer District. The legislation aimed to promote peaceful development while maintaining strict government monopoly on fissionable materials and classified information, reflecting postwar anxieties over atomic proliferation and military dominance in nuclear policy.
From August 16 to 19, 1946, communal riots erupted in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India, during the Muslim League's "Direct Action Day" protest demanding a separate Pakistan state following the collapse of the British Cabinet Mission Plan. The violence began with Muslim processions and hartals that turned into attacks on Hindu neighborhoods, prompting retaliatory killings, arson, and looting by both Hindu and Muslim mobs, resulting in an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths—predominantly Muslims—and over 100,000 people displaced or homeless. British colonial authorities imposed martial law and deployed troops on August 17, but the riots exposed deep sectarian divisions exacerbated by political mobilization for partition, with the Muslim League's call for "direct action" serving as the immediate trigger amid economic hardships and inflammatory rhetoric from leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On August 31, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at concluded nine months of proceedings against 22 high-ranking Nazi officials, adjourning after the final defendant statements to deliberate judgments on charges of crimes against peace, war crimes, and . The tribunal, comprising judges from the , , , and , had heard extensive evidence of systematic atrocities, including , setting a for international accountability despite debates over victors' and the selective prosecution of leaders.

September

On September 2, the took office in , marking a pivotal step in the transition from British colonial rule toward self-governance, with serving as vice president under Viceroy Lord Wavell; this cabinet included representatives from the , Muslim League, and other parties as outlined in the British Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The formation aimed to foster communal harmony amid rising Hindu-Muslim tensions but faced immediate challenges from League demands for , foreshadowing partition violence. On September 5, , the Nazi commandant of the responsible for the murder of thousands of Jews and others, was convicted by a in of crimes including extermination, , and plunder; he was sentenced to death by hanging, executed on September 13. , based on survivor testimonies and camp records, exemplified early postwar accountability for mid-level perpetrators outside the major Allied tribunals. U.S. delivered a speech on September 6 in , , rejecting punitive reparations policies like the and pledging American support for economic recovery and political unification to stabilize against Soviet influence; this addressed over 1,600 leaders and signaled a shift toward West revival amid the emerging . emphasized treating as a single , countering four-power division, with data showing industrial output at 20-30% of prewar levels requiring urgent aid. Winston Churchill, in a speech at the University of Zurich on September 19, advocated for a "United States of Europe" to prevent future wars, urging Franco-German reconciliation and supranational institutions; delivered to an audience including academics and officials, it influenced postwar integration efforts like the European Coal and Steel Community. Churchill positioned Britain as a friend but not formal member, reflecting his vision of Atlantic alliances over continental federation. The inaugural opened on September 20 in , , after delays from , screening 14 features including (Grand Prix winner) and attracting filmmakers from multiple nations; organized by the French government to rival , it hosted over 20 countries despite postwar shortages. The event ran until October 5, establishing as a premier venue for international cinema amid Europe's cultural reconstruction. In sports, Patty Berg won the first tournament on September 1 at the Spokane Country Club, defeating Betty Hicks by two strokes with a score of 162 over 36 holes, drawing 5,000 spectators and highlighting women's professional growth post-war. On September 2, secured the Men's Championship at , defeating Ed Oliver 6&4 in the finals, completing a that year with prior wins in the Masters and U.S. Open. The Cleveland Indians played their final game at on September 21, ending 55 years of use with a 5-3 loss to the before 5,000 fans.

October

On October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at announced its verdicts in the trial of 22 major Nazi war criminals, convicting 19 on charges including crimes against peace, war crimes, and ; twelve defendants, among them , , , , , , , , , , , and (in absentia), received death sentences by hanging, while three—, , and —were sentenced to , and seven others to prison terms ranging from ten years to twenty years. The tribunal acquitted three defendants—, , and —citing insufficient evidence of direct involvement in the specified crimes. On October 15, 1946, , the highest-ranking Nazi defendant, committed suicide by in his prison cell hours before his scheduled execution, an act that prevented the Allies from carrying out his death sentence and drew international attention to security lapses at the facility. The executions of the remaining ten condemned Nazis—, , , , , , , , , and —occurred on October 16, 1946, in the gymnasium of Prison, where they were hanged by U.S. Army executioner using short-drop methods; the bodies were subsequently cremated, and ashes scattered in the River to preclude any potential sites of veneration. On October 24, 1946, a modified German , launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in as part of U.S. Army Operation Sandy, reached an altitude of approximately 65 miles (105 kilometers) and utilized an onboard 35mm motion picture camera to capture the first photographs of from , providing grainy black-and-white images that revealed the curvature of the horizon and marked a milestone in rocketry and early space imaging technology.

November

On November 1, the (BAA), predecessor to the (NBA), played its inaugural game at the Toronto Arena Garden, where the defeated the 68–66 in a match attended by 5,760 spectators. This event marked the professionalization of in amid postwar economic recovery. On November 3, the was promulgated by Emperor Hirohito, establishing a parliamentary with the emperor as a symbolic figurehead, renouncing war, and guaranteeing ; it had been drafted under Allied occupation influence and would take effect on May 3, 1947. The document shifted Japan from imperial rule to , reflecting U.S.-led reforms to prevent militarism's resurgence. The U.S. midterm elections on November 5 resulted in gains, securing 55 seats for a 246–188 majority and 6 seats for control, ending 16 years of Democratic dominance; factors included postwar , labor strikes, and dissatisfaction with President Truman's policies. won , launching his political career. The , negotiated between Dutch officials and Indonesian Republic representatives, was initialed on November 12 and formally signed on November 15, recognizing the Republic's de facto sovereignty over , , and while envisioning a under Dutch crown oversight; it aimed to end hostilities following Indonesia's 1945 declaration of independence but collapsed amid mutual violations. Romania's parliamentary elections on November 19 delivered an official victory to the communist-led Bloc of Democratic Parties with 79.9% of votes, enabling full communist consolidation; Western observers, including the U.S. and , condemned the results as fraudulent due to voter intimidation, ballot stuffing, and opposition suppression by Soviet-backed authorities, highlighting early tensions over electoral integrity in . On November 20, United Mine Workers president ordered 400,000 soft coal miners nationwide to strike, halting production under a "no contract, no work" policy after rejecting a government wage proposal; the action, defying a prior , exacerbated fuel shortages and prompted federal seizure of mines, underscoring labor unrest in the reconversion economy. The unfolded on November 23 when French cruiser Suffren and other vessels bombarded Vietnamese quarters of after clashes over customs control, killing an estimated 6,000 civilians and igniting the ; French forces claimed self-defense against resistance, but the disproportionate response alienated nationalists and drew international criticism for colonial overreach.

December

On December 5, U.S. President issued 9808, establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine federal enforcement of civil rights protections and recommend measures to combat discrimination, , and voting barriers, amid postwar concerns over violence against Black veterans. The committee, comprising 15 members including religious leaders, academics, and civil rights advocates, was tasked with assessing law enforcement adequacy and proposing legislative or executive actions without requiring congressional approval. On December 9, the Military Tribunal initiated the (formally et al.), the first of 12 subsequent proceedings, charging 23 Nazi physicians, scientists, and administrators with war crimes, , and membership in criminal organizations for conducting lethal medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners, performing forced sterilizations, and implementing programs that killed over 70,000 disabled individuals. The trial, held in 's Palace of Justice, featured evidence from survivor testimonies and seized documents, culminating in convictions for 16 defendants, including seven death sentences, and establishing early precedents for in warfare. On December 11, the adopted Resolution 57(I), creating the International Children's Emergency Fund () as a temporary agency to deliver food, clothing, and medical aid to children affected by in and , initially funded by voluntary contributions and operating under the UN's Preparatory . 's mandate emphasized emergency relief over long-term development, distributing millions of tons of supplies by 1948, though its creation reflected Allied priorities favoring European reconstruction amid emerging divisions. On December 12, the UN approved a resolution condemning 's regime in as fascist and incompatible with UN principles, recommending diplomatic isolation, withdrawal of ambassadors by member states, and exclusion of from specialized agencies until a government representative of the Spanish people replaced it. This action, supported by the U.S. State Department despite prior wartime ambivalence toward 's non-belligerence, aimed to pressure for but had limited immediate effect, as consolidated power amid internal repression and economic . On December 19, the commenced when forces, led by , launched coordinated attacks on military and civilian targets in , rejecting ultimatums for disarmament and recognition of limited autonomy under colonial oversight. The assault, involving guerrilla tactics and urban combat, resulted in hundreds of casualties and escalated sporadic clashes into full-scale conflict, with deploying over troops by while the received covert Communist support after 1949. The war stemmed from unresolved 1945-1946 negotiations, where refusal to grant full independence clashed with nationalist demands, setting the stage for eight years of insurgency and conventional battles ending in defeat at Dien Bien Phu.

Date Unknown

In 1946, the post-World War II baby boom began in the United States and several other countries, characterized by a sharp rise in birth rates as millions of servicemen returned home, economic recovery accelerated family formation, and cultural emphasis on domesticity prevailed. U.S. births reached 3.4 million, a 20 percent increase over 1945, initiating a demographic surge that continued through 1964 and reshaped societal structures including education, housing, and labor markets. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association () cancelled its planned 1946 due to the widespread infrastructure damage, travel disruptions, and financial strains lingering from the global conflict, marking the second consecutive tournament suspension after 1942. No host country could feasibly stage the event, delaying international football's premier competition until hosted in 1950. The U.S. Army Air Forces and Ordnance Department awarded a contract for "Project " to develop a high-rate-of-fire aircraft cannon, laying groundwork for the M61 20 mm Gatling gun, which employed electrically powered rotary mechanisms inspired by 19th-century designs but adapted for modern aerial combat needs.

Major Controversies and Debates

Nuremberg Trials and Questions of Justice

The International Military Tribunal (IMT) concluded its trial of 22 major Nazi war criminals on October 1, 1946, when verdicts were delivered following proceedings that began on November 20, 1945. The tribunal, composed of judges from the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and France, convicted 19 defendants of crimes including war crimes, crimes against peace, and crimes against humanity, as defined in its August 8, 1945, charter. Three defendants—Hjalmar Schacht, Franz von Papen, and Hans Fritzsche—were acquitted due to insufficient evidence linking them to the charged conspiracies. Twelve defendants, including Hermann Göring, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel, and Ernst Kaltenbrunner, received death sentences by hanging, with executions carried out on October 16, 1946, after Göring's suicide. Three others—Rudolf Hess, Walther Funk, and Erich Raeder—were sentenced to life imprisonment, while four received prison terms of 10 to 20 years. The proceedings established legal precedents for individual accountability in , relying on extensive evidence such as Nazi documentation and survivor testimonies to substantiate charges, particularly regarding the systematic extermination of six million Jews and other atrocities. However, the trials faced immediate and enduring criticisms concerning their adherence to foundational legal principles. A primary objection was the retroactive application of criminal liability, as charges like "crimes against peace" (planning aggressive war) lacked prior codification in binding , contravening the nullum crimen sine lege doctrine enshrined in Article 1 of the 1945 London Charter only after the acts occurred. Defense counsel, including Otto Kranzbühler, argued this violated German domestic law and customary norms against ex post facto punishment, a view echoed in scholarly analyses questioning the tribunal's legitimacy under positivist legal theory. Further scrutiny arose over claims of "victor's justice," wherein the prosecuting powers selectively targeted leaders while exempting Allied actions, such as the firebombing of Dresden (resulting in approximately 25,000 civilian deaths in February 1945) or the Soviet invasion of eastern in 1939, from analogous prosecution. The Soviet judge's participation, despite the USSR's with and its own war crimes like the Katyn Forest massacre (denied by Soviet prosecutors during the trial), underscored perceived double standards and political motivations over impartial adjudication. U.S. Chief Prosecutor acknowledged risks of hypocrisy in his opening statement, yet the rejection of defenses—dismissing Allied comparability arguments—prioritized moral condemnation over procedural equity. Later reflections by subsequent Nuremberg prosecutor highlighted the trials' failure to broadly implicate German society or industrial enablers, suggesting a narrow focus that mitigated deeper systemic accountability. Despite these flaws, the IMT's documentation of Nazi crimes provided an empirical foundation for rejecting defenses of , affirming that obedience does not absolve personal responsibility for evident atrocities, a principle later incorporated into the . Critics from legal scholars to German contemporaries maintained that the tribunal's innovations, while advancing norms, compromised judicial purity by subordinating to retribution, potentially eroding trust in institutions amid postwar power imbalances. Empirical data from trial records, including over 3,000 tons of captured documents, substantiated many convictions but could not fully dispel doubts about the proceedings' universality, as no equivalent scrutiny applied to victors' strategic decisions causing mass civilian casualties.

Atomic Testing and Nuclear Proliferation Concerns

In July 1946, the United States conducted Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, marking the first nuclear weapons tests following World War II. The operation comprised two detonations: the Able test on July 1, an airburst of a 23-kiloton plutonium implosion device similar to the Nagasaki bomb, which detonated 520 feet above the target fleet of 78 ships but deviated from its aim point, causing limited damage with five ships sunk and nine seriously damaged. The Baker test on July 25 involved an underwater detonation at 90 feet depth, generating a massive water column and radioactive base surge that contaminated surviving vessels extensively, sinking eight ships immediately and rendering many others irreparable due to fallout, with radioactivity persisting for weeks and halting decontamination efforts. These tests aimed to evaluate nuclear weapons' effects on naval targets, equipment, and personnel, revealing the weapons' destructive potential against fleets while exposing unforeseen radiological hazards that affected over 42,000 participants and foreshadowed broader environmental and health risks. Concurrent with these demonstrations of American nuclear supremacy, 1946 saw heightened international apprehensions regarding atomic proliferation, as the U.S. monopoly on nuclear weapons faced scrutiny amid Soviet espionage revelations and rapid technological diffusion risks. On June 14, , representing the United States before the Atomic Energy Commission, proposed the , advocating an International Atomic Development Authority under UN auspices to oversee all atomic activities, conduct inspections, manage fissile materials, and enforce penalties for violations, with U.S. stockpiles to be destroyed only after verifiable global safeguards were in place. This initiative, building on the earlier Acheson-Lilienthal Report, sought to prevent an by prioritizing effective international control over a mere prohibition treaty, yet it encountered Soviet opposition, which insisted on immediate armament bans without prior verification, viewing the plan's staged disarmament as preserving U.S. advantage; the proposal ultimately failed in the UN Security Council by December 1946 due to veto threats. Domestically, the , signed by President on August 1, institutionalized civilian oversight of nuclear programs by establishing the Atomic Energy Commission () to manage development, production, and dissemination of atomic energy, explicitly for both military and peaceful ends while prohibiting private ownership of fissionable materials to safeguard against proliferation. This legislation transferred authority from the military-led Manhattan Engineer District, emphasizing secrecy and government monopoly to mitigate risks of technology leakage, though it reflected debates over balancing national security with international cooperation amid fears that unchecked spread could destabilize global order. The Act's framework underscored U.S. strategic hedging, prioritizing retention of technical edge as proliferation concerns intensified, with intelligence indicating Soviet progress toward independent capabilities despite the Baruch Plan's collapse.

Violence in the Indian Subcontinent

The most significant outbreak of communal violence in the Indian subcontinent in 1946 began with Direct Action Day on August 16, proclaimed by the All-India Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah to press for the creation of Pakistan following the failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan. In Calcutta, the day of planned hartal and protests rapidly escalated into widespread riots between Hindus and Muslims, lasting from August 16 to 19, with initial attacks by Muslim mobs on Hindu neighborhoods using knives, spears, and arson, followed by retaliatory violence. Official estimates placed the death toll at over 4,000, though contemporary reports and later analyses suggest between 4,000 and 10,000 killed, with 100,000 left homeless and tens of thousands injured. British authorities deployed troops and imposed curfews, but the riots exposed deep sectarian divides exacerbated by political mobilization and economic grievances in post-war Bengal. The Calcutta violence triggered a chain of reprisals across Bengal and beyond. In early October, riots erupted in Noakhali district of East Bengal, where Muslim crowds, reportedly organized under local League leaders like Gholam Sarwar Husseini, conducted systematic attacks on Hindu villages, involving mass killings, rapes, forced conversions, abductions, and destruction of property over several weeks starting around October 10. Thousands of Hindus fled or were displaced, with estimates of deaths ranging from several hundred to over 5,000, though precise figures remain disputed due to limited official reporting amid ongoing chaos. Mahatma Gandhi undertook a walking tour through the affected areas from November 1946 to restore peace, emphasizing non-violence and intercommunal dialogue, but the events underscored the fragility of Hindu-Muslim relations in Muslim-majority regions. In retaliation, large-scale anti-Muslim riots swept from October 25 to early November, with Hindu mobs targeting Muslim communities in districts such as , , and Saran, resulting in , lootings, and massacres that claimed 7,000 to 8,000 lives. British and provincial authorities, including Governor Sir Francis Mudie, struggled to contain the violence, with military intervention eventually quelling the unrest by November 7; parliamentary records documented over 7,000 Muslim casualties in alone. These episodes, part of a broader wave of sectarian clashes, intensified demands for and foreshadowed the mass migrations and violence of 1947, with total 1946 casualties across the subcontinent exceeding 15,000.

Political Crises in Emerging Nations

In 1946, the Azerbaijan crisis in Iran exemplified superpower interference in emerging nations, as Soviet forces, occupying northern Iran since 1941, supported the establishment of the Azerbaijan People's Government in December 1945 under Ja'far Pishevari. This separatist regime, backed by the Soviet-installed Democratic Party of Azerbaijan, controlled the northwestern province amid demands for autonomy and resource control, including oil concessions that Moscow sought to secure. The United Nations Security Council addressed the issue on January 19, 1946, urging Soviet withdrawal as per wartime agreements, prompting the USSR to announce troop pullout on March 24 but delaying until May after failed negotiations. Iranian forces reentered the region in December, leading to the regime's collapse by December 15, with hundreds killed in the fighting and Pishevari fleeing to the Soviet Union. The Greek Civil War intensified in 1946, marking a proxy conflict in Europe's periphery as communist guerrillas of the , reorganized from earlier resistance groups, challenged the British-backed monarchist government following disputed elections on March 31. Boycotted by the , the vote returned a right-wing majority, prompting the communists to abandon parliamentary politics and launch widespread by , controlling rural areas and receiving covert Yugoslav aid. Government forces, suffering around 48,000 casualties by war's end, relied on British military support until financial strains led to U.S. involvement, foreshadowing policies; the conflict displaced thousands and devastated the economy in this war-ravaged nation emerging from occupation. Communal violence erupted in on August 16, 1946, during proclaimed by the Muslim League to press for a separate , resulting in the Calcutta Killings where and clashed ferociously, leaving an estimated 4,000 to 10,000 dead and 100,000 homeless over four days of arson, stabbing, and mob attacks. The riots, instigated amid negotiations and fueled by rumors and political mobilization, spread to Noakhali in October, where Muslim mobs targeted , killing thousands and forcing conversions or flight in a precursor to the 1947 massacres. authorities deployed troops, but the failure to contain the unrest highlighted deepening sectarian divides in the subcontinent's independence struggle. Vietnam's political crisis culminated in the outbreak of the on December 19, 1946, when forces under attacked French positions in after negotiations collapsed over French refusal to recognize full independence following the 1945 declaration. Preceded by French bombardment of on November 23, killing up to 6,000 civilians, the conflict pitted nationalist-communist guerrillas against recolonizing French troops, drawing in Chinese Nationalist forces in the north and setting the stage for prolonged warfare that claimed tens of thousands of lives by 1954. In , the national revolution against Dutch reconquest persisted through 1946, with republican forces holding key areas until the on November 15 tentatively recognized de facto sovereignty, averting immediate full-scale invasion but leading to Dutch police actions in 1947.

Science, Technology, and Innovation

Computing and Electronics Breakthroughs

In 1946, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was publicly unveiled on February 14 at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering, marking the debut of the first general-purpose electronic digital computer. Developed by engineers John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly under contract for the U.S. Army Ordnance Department, ENIAC was initially designed to compute artillery firing tables for World War II but arrived too late for wartime use. The machine consisted of approximately 18,000 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 resistors, and 10,000 capacitors, occupying 1,800 square feet, weighing 30 tons, and consuming 150 kilowatts of power. It performed about 5,000 additions per second, a vast improvement over mechanical calculators, though programming required manual rewiring and switch settings, limiting reconfiguration speed. ENIAC's architecture influenced subsequent computer designs, including the transition toward stored-program systems, as evidenced by the Moore School Lectures held from July 8 to August 30, 1946, where and others presented concepts for electronic digital computers, emphasizing and electronic speed. These lectures, attended by over 30 institutions, disseminated foundational ideas for modern computing, including the EDVAC report's influence on separating data and instructions in memory. Despite its inefficiencies, such as frequent tube failures requiring daily maintenance, ENIAC demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale electronic computation for scientific and military applications, paving the way for post-war computing advancements. A significant electronics milestone occurred on January 10, 1946, when the U.S. Army ' Project successfully bounced signals off the from Camp Evans, , achieving the first confirmed radio contact with an extraterrestrial body. Led by Colonel John H. DeWitt, the project utilized a modified system operating at 111 MHz with a 60-foot of 64 dipoles, transmitting short pulses that returned echoes after a 2.5-second round-trip delay, accurately measuring the Earth- distance at approximately 384,400 kilometers. This experiment validated 's potential for long-range propagation beyond the , overcoming absorption issues, and initiated techniques later used for planetary mapping and communications. Project Diana's success, repeated on subsequent nights with recorded echoes, demonstrated the viability of microwave frequencies for space applications and influenced developments in satellite technology and communications. The project's wartime heritage, combined with post-war innovation, highlighted ' role in extending human sensing capabilities, though initial delayed broader until 1947. These 1946 achievements underscored the shift from electromechanical to fully electronic systems in and communications, driven by needs and fundamental physics understanding.

Nuclear and Military Technological Advances

In July 1946, the United States conducted Operation Crossroads, the first series of peacetime nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands, aimed at evaluating the effects of atomic weapons on naval vessels, aircraft, and equipment. The operation involved two detonations using plutonium implosion devices similar to the Fat Man bomb: the Able shot on July 1, an airburst at 520 feet altitude with a yield of approximately 23 kilotons, which detonated off-target and damaged only five of the 78 target ships minimally. The Baker shot followed on July 25, an underwater explosion at 90 feet depth that generated a massive water column and radioactive mist, sinking eight ships immediately, including the captured Japanese cruiser Akagi, and contaminating many others, revealing the severe blast, thermal, and radiological hazards to fleets. These tests, observed by over 42,000 personnel from multiple nations, provided critical data on nuclear weapon survivability and influenced future naval design and defense strategies, though they also highlighted unforeseen environmental and health risks from fallout. Concurrently, the United States advanced rocketry through the testing of captured German V-2 ballistic missiles at White Sands Proving Ground in New Mexico, marking the onset of American missile technology development. The first successful U.S. launch occurred on April 16, 1946, when V-2 rocket No. 3 reached an altitude of about 5 miles before crashing due to a control failure, followed by more reliable flights throughout the year, including the first two-stage rocket combination on October 24 with V-2 No. 13 achieving 65 miles altitude. By December 1946, 13 launches had been attempted, yielding data on high-altitude ballistics, guidance systems, and propulsion that informed subsequent U.S. programs like the Redstone missile and early space efforts under Operation Paperclip, which integrated German engineers such as Wernher von Braun. These efforts demonstrated the V-2's liquid-fueled engine capabilities, traveling at supersonic speeds up to 3,500 mph, and laid foundational engineering principles for intercontinental ballistic missiles amid emerging Cold War tensions. The Atomic Energy Act of August 1, 1946, shifted development from military to civilian control under the Atomic Energy Commission, facilitating organized research into improved fission weapons and technology while prohibiting foreign assistance, though it spurred independent programs elsewhere. These 1946 advancements underscored the rapid militarization of and missile technologies, prioritizing empirical testing over international controls proposed that year, such as the , which ultimately failed to curb proliferation.

Medical and Chemical Discoveries

In 1946, the was awarded to James B. Sumner, John H. Northrop, and Wendell M. Stanley for pioneering work demonstrating that enzymes and viruses could be isolated and crystallized as pure chemical substances, challenging prior views that these biological agents were inherently colloidal or indivisible. Sumner's 1926 crystallization of from jack beans established enzymes as proteins amenable to chemical purification, while Northrop crystallized and , confirming their protein nature through enzymatic activity retention post-crystallization. Stanley's purification of the as crystalline protein-nucleic acid aggregates provided direct evidence that viruses behave as large molecules rather than borderline life forms, enabling quantitative chemical analysis of infectivity. These advances facilitated precise biochemical studies, including early protein sequencing precursors and virus inactivation methods, laying groundwork for antiviral therapies and enzyme engineering. Concurrently, in , received the in Physiology or for his 1927 experiments inducing via X-rays, with 1946 recognition underscoring radiation's mutagenic effects on germ cells, informing safety protocols and cancer research. Significant microbiological progress included Joshua Lederberg's demonstration of genetic recombination in Escherichia coli, revealing bacteria exchange DNA segments during reproduction, akin to eukaryotic meiosis, which advanced understanding of antibiotic resistance evolution and microbial genetics. In hematology, Louis K. Diamond detailed Rh incompatibility as a cause of hemolytic disease in newborns, attributing it to maternal anti-Rh antibodies destroying fetal red blood cells, prompting preventive exchange transfusions and later RhoGAM development. These findings, grounded in empirical observation, emphasized causal mechanisms over speculative theories, enhancing targeted interventions amid rising infectious disease burdens.

Awards and Recognitions

Nobel Prizes

In 1946, the awarded prizes in physics, , physiology or medicine, literature, and peace, recognizing scientific and humanitarian contributions amid postwar efforts. These awards, announced between October and December, highlighted advancements in high-pressure physics, enzymology, genetic , introspective literature, and international . Physics: received the for inventing an apparatus to generate extremely high pressures—up to 10,000 atmospheres—and for subsequent discoveries in high-pressure physics, including phase transitions in materials like and metals. His work, conducted at , enabled experimental studies of matter under conditions simulating planetary interiors. Chemistry: The prize was shared: James Batcheller Sumner earned half for discovering that enzymes could be crystallized, proving they are proteins, through isolating from jack beans in 1926. The other half went jointly to John Howard Northrop and for crystallizing enzymes like and viruses such as , demonstrating their protein nature and enabling purification techniques. These breakthroughs at Cornell and Rockefeller Institute advanced biochemistry by bridging and . Physiology or Medicine: was awarded for discovering that X-rays induce in fruit flies (), reported in 1927, establishing ionizing radiation's mutagenic effects and informing radiation safety standards. His experiments quantified rates, influencing and debates, though the prize emphasized empirical genetic mechanisms over policy implications. Literature: Hermann Hesse, a German-born Swiss author, won for writings like Steppenwolf and , praised for classical humanitarian ideals, stylistic depth, and philosophical penetration amid Europe's turmoil. Hesse's introspective novels explored and , gaining recognition after initial controversy in . Peace: The prize was divided equally: for lifelong , including co-founding the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom and advocating post-World War I; and John Raleigh Mott for fostering ecumenical Christian movements that promoted cross-national brotherhood and student-led peace initiatives through the . Balch's efforts persisted despite U.S. government dismissal, while Mott's work reached millions globally.
CategoryLaureate(s)Key Contribution
PhysicsHigh-pressure apparatus and discoveries in material properties under extreme conditions.
ChemistryJames B. Sumner; John H. Northrop and Wendell M. Stanley (joint)Crystallization of enzymes and virus proteins, confirming their nature as proteins.
Physiology or MedicineInduction of via X-rays, advancing understanding of genetic damage.
LiteratureHumanistic writings blending , , and critique of .
Peace and John Raleigh Mott (divided)Lifelong peace advocacy through international organizations and religious unity.

Births

January

![Project Diana antenna at Camp Evans, New Jersey][float-right] On January 1, 1946, Japanese Emperor publicly renounced his divinity in a statement to the Japanese diet, declaring himself an ordinary human and emphasizing the emperor's role as a of national unity rather than a , a move aimed at aligning with Allied demands for demilitarization and reform following . This declaration facilitated the transition to under the impending new constitution. On January 3, British traitor , known as "" for his Nazi propaganda broadcasts during the war, was executed by hanging at Wandsworth Prison in for high treason, marking one of the first major post-war accountability actions against collaborators. In early January, widespread unrest erupted among U.S. Army personnel stationed overseas, as thousands participated in strikes and protests demanding accelerated , with incidents in the , , and stemming from frustration over prolonged service despite the war's end and perceived broken promises by the War Department. These mutinies, involving up to 20,000 troops in some bases, highlighted tensions in the rapid transition from wartime to peacetime forces but were resolved without violence through negotiations and policy adjustments. On January 6, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh's , held its first general election, resulting in a near-unanimous victory for the communist-dominated bloc amid reports of limited opposition and coercive measures in some areas. This vote aimed to legitimize the provisional government established after the but occurred against the backdrop of ongoing French efforts to reassert colonial control. On January 7, was granted autonomy within the under King , who proclaimed independence from direct French oversight, though retained significant influence and presence, setting the stage for future nationalist movements. January 10 marked dual milestones in international and scientific history: the convened its inaugural session in with delegates from 51 nations, focusing on establishing organizational protocols, mechanisms, and addressing post-war reconstruction amid emerging superpower rivalries. Concurrently, at Camp Evans in , the U.S. Army ' team successfully bounced the first signals off the , detecting echoes after a 2.5-second delay, proving the feasibility of extraterrestrial communication and advancing technology for potential and applications. This experiment, conducted using a modified system, heralded the dawn of and inspired subsequent endeavors. Throughout the month, the International Military Tribunal at continued proceedings against major Nazi war criminals, with prosecutors presenting evidence on aggressive war and , underscoring the Allies' commitment to judicial reckoning despite debates over victors' justice.

February

On February 1, of assumed office as the first , having been selected by the General Assembly to administer the organization amid postwar efforts to foster international cooperation. On February 8, Béla Bartók's Third Piano Concerto received its world premiere in , performed posthumously after the composer's death in , marking a significant cultural event in the classical music world as his final completed work. On February 9, Soviet leader delivered an election speech in , attributing the to inherent contradictions in and asserting that future wars remained possible under such systems unless prevailed globally; Western analysts, including U.S. State Department officials, interpreted the address as ideologically aggressive and a signal of Soviet expansionist intentions, accelerating perceptions of an emerging East-West divide. The Act 1946 took effect on February 14, transferring the Bank's capital stock to public ownership under the government as part of broader postwar policies aimed at centralizing economic control, with private shareholders compensated via government stock. That same day, engineers and unveiled the (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) at the , the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, capable of 5,000 additions per second and programmed via switches and cables for artillery trajectory calculations; a public demonstration followed on February 15, highlighting its role in advancing computational technology beyond wartime applications. On February 15, Canadian authorities initiated arrests stemming from the Gouzenko Affair, where Soviet cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko's 1945 defection had exposed a extensive espionage network targeting atomic secrets and Western governments, prompting revelations of Soviet infiltration that heightened Allied suspicions of communist subversion. The Soviet Union cast its first veto in the UN Security Council on February 16, blocking a U.S.-backed resolution to investigate the Franco regime in Spain, underscoring early fractures in the organization's consensus and the USSR's defense of non-intervention in ideological allies despite Allied concerns over authoritarianism.

March

On March 5, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his "Sinews of Peace" address, known as the Iron Curtain speech, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, at the invitation of U.S. President Harry Truman. In the speech, Churchill warned of expanding Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, stating that "from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent," highlighting the division between Western democracies and Soviet-dominated states. This public articulation signaled the emerging ideological confrontation that would define the Cold War, though it initially drew mixed reactions, with some U.S. officials viewing it as alarmist while others saw it as a realistic assessment of Soviet intentions based on postwar territorial gains and political maneuvers in Poland, Romania, and elsewhere. The Nuremberg Trials continued with significant proceedings at the International Military Tribunal in . On March 8, the defense phase began after the prosecution rested its case against 22 major Nazi leaders. , the highest-ranking surviving Nazi, commenced his testimony on March 13, defending the regime's actions while the tribunal examined evidence of crimes, crimes against peace, and . Cross-examination of Göring occurred from March 18 to 22, led by British prosecutor Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, who pressed on topics including and aggressive planning, with Göring maintaining that Nazi policies were responses to perceived threats. These sessions underscored the trials' focus on individual accountability for systematic atrocities, drawing on documented orders, memos, and witness accounts from across . In , the Ho-Sainteny Agreement was signed on March 6 between Vietnamese leader and French representative Jean Sainteny, under which recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam—proclaimed in 1945—as a "free state" with its own government, army, and parliament, but within the and with continued French economic and cultural ties. This provisional accord followed the Franco-Chinese agreement of February 28, which facilitated the withdrawal of Chinese occupation forces north of the 16th parallel, allowing French troops to re-enter on March 18 amid tensions with forces. However, underlying disagreements over territorial control in and full sovereignty eroded the deal, setting the stage for escalated conflict later in the year, as French reinforcements clashed with Vietnamese nationalists in incidents like the Battle of on March 21, where hundreds of combatants and civilians died in . Greece held parliamentary elections on March 31, the first since liberation from Axis occupation, amid postwar instability and lingering divisions from the 1944-1945 Dekemvriana clashes between communist-led ELAS forces and British-backed government troops. The Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and associated groups boycotted the vote, denouncing it as rigged under monarchical influence, resulting in a victory for right-wing and centrist parties favoring restoration of the monarchy, with turnout estimated at 58% of eligible voters. This outcome prompted communist partisans to resume guerrilla operations shortly thereafter, reigniting the Greek Civil War as Democratic Army of Greece units, supported by Yugoslav and Albanian sanctuaries, challenged government control in northern regions, exacerbating economic ruin from wartime destruction and contributing to Britain's request for U.S. aid under emerging containment policies.

April

On April 1, 1946, a struck near in the , , generating a trans-Pacific that devastated Scotch Cap on , killing all five personnel there, and reached approximately five hours later, where waves up to 30 feet high killed 159 people and caused over $26 million in damage (equivalent to about $400 million in 2023 dollars). The event highlighted vulnerabilities in early warning systems, as no alerts were issued despite the 's detection, prompting later improvements in Pacific . Also on April 1, approximately 400,000 miners in the United States, represented by the , initiated a nationwide strike demanding higher wages, improved and welfare benefits, and enhanced safety measures amid postwar labor unrest. The action, part of the broader 1945–1946 U.S. strike wave involving over 4.6 million workers across industries, disrupted production critical for steel and electricity, leading President to seize mines under executive authority and eventually negotiate the Krug-Lewis Agreement in May, which established a and retirement fund financed by a royalty on tonnage. On April 19, the League of Nations, established in 1920 to prevent future wars but undermined by the absence of major powers like the and failures to curb aggressions in , formally dissolved during its final assembly in , with its assets, archives, and remaining staff transferred to the nascent . The dissolution marked the end of an organization that had proven ineffective against expansion, as evidenced by its inability to enforce sanctions or , paving the way for the UN's more robust structure under the 1945 Charter. In the Pacific theater's postwar reckoning, the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, established to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes, announced procedural rules on April 25 and formally convened on April 29 in , with indictments served against 28 defendants, including former Prime Minister , on charges of conspiracy, crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and related to atrocities across . The tribunal, dominated by Allied judges and prosecutors, faced criticisms for victors' justice but documented extensive evidence of systematic abuses, such as the treatment of prisoners and civilian massacres, influencing subsequent developments.

May

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, prosecuting Japanese leaders for war crimes committed during , convened its first public session in on May 3, 1946, with proceedings continuing until November 1948. The tribunal indicted 28 high-ranking officials, including former Prime Minister , on charges including crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and , reflecting Allied efforts to establish accountability analogous to the process but focused on Pacific theater atrocities. From May 2 to 4, 1946, a violent escape attempt dubbed the "Battle of Alcatraz" erupted at the federal penitentiary on Alcatraz Island, involving six inmates led by Bernard Coy who seized weapons from guards, resulting in the deaths of two correctional officers and three prisoners, with two other inmates executed following convictions for murder. U.S. Marines provided support to quell the riot, underscoring the facility's reputation as an escape-proof maximum-security prison amid post-war challenges in federal corrections. On May 5, 1946, voters participated in a on a proposed drafted by the , which emphasized a strong unicameral assembly but was ultimately rejected, necessitating a second assembly and delaying the establishment of the Fourth Republic. King of abdicated on May 9, 1946, in favor of his son Umberto II, amid public resentment over the 's acquiescence to Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and wartime alliance with , paving the way for a June that abolished the . A nationwide railroad strike commenced on May 24, 1946, involving over 1 million workers demanding wage increases to match post-war , prompting President to deliver a radio address threatening government seizure of the railroads and potential use of military personnel as strikebreakers to avert economic disruption. The action highlighted escalating labor tensions in the U.S., where strikes across industries affected 4.6 million workers that year, testing executive authority under the wartime transition to peacetime economy. In late May 1946, Canadian authorities initiated deportations of , with approximately 4,000 individuals—many Canadian-born—shipped to war-devastated between May and December under orders stemming from wartime policies justified on grounds despite the internees' loyalty oaths and contributions to the Allied .

June

On June 2, 1946, conducted a national alongside elections for a , with voters choosing between retaining the or establishing a ; the prevailed with approximately 54 percent of the vote, totaling over 12 million ballots cast, marking the end of the House of Savoy's 85-year rule. King Umberto II initially refused to accept the outcome, citing irregularities, but departed into exile on June 13 after the government affirmed the results and Christian Democrats, the largest party in the assembly, endorsed the republican shift.
On June 8, 1946, hosted the Allied Victory Parade, a military procession involving over 9,000 British troops and representatives from Allied nations, including detachments from the , , and , to commemorate the defeat of in ; the event featured flyovers by aircraft and drew large crowds amid ongoing postwar and efforts. On June 14, 1946, U.S. representative presented the to the Atomic Energy Commission in , proposing an international authority to control atomic development, inspect facilities, and eventually destroy national stockpiles, including America's, as a step toward eliminating nuclear weapons; the plan conditioned control on verifiable and enforcement powers, reflecting U.S. concerns over Soviet acquisition amid emerging divisions. The later rejected it, insisting on prior U.S. unilateral , which underscored irreconcilable trust gaps in early nuclear diplomacy. In Mandate Palestine, tensions escalated when Jewish militants kidnapped five British officers from a Tel Aviv club on June 18 in retaliation for death sentences against two members convicted of train bombings; two officers were wounded in the incident, prompting British authorities to impose an indefinite on starting June 19 to aid searches, highlighting the intensifying against colonial rule. On June 26, 1946, Nationalist leader ordered a comprehensive military offensive against Chinese Communist forces, deploying over 1.1 million troops in 26 operations aimed at securing key regions like within months, resuming full-scale after a fragile truce brokered by U.S. mediator George Marshall; the campaign initially captured territory but strained Nationalist logistics and fueled Communist guerrilla resilience. Canada's enacted the Canadian Citizenship Act on June 27, 1946, establishing a distinct national citizenship separate from status for the first time, granting rights like passports and while preserving allegiance to ; the law, effective January 1, 1947, symbolized growing autonomy within the and addressed postwar immigration needs.

On July 1, the United States conducted the Able test of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, detonating a 23-kiloton plutonium implosion device from an aerial drop, marking the fourth atomic explosion overall and the first postwar nuclear test to assess effects on naval vessels. The test targeted 78 ships and over 90 aircraft, simulating combat conditions, though it caused limited damage due to inaccuracies in the drop. July 4 marked the independence of the from the , formalized by the Treaty of Manila signed in the Philippine capital, with President issuing Proclamation 2695 to recognize the new sovereign republic after nearly 48 years of American administration under the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. The ceremony in involved lowering the U.S. flag and raising the Philippine one, amid ongoing reconstruction from Japanese occupation during , though the U.S. retained military bases and economic ties via the Philippine Trade Act. On July 22, the , a Zionist paramilitary group, bombed the King David Hotel in , which served as the British Mandate's administrative and military headquarters, killing 91 people—including British officials, Arabs, and Jews—and injuring 46 others. The attackers disguised as milkmen placed explosive-laden milk churns in the basement after issuing three warnings via phone and notes, which British authorities dismissed as hoaxes; the operation aimed to destroy incriminating documents seized during Operation Black Sabbath but escalated amid rising tensions over Jewish immigration restrictions. The Baker test followed on July 25, with a 21-kiloton plutonium bomb detonated 90 feet underwater beneath a landing ship at Bikini Atoll, generating a massive radioactive water column and contaminating target ships, revealing severe challenges in decontamination and biological hazards from fallout. Unlike the airburst Able shot, Baker's subsurface explosion vaporized the support vessel and rendered many ships unsalvageable, prompting reevaluation of nuclear weapon survivability for fleets and highlighting environmental persistence of radiation. The Paris Peace Conference convened on July 29 at the , bringing together delegates from 21 Allied nations to review draft treaties prepared by the Council of Foreign Ministers for , , , , and , addressing territorial adjustments, reparations, and war guilt amid emerging East-West divisions. Sessions continued until October 15, producing treaties signed in 1947 that imposed demilitarization and economic penalties on the defeated Axis satellites while straining relations between the U.S., , and Western allies over influence in .

August

On August 1, 1946, U.S. President signed the into law, establishing the five-member Atomic Energy Commission to assume civilian oversight of nuclear research, production, and weapons from the U.S. Army's Manhattan Engineer District. The legislation aimed to promote peaceful development while maintaining strict government monopoly on fissionable materials and classified information, reflecting postwar anxieties over atomic proliferation and military dominance in nuclear policy.
From August 16 to 19, 1946, communal riots erupted in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India, during the Muslim League's "Direct Action Day" protest demanding a separate Pakistan state following the collapse of the British Cabinet Mission Plan. The violence began with Muslim processions and hartals that turned into attacks on Hindu neighborhoods, prompting retaliatory killings, arson, and looting by both Hindu and Muslim mobs, resulting in an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths—predominantly Muslims—and over 100,000 people displaced or homeless. British colonial authorities imposed martial law and deployed troops on August 17, but the riots exposed deep sectarian divisions exacerbated by political mobilization for partition, with the Muslim League's call for "direct action" serving as the immediate trigger amid economic hardships and inflammatory rhetoric from leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On August 31, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at concluded nine months of proceedings against 22 high-ranking Nazi officials, adjourning after the final defendant statements to deliberate judgments on charges of crimes against peace, war crimes, and . The tribunal, comprising judges from the , , , and , had heard extensive evidence of systematic atrocities, including , setting a for international accountability despite debates over victors' and the selective prosecution of leaders.

September

On September 2, the took office in , marking a pivotal step in the transition from British colonial rule toward self-governance, with serving as vice president under Viceroy Lord Wavell; this cabinet included representatives from the , Muslim League, and other parties as outlined in the British Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The formation aimed to foster communal harmony amid rising Hindu-Muslim tensions but faced immediate challenges from League demands for , foreshadowing partition violence. On September 5, , the Nazi commandant of the responsible for the murder of thousands of Jews and others, was convicted by a in of crimes including extermination, , and plunder; he was sentenced to death by hanging, executed on September 13. Göth's , based on survivor testimonies and camp records, exemplified early postwar accountability for mid-level perpetrators outside the major Allied tribunals. U.S. delivered a speech on September 6 in , , rejecting punitive reparations policies like the and pledging American support for economic recovery and political unification to stabilize against Soviet influence; this addressed over 1,600 leaders and signaled a shift toward West revival amid the emerging . emphasized treating as a single , countering four-power division, with data showing industrial output at 20-30% of prewar levels requiring urgent aid. Winston Churchill, in a speech at the University of Zurich on September 19, advocated for a "United States of Europe" to prevent future wars, urging Franco-German reconciliation and supranational institutions; delivered to an audience including academics and officials, it influenced postwar integration efforts like the European Coal and Steel Community. Churchill positioned Britain as a friend but not formal member, reflecting his vision of Atlantic alliances over continental federation. The inaugural opened on September 20 in , , after delays from , screening 14 features including ( winner) and attracting filmmakers from multiple nations; organized by the French government to rival , it hosted over 20 countries despite postwar shortages. The event ran until October 5, establishing as a premier venue for international cinema amid Europe's cultural reconstruction. In sports, Patty Berg won the first tournament on September 1 at the Spokane Country Club, defeating Betty Hicks by two strokes with a score of 162 over 36 holes, drawing 5,000 spectators and highlighting women's professional growth post-war. On September 2, secured the Men's Championship at , defeating Ed Oliver 6&4 in the finals, completing a that year with prior wins in the Masters and U.S. Open. The Cleveland Indians played their final game at on September 21, ending 55 years of use with a 5-3 loss to the before 5,000 fans.

October

On October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at announced its verdicts in the trial of 22 major Nazi war criminals, convicting 19 on charges including crimes against peace, war crimes, and ; twelve defendants, among them , , , , , , , , , , , and (in absentia), received death sentences by hanging, while three—, , and —were sentenced to , and seven others to prison terms ranging from ten years to twenty years. The tribunal acquitted three defendants—, , and —citing insufficient evidence of direct involvement in the specified crimes. On October 15, 1946, , the highest-ranking Nazi defendant, committed suicide by in his prison cell hours before his scheduled execution, an act that prevented the Allies from carrying out his death sentence and drew international attention to security lapses at the facility. The executions of the remaining ten condemned Nazis—, , , , , , , , , and —occurred on October 16, 1946, in the gymnasium of Prison, where they were hanged by U.S. Army executioner using short-drop methods; the bodies were subsequently cremated, and ashes scattered in the River to preclude any potential sites of veneration. On October 24, 1946, a modified German , launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in as part of U.S. Army Operation Sandy, reached an altitude of approximately 65 miles (105 kilometers) and utilized an onboard 35mm motion picture camera to capture the first photographs of from , providing grainy black-and-white images that revealed the curvature of the horizon and marked a milestone in rocketry and early space imaging technology.

November

On November 1, the (BAA), predecessor to the (NBA), played its inaugural game at the Toronto Arena Garden, where the defeated the 68–66 in a match attended by 5,760 spectators. This event marked the professionalization of in amid postwar economic recovery. On November 3, the was promulgated by Emperor Hirohito, establishing a parliamentary with the emperor as a symbolic figurehead, renouncing war, and guaranteeing ; it had been drafted under Allied occupation influence and would take effect on May 3, 1947. The document shifted Japan from imperial rule to , reflecting U.S.-led reforms to prevent militarism's resurgence. The U.S. midterm elections on November 5 resulted in gains, securing 55 seats for a 246–188 majority and 6 seats for control, ending 16 years of Democratic dominance; factors included postwar , labor strikes, and dissatisfaction with President Truman's policies. won , launching his political career. The , negotiated between Dutch officials and Indonesian Republic representatives, was initialed on November 12 and formally signed on November 15, recognizing the Republic's de facto sovereignty over , , and while envisioning a under Dutch crown oversight; it aimed to end hostilities following Indonesia's 1945 declaration of independence but collapsed amid mutual violations. Romania's parliamentary elections on November 19 delivered an official victory to the communist-led Bloc of Democratic Parties with 79.9% of votes, enabling full communist consolidation; Western observers, including the U.S. and , condemned the results as fraudulent due to voter intimidation, ballot stuffing, and opposition suppression by Soviet-backed authorities, highlighting early tensions over electoral integrity in . On November 20, United Mine Workers president ordered 400,000 soft coal miners nationwide to strike, halting production under a "no contract, no work" policy after rejecting a government wage proposal; the action, defying a prior , exacerbated fuel shortages and prompted federal seizure of mines, underscoring labor unrest in the reconversion economy. The unfolded on November 23 when French cruiser Suffren and other vessels bombarded Vietnamese quarters of after clashes over customs control, killing an estimated 6,000 civilians and igniting the ; French forces claimed self-defense against resistance, but the disproportionate response alienated nationalists and drew international criticism for colonial overreach.

December

On December 5, U.S. President issued 9808, establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine federal enforcement of civil rights protections and recommend measures to combat discrimination, , and voting barriers, amid postwar concerns over violence against Black veterans. The committee, comprising 15 members including religious leaders, academics, and civil rights advocates, was tasked with assessing law enforcement adequacy and proposing legislative or executive actions without requiring congressional approval. On December 9, the Military Tribunal initiated the (formally et al.), the first of 12 subsequent proceedings, charging 23 Nazi physicians, scientists, and administrators with war crimes, , and membership in criminal organizations for conducting lethal medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners, performing forced sterilizations, and implementing programs that killed over 70,000 disabled individuals. The trial, held in 's Palace of Justice, featured evidence from survivor testimonies and seized documents, culminating in convictions for 16 defendants, including seven death sentences, and establishing early precedents for in warfare. On December 11, the adopted Resolution 57(I), creating the International Children's Emergency Fund () as a temporary agency to deliver food, clothing, and medical aid to children affected by in and , initially funded by voluntary contributions and operating under the UN's Preparatory . 's mandate emphasized emergency relief over long-term development, distributing millions of tons of supplies by 1948, though its creation reflected Allied priorities favoring European reconstruction amid emerging divisions. On December 12, the approved a resolution condemning 's regime in as fascist and incompatible with UN principles, recommending diplomatic isolation, withdrawal of ambassadors by member states, and exclusion of Spain from specialized agencies until a government representative of the Spanish people replaced it. This action, supported by the U.S. State Department despite prior wartime ambivalence toward 's non-belligerence, aimed to pressure for but had limited immediate effect, as consolidated power amid internal repression and economic . On December 19, the commenced when forces, led by , launched coordinated attacks on military and civilian targets in , rejecting ultimatums for disarmament and recognition of limited autonomy under colonial oversight. The assault, involving guerrilla tactics and urban combat, resulted in hundreds of casualties and escalated sporadic clashes into full-scale conflict, with deploying over 100,000 troops by 1947 while the received covert Chinese Communist support after 1949. The war stemmed from unresolved 1945-1946 negotiations, where refusal to grant full independence clashed with nationalist demands, setting the stage for eight years of and conventional battles ending in defeat at Dien Bien Phu.

Date Unknown

In 1946, the post-World War II baby boom began in the United States and several other countries, characterized by a sharp rise in birth rates as millions of servicemen returned home, economic recovery accelerated family formation, and cultural emphasis on domesticity prevailed. U.S. births reached 3.4 million, a 20 percent increase over 1945, initiating a demographic surge that continued through 1964 and reshaped societal structures including education, housing, and labor markets. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association () cancelled its planned 1946 due to the widespread infrastructure damage, travel disruptions, and financial strains lingering from the global conflict, marking the second consecutive tournament suspension after 1942. No host country could feasibly stage the event, delaying international football's premier competition until hosted in 1950. The U.S. Army Air Forces and Ordnance Department awarded a contract for "Project " to develop a high-rate-of-fire aircraft cannon, laying groundwork for the M61 20 mm Gatling gun, which employed electrically powered rotary mechanisms inspired by 19th-century designs but adapted for modern aerial combat needs.

Deaths

January

![Project Diana antenna at Camp Evans, New Jersey][float-right] On January 1, 1946, Japanese Emperor publicly renounced his divinity in a statement to the Japanese , declaring himself an ordinary human and emphasizing the emperor's role as a symbol of national unity rather than a , a move aimed at aligning with Allied demands for demilitarization and reform following . This declaration facilitated the transition to under the impending new constitution. On January 3, British traitor , known as "" for his Nazi propaganda broadcasts during the war, was executed by hanging at Wandsworth Prison in for high treason, marking one of the first major post-war accountability actions against collaborators. In early January, widespread unrest erupted among U.S. Army personnel stationed overseas, as thousands participated in strikes and protests demanding accelerated , with incidents in the , , and stemming from frustration over prolonged service despite the war's end and perceived broken promises by the War Department. These mutinies, involving up to 20,000 troops in some bases, highlighted tensions in the rapid transition from wartime to peacetime forces but were resolved without violence through negotiations and policy adjustments. On January 6, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, led by Ho Chi Minh's , held its first general election, resulting in a near-unanimous victory for the communist-dominated bloc amid reports of limited opposition and coercive measures in some areas. This vote aimed to legitimize the provisional government established after the but occurred against the backdrop of ongoing French efforts to reassert colonial control. On January 7, was granted autonomy within the under King , who proclaimed independence from direct French oversight, though retained significant influence and presence, setting the stage for future nationalist movements. January 10 marked dual milestones in international and scientific history: the convened its inaugural session in with delegates from 51 nations, focusing on establishing organizational protocols, mechanisms, and addressing post-war reconstruction amid emerging superpower rivalries. Concurrently, at Camp Evans in , the U.S. Army ' team successfully bounced the first signals off the , detecting echoes after a 2.5-second delay, proving the feasibility of extraterrestrial communication and advancing technology for potential and applications. This experiment, conducted using a modified system, heralded the dawn of and inspired subsequent endeavors. Throughout the month, the International Military Tribunal at continued proceedings against major Nazi war criminals, with prosecutors presenting evidence on aggressive war and , underscoring the Allies' commitment to judicial reckoning despite debates over victors' justice.

February

On February 1, of assumed office as the first , having been selected by the General Assembly to administer the organization amid postwar efforts to foster international cooperation. On February 8, Béla Bartók's Third Piano Concerto received its world premiere in New York City, performed posthumously after the composer's death in 1945, marking a significant cultural event in the classical music world as his final completed work. On February 9, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin delivered an election speech in Moscow, attributing the causes of World War II to inherent contradictions in capitalism and asserting that future wars remained possible under such systems unless socialism prevailed globally; Western analysts, including U.S. State Department officials, interpreted the address as ideologically aggressive and a signal of Soviet expansionist intentions, accelerating perceptions of an emerging East-West divide. The Act 1946 took effect on February 14, transferring the Bank's capital stock to public ownership under the government as part of broader postwar policies aimed at centralizing economic control, with private shareholders compensated via government stock. That same day, engineers and unveiled the (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) at the , the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, capable of 5,000 additions per second and programmed via switches and cables for artillery trajectory calculations; a public demonstration followed on February 15, highlighting its role in advancing computational technology beyond wartime applications. On February 15, Canadian authorities initiated arrests stemming from the Gouzenko Affair, where Soviet cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko's 1945 defection had exposed a extensive espionage network targeting atomic secrets and Western governments, prompting revelations of Soviet infiltration that heightened Allied suspicions of communist subversion. The Soviet Union cast its first veto in the UN Security Council on February 16, blocking a U.S.-backed resolution to investigate the Franco regime in Spain, underscoring early fractures in the organization's consensus and the USSR's defense of non-intervention in ideological allies despite Allied concerns over authoritarianism.

March

On March 5, former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill delivered his "Sinews of Peace" address, known as the Iron Curtain speech, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, at the invitation of U.S. President Harry Truman. In the speech, Churchill warned of expanding Soviet influence in Eastern Europe, stating that "from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent," highlighting the division between Western democracies and Soviet-dominated states. This public articulation signaled the emerging ideological confrontation that would define the Cold War, though it initially drew mixed reactions, with some U.S. officials viewing it as alarmist while others saw it as a realistic assessment of Soviet intentions based on postwar territorial gains and political maneuvers in Poland, Romania, and elsewhere. The Nuremberg Trials continued with significant proceedings at the International Military Tribunal in . On March 8, the defense phase began after the prosecution rested its case against 22 major Nazi leaders. , the highest-ranking surviving Nazi, commenced his testimony on March 13, defending the regime's actions while the tribunal examined evidence of crimes, crimes against peace, and . Cross-examination of Göring occurred from March 18 to 22, led by British prosecutor Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe, who pressed on topics including and aggressive planning, with Göring maintaining that Nazi policies were responses to perceived threats. These sessions underscored the trials' focus on individual accountability for systematic atrocities, drawing on documented orders, memos, and witness accounts from across . In , the Ho-Sainteny Agreement was signed on March 6 between Vietnamese leader and French representative Jean Sainteny, under which recognized the Democratic Republic of Vietnam—proclaimed in 1945—as a "free state" with its own government, army, and parliament, but within the and with continued French economic and cultural ties. This provisional accord followed the Franco-Chinese agreement of February 28, which facilitated the withdrawal of Chinese occupation forces north of the 16th parallel, allowing French troops to re-enter on March 18 amid tensions with forces. However, underlying disagreements over territorial control in and full sovereignty eroded the deal, setting the stage for escalated conflict later in the year, as French reinforcements clashed with Vietnamese nationalists in incidents like the Battle of on March 21, where hundreds of combatants and civilians died in . Greece held parliamentary elections on March 31, the first since liberation from Axis occupation, amid postwar instability and lingering divisions from the 1944-1945 Dekemvriana clashes between communist-led ELAS forces and British-backed government troops. The Communist Party of Greece (KKE) and associated groups boycotted the vote, denouncing it as rigged under monarchical influence, resulting in a victory for right-wing and centrist parties favoring restoration of the monarchy, with turnout estimated at 58% of eligible voters. This outcome prompted communist partisans to resume guerrilla operations shortly thereafter, reigniting the Greek Civil War as Democratic Army of Greece units, supported by Yugoslav and Albanian sanctuaries, challenged government control in northern regions, exacerbating economic ruin from wartime destruction and contributing to Britain's request for U.S. aid under emerging containment policies.

April

On April 1, 1946, a struck near in the , , generating a trans-Pacific that devastated Scotch Cap on , killing all five personnel there, and reached approximately five hours later, where waves up to 30 feet high killed 159 people and caused over $26 million in damage (equivalent to about $400 million in 2023 dollars). The event highlighted vulnerabilities in early warning systems, as no alerts were issued despite the earthquake's detection, prompting later improvements in Pacific . Also on April 1, approximately 400,000 miners in the United States, represented by the , initiated a nationwide strike demanding higher wages, improved and welfare benefits, and enhanced safety measures amid postwar labor unrest. The action, part of the broader 1945–1946 U.S. strike wave involving over 4.6 million workers across industries, disrupted production critical for steel and electricity, leading President to seize mines under executive authority and eventually negotiate the Krug-Lewis Agreement in May, which established a and retirement fund financed by a royalty on tonnage. On April 19, the League of Nations, established in 1920 to prevent future wars but undermined by the absence of major powers like the and failures to curb aggressions in , formally dissolved during its final assembly in , with its assets, archives, and remaining staff transferred to the nascent . The dissolution marked the end of an organization that had proven ineffective against expansion, as evidenced by its inability to enforce sanctions or , paving the way for the UN's more robust structure under the 1945 Charter. In the Pacific theater's postwar reckoning, the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, established to prosecute Japanese leaders for war crimes, announced procedural rules on April 25 and formally convened on April 29 in , with indictments served against 28 defendants, including former Prime Minister , on charges of conspiracy, crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and related to atrocities across . The tribunal, dominated by Allied judges and prosecutors, faced criticisms for victors' justice but documented extensive evidence of systematic abuses, such as the treatment of prisoners and civilian massacres, influencing subsequent developments.

May

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, prosecuting Japanese leaders for war crimes committed during , convened its first public session in on May 3, 1946, with proceedings continuing until November 1948. The tribunal indicted 28 high-ranking officials, including former Prime Minister , on charges including crimes against peace, conventional war crimes, and , reflecting Allied efforts to establish accountability analogous to the process but focused on Pacific theater atrocities. From May 2 to 4, 1946, a violent escape attempt dubbed the "Battle of Alcatraz" erupted at the federal penitentiary on Alcatraz Island, involving six inmates led by Bernard Coy who seized weapons from guards, resulting in the deaths of two correctional officers and three prisoners, with two other inmates executed following convictions for murder. U.S. Marines provided support to quell the riot, underscoring the facility's reputation as an escape-proof maximum-security prison amid post-war challenges in federal corrections. On May 5, 1946, voters participated in a on a proposed drafted by the , which emphasized a strong unicameral assembly but was ultimately rejected, necessitating a second assembly and delaying the establishment of the Fourth Republic. King of abdicated on May 9, 1946, in favor of his son Umberto II, amid public resentment over the 's acquiescence to Benito Mussolini's fascist regime and wartime alliance with , paving the way for a June that abolished the . A nationwide railroad strike commenced on May 24, 1946, involving over 1 million workers demanding wage increases to match post-war , prompting President to deliver a radio address threatening government seizure of the railroads and potential use of military personnel as strikebreakers to avert economic disruption. The action highlighted escalating labor tensions in the U.S., where strikes across industries affected 4.6 million workers that year, testing executive authority under the wartime transition to peacetime economy. In late May 1946, Canadian authorities initiated deportations of , with approximately 4,000 individuals—many Canadian-born—shipped to war-devastated between May and December under orders stemming from wartime policies justified on grounds despite the internees' loyalty oaths and contributions to the Allied .

June

On June 2, 1946, conducted a national alongside elections for a , with voters choosing between retaining the or establishing a ; the prevailed with approximately 54 percent of the vote, totaling over 12 million ballots cast, marking the end of the House of Savoy's 85-year rule. King Umberto II initially refused to accept the outcome, citing irregularities, but departed into exile on June 13 after the government affirmed the results and Christian Democrats, the largest party in the assembly, endorsed the republican shift.
On June 8, 1946, hosted the Allied Victory Parade, a military procession involving over 9,000 British troops and representatives from Allied nations, including detachments from the , , and , to commemorate the defeat of in ; the event featured flyovers by aircraft and drew large crowds amid ongoing postwar and efforts. On June 14, 1946, U.S. representative presented the to the Atomic Energy Commission in , proposing an international authority to control atomic development, inspect facilities, and eventually destroy national stockpiles, including America's, as a step toward eliminating nuclear weapons; the plan conditioned control on verifiable and enforcement powers, reflecting U.S. concerns over Soviet acquisition amid emerging divisions. The later rejected it, insisting on prior U.S. unilateral , which underscored irreconcilable trust gaps in early nuclear diplomacy. In Mandate Palestine, tensions escalated when Jewish militants kidnapped five British officers from a Tel Aviv club on June 18 in retaliation for death sentences against two members convicted of train bombings; two officers were wounded in the incident, prompting British authorities to impose an indefinite on starting June 19 to aid searches, highlighting the intensifying against colonial rule. On June 26, 1946, Nationalist leader ordered a comprehensive military offensive against Chinese Communist forces, deploying over 1.1 million troops in 26 operations aimed at securing key regions like within months, resuming full-scale after a fragile truce brokered by U.S. mediator George Marshall; the campaign initially captured territory but strained Nationalist logistics and fueled Communist guerrilla resilience. Canada's enacted the Canadian Citizenship Act on June 27, 1946, establishing a distinct national citizenship separate from status for the first time, granting rights like passports and while preserving allegiance to ; the law, effective January 1, 1947, symbolized growing autonomy within the and addressed postwar immigration needs.

On July 1, the conducted the Able test of at , detonating a 23-kiloton plutonium implosion device from an aerial drop, marking the fourth atomic explosion overall and the first postwar nuclear test to assess effects on naval vessels. The test targeted 78 ships and over 90 aircraft, simulating combat conditions, though it caused limited damage due to inaccuracies in the drop. July 4 marked the independence of the from the , formalized by the Treaty of signed in the Philippine capital, with President issuing Proclamation 2695 to recognize the new sovereign republic after nearly 48 years of American administration under the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. The ceremony in involved lowering the U.S. flag and raising the Philippine one, amid ongoing reconstruction from Japanese occupation during , though the U.S. retained military bases and economic ties via the Philippine Trade Act. On July 22, the , a Zionist paramilitary group, bombed the King David Hotel in , which served as the British Mandate's administrative and military headquarters, killing 91 people—including British officials, Arabs, and Jews—and injuring 46 others. The attackers disguised as milkmen placed explosive-laden milk churns in the basement after issuing three warnings via phone and notes, which British authorities dismissed as hoaxes; the operation aimed to destroy incriminating documents seized during Operation Black Sabbath but escalated amid rising tensions over Jewish immigration restrictions. The Baker test followed on July 25, with a 21-kiloton plutonium bomb detonated 90 feet underwater beneath a landing ship at Bikini Atoll, generating a massive radioactive water column and contaminating target ships, revealing severe challenges in decontamination and biological hazards from fallout. Unlike the airburst Able shot, Baker's subsurface explosion vaporized the support vessel and rendered many ships unsalvageable, prompting reevaluation of nuclear weapon survivability for fleets and highlighting environmental persistence of radiation. The Paris Peace Conference convened on July 29 at the , bringing together delegates from 21 Allied nations to review draft treaties prepared by the Council of Foreign Ministers for , , , , and , addressing territorial adjustments, reparations, and war guilt amid emerging East-West divisions. Sessions continued until October 15, producing treaties signed in 1947 that imposed demilitarization and economic penalties on the defeated Axis satellites while straining relations between the U.S., , and Western allies over influence in .

August

On August 1, 1946, U.S. President signed the into law, establishing the five-member Atomic Energy Commission to assume civilian oversight of nuclear research, production, and weapons from the U.S. Army's Manhattan Engineer District. The legislation aimed to promote peaceful development while maintaining strict government monopoly on fissionable materials and classified information, reflecting postwar anxieties over atomic proliferation and military dominance in nuclear policy.
From August 16 to 19, 1946, communal riots erupted in Calcutta (now Kolkata), India, during the Muslim League's "Direct Action Day" protest demanding a separate Pakistan state following the collapse of the British Cabinet Mission Plan. The violence began with Muslim processions and hartals that turned into attacks on Hindu neighborhoods, prompting retaliatory killings, arson, and looting by both Hindu and Muslim mobs, resulting in an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 deaths—predominantly Muslims—and over 100,000 people displaced or homeless. British colonial authorities imposed martial law and deployed troops on August 17, but the riots exposed deep sectarian divisions exacerbated by political mobilization for partition, with the Muslim League's call for "direct action" serving as the immediate trigger amid economic hardships and inflammatory rhetoric from leaders like Muhammad Ali Jinnah. On August 31, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at concluded nine months of proceedings against 22 high-ranking Nazi officials, adjourning after the final defendant statements to deliberate judgments on charges of crimes against peace, war crimes, and . The tribunal, comprising judges from the , , , and , had heard extensive evidence of systematic atrocities, including , setting a for international accountability despite debates over victors' and the selective prosecution of leaders.

September

On September 2, the took office in , marking a pivotal step in the transition from British colonial rule toward self-governance, with serving as vice president under Viceroy Lord Wavell; this cabinet included representatives from the , Muslim League, and other parties as outlined in the British Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946. The formation aimed to foster communal harmony amid rising Hindu-Muslim tensions but faced immediate challenges from League demands for , foreshadowing partition violence. On September 5, , the Nazi commandant of the responsible for the murder of thousands of Jews and others, was convicted by a in of crimes including extermination, , and plunder; he was sentenced to death by hanging, executed on September 13. Göth's , based on survivor testimonies and camp records, exemplified early postwar accountability for mid-level perpetrators outside the major Allied tribunals. U.S. delivered a speech on September 6 in , , rejecting punitive reparations policies like the and pledging American support for economic recovery and political unification to stabilize against Soviet influence; this addressed over 1,600 leaders and signaled a shift toward West revival amid the emerging . emphasized treating as a single , countering four-power division, with data showing industrial output at 20-30% of prewar levels requiring urgent aid. Winston Churchill, in a speech at the University of Zurich on September 19, advocated for a "United States of Europe" to prevent future wars, urging Franco-German reconciliation and supranational institutions; delivered to an audience including academics and officials, it influenced postwar integration efforts like the . Churchill positioned as a friend but not formal member, reflecting his vision of Atlantic alliances over continental federation. The inaugural opened on September 20 in , , after delays from , screening 14 features including ( winner) and attracting filmmakers from multiple nations; organized by the French government to rival , it hosted over 20 countries despite postwar shortages. The event ran until October 5, establishing as a premier venue for international cinema amid Europe's cultural reconstruction. In sports, Patty Berg won the first tournament on September 1 at the Spokane Country Club, defeating Betty Hicks by two strokes with a score of 162 over 36 holes, drawing 5,000 spectators and highlighting women's professional growth post-war. On September 2, secured the Men's Championship at , defeating Ed Oliver 6&4 in the finals, completing a that year with prior wins in the Masters and U.S. Open. The Cleveland Indians played their final game at on September 21, ending 55 years of use with a 5-3 loss to the before 5,000 fans.

October

On October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal at announced its verdicts in the trial of 22 major Nazi war criminals, convicting 19 on charges including crimes against peace, war crimes, and ; twelve defendants, among them , , , , , , , , , , , and (in absentia), received death sentences by hanging, while three—, , and —were sentenced to , and seven others to prison terms ranging from ten years to twenty years. The tribunal acquitted three defendants—, , and —citing insufficient evidence of direct involvement in the specified crimes. On October 15, 1946, , the highest-ranking Nazi defendant, committed suicide by in his prison cell hours before his scheduled execution, an act that prevented the Allies from carrying out his death sentence and drew international attention to security lapses at the facility. The executions of the remaining ten condemned Nazis—, , , , , , , , , and —occurred on October 16, 1946, in the gymnasium of Prison, where they were hanged by U.S. Army executioner using short-drop methods; the bodies were subsequently cremated, and ashes scattered in the River to preclude any potential sites of veneration. On October 24, 1946, a modified German , launched from the White Sands Proving Ground in as part of U.S. Army Operation Sandy, reached an altitude of approximately 65 miles (105 kilometers) and utilized an onboard 35mm motion picture camera to capture the first photographs of from , providing grainy black-and-white images that revealed the curvature of the horizon and marked a milestone in rocketry and early space imaging technology.

November

On November 1, the (BAA), predecessor to the (NBA), played its inaugural game at the Toronto Arena Garden, where the defeated the 68–66 in a match attended by 5,760 spectators. This event marked the professionalization of in amid postwar economic recovery. On November 3, the was promulgated by Emperor Hirohito, establishing a parliamentary with the emperor as a symbolic figurehead, renouncing war, and guaranteeing ; it had been drafted under Allied occupation influence and would take effect on May 3, 1947. The document shifted Japan from imperial rule to , reflecting U.S.-led reforms to prevent militarism's resurgence. The U.S. midterm elections on November 5 resulted in gains, securing 55 seats for a 246–188 majority and 6 seats for control, ending 16 years of Democratic dominance; factors included postwar , labor strikes, and dissatisfaction with President Truman's policies. won , launching his political career. The , negotiated between Dutch officials and Indonesian Republic representatives, was initialed on November 12 and formally signed on November 15, recognizing the Republic's de facto sovereignty over , , and while envisioning a under Dutch crown oversight; it aimed to end hostilities following Indonesia's 1945 declaration of independence but collapsed amid mutual violations. Romania's parliamentary elections on November 19 delivered an official victory to the communist-led Bloc of Democratic Parties with 79.9% of votes, enabling full communist consolidation; Western observers, including the U.S. and , condemned the results as fraudulent due to voter intimidation, ballot stuffing, and opposition suppression by Soviet-backed authorities, highlighting early tensions over electoral integrity in . On November 20, United Mine Workers president ordered 400,000 soft coal miners nationwide to strike, halting production under a "no contract, no work" policy after rejecting a government wage proposal; the action, defying a prior , exacerbated fuel shortages and prompted federal seizure of mines, underscoring labor unrest in the reconversion economy. The unfolded on November 23 when French cruiser Suffren and other vessels bombarded Vietnamese quarters of after clashes over customs control, killing an estimated 6,000 civilians and igniting the ; French forces claimed self-defense against resistance, but the disproportionate response alienated nationalists and drew international criticism for colonial overreach.

December

On December 5, U.S. President issued 9808, establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine federal enforcement of civil rights protections and recommend measures to combat discrimination, , and voting barriers, amid postwar concerns over violence against Black veterans. The committee, comprising 15 members including religious leaders, academics, and civil rights advocates, was tasked with assessing law enforcement adequacy and proposing legislative or executive actions without requiring congressional approval. On December 9, the Military Tribunal initiated the (formally et al.), the first of 12 subsequent proceedings, charging 23 Nazi physicians, scientists, and administrators with war crimes, , and membership in criminal organizations for conducting lethal medical experiments on concentration camp prisoners, performing forced sterilizations, and implementing programs that killed over 70,000 disabled individuals. The trial, held in 's Palace of Justice, featured evidence from survivor testimonies and seized documents, culminating in convictions for 16 defendants, including seven death sentences, and establishing early precedents for in warfare. On December 11, the adopted Resolution 57(I), creating the as a temporary agency to deliver food, clothing, and medical aid to children affected by in and , initially funded by voluntary contributions and operating under the UN's Preparatory . 's mandate emphasized emergency relief over long-term development, distributing millions of tons of supplies by 1948, though its creation reflected Allied priorities favoring European reconstruction amid emerging divisions. On December 12, the approved a resolution condemning 's regime in as fascist and incompatible with UN principles, recommending diplomatic isolation, withdrawal of ambassadors by member states, and exclusion of Spain from specialized agencies until a government representative of the Spanish people replaced it. This action, supported by the U.S. State Department despite prior wartime ambivalence toward Franco's non-belligerence, aimed to pressure for but had limited immediate effect, as Franco consolidated power amid internal repression and economic . On December 19, the commenced when forces, led by , launched coordinated attacks on French military and civilian targets in , rejecting ultimatums for Vietnamese disarmament and French recognition of limited autonomy under colonial oversight. The assault, involving guerrilla tactics and urban combat, resulted in hundreds of casualties and escalated sporadic clashes into full-scale conflict, with France deploying over 100,000 troops by 1947 while the received covert Chinese Communist support after 1949. The war stemmed from unresolved 1945-1946 negotiations, where French refusal to grant full independence clashed with nationalist demands, setting the stage for eight years of insurgency and conventional battles ending in French defeat at Dien Bien Phu.

Date Unknown

In 1946, the post-World War II baby boom began in the United States and several other countries, characterized by a sharp rise in birth rates as millions of servicemen returned home, economic recovery accelerated family formation, and cultural emphasis on domesticity prevailed. U.S. births reached 3.4 million, a 20 percent increase over 1945, initiating a demographic surge that continued through 1964 and reshaped societal structures including education, housing, and labor markets. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association () cancelled its planned 1946 due to the widespread infrastructure damage, travel disruptions, and financial strains lingering from the global conflict, marking the second consecutive tournament suspension after 1942. No host country could feasibly stage the event, delaying international football's premier competition until hosted in 1950. The U.S. Army Air Forces and Ordnance Department awarded a contract for "Project " to develop a high-rate-of-fire aircraft cannon, laying groundwork for the M61 20 mm Gatling gun, which employed electrically powered rotary mechanisms inspired by 19th-century designs but adapted for modern aerial combat needs.