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Manila


Manila, officially the City of Manila, is the capital of the Philippines, situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay at the mouth of the Pasig River. As of the 2020 census, the city proper has a population of 1,846,513 residents across an area of 42.88 square kilometers, yielding one of the highest urban densities globally at over 43,000 people per square kilometer. Founded on June 24, 1571, by Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi following the conquest of the local Rajahnate of Maynila, it became the seat of Spanish colonial administration in the East Indies and has remained the national capital through American colonial rule and Philippine independence. The city forms the historic and administrative core of the National Capital Region (Metro Manila), a sprawling metropolis of over 14 million inhabitants as of 2024, serving as the country's primary economic hub with the Port of Manila handling substantial national trade and contributing disproportionately to the Philippines' GDP through finance, manufacturing, and services. Despite its role as a center of commerce and culture—featuring preserved colonial sites like Intramuros—Manila contends with acute challenges including extreme traffic congestion, recurrent flooding from typhoons and poor drainage, high poverty incidence in informal settlements, and vulnerability to earthquakes due to its location on tectonic fault lines.

Etymology

Origins of the name

The name Manila derives from the phrase may-nilà, translating to "where there is nilà" or "there are nilà plants," referring to the abundance of -yielding shrubs in the pre-colonial settlement area along the . The term nilà denotes the plant or the blue dye extracted from it, with roots in the nīla ("blue"), introduced through ancient Indian trade networks influencing Austronesian languages. A common alternative explanation links the name to maynilad ("there is nilad"), associating it with the nilad mangrove (Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea), a with white flowers that grew profusely in the marshy environs of and the ; however, this interpretation likely constitutes a , as historical linguistic evidence favors the indigo derivation over direct reference to the mangrove . Pre-16th-century records of the polity as Maynila align more closely with nilà than nilad, underscoring the dye-related origin amid the region's early and trade activities.

History

Pre-colonial and early Spanish contact

The region of Manila Bay, including the sites of Tondo and Maynila, hosted Tagalog-speaking Austronesian communities engaged in maritime trade networks extending to , , and by the early second millennium CE, with archaeological evidence of pottery and settlement remnants indicating organized activity predating European arrival. The , discovered in 1989 and dated to 900 CE via paleography and radiocarbon analysis, records a legal debt remission in the Tagalog heartland around , naming Tondo as a key locality alongside references to Javanese and Sumatran polities, evidencing literacy in , monetary systems involving silver coins (buyi), and hierarchical governance structures integrated into regional tribute economies like Srivijaya's influence. By the , Maynila had developed as a sovereign trading known as the Rajahnate of Maynila, centered at the estuary under rulers like , who maintained alliances with the Sultanate of and facilitated exports of beeswax, gold, and deerskins in exchange for , , and metalwork, fostering a stratified society of barangays led by datus with emerging Islamic influences from Moro traders. Tondo, a rival upstream , similarly thrived on and tribute relations, underscoring the area's pre-colonial prosperity driven by geographic advantages for shipping routes rather than centralized empire-building. No documented European contact occurred in the Manila region prior to Spanish expeditions, as Magellan's 1521 voyage landed in the ( area) and focused on the Moluccas , bypassing . Initial Spanish reconnaissance reached in 1570 under , dispatched from by , resulting in skirmishes with Rajah Sulayman's forces and the burning of Maynila's wooden structures after failed negotiations over tribute demands. Legazpi's main fleet arrived in May 1571, defeating combined Maynila-Tondo resistance in a decisive battle on June 3, after which he razed remaining fortifications to assert dominance, motivated by strategic needs for a secure base amid rival claims in the Moluccas. On June 24, 1571, Legazpi proclaimed the founding of the Spanish settlement of Manila, initiating construction of fortifications that evolved into and designating it the colonial capital for its defensible harbor and trade potential.

Spanish colonial era (1571–1898)

In May 1571, Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in Manila Bay with forces from Cebu, seeking a strategic base for Spanish expansion in the region. On May 19, Legazpi's troops occupied the settlement of Rajah Sulayman, the local Muslim ruler of Maynila, after initial negotiations failed. Sulayman mounted resistance, but Spanish forces, aided by Visayan auxiliaries and firepower advantages, defeated him in subsequent clashes, including the Battle of Manila, securing control by June. On June 24, 1571, Legazpi formally founded the city of Manila as the capital of the Spanish East Indies, establishing it as the administrative center for governing the archipelago. The Spanish constructed , a fortified walled enclave at the River's mouth, to house colonial officials, clergy, and troops, spanning about 0.67 square kilometers with a gridiron layout and extensive bastioned fortifications—the largest in . served as the primary citadel, anchoring defenses against resistance, Moro raids from the south, and potential European rivals like the Dutch and British. Manila's governance fell under the , appointed from via , who oversaw tribute collection from encomiendas—land grants exploiting labor for agriculture and resources—while friars from Augustinian, Franciscan, Jesuit, and orders directed spiritual and temporal affairs. Recurrent disasters, including earthquakes in 1645 and , and fires that razed wooden structures multiple times, necessitated repeated reconstructions, often using stone from local quarries. Economically, Manila thrived as the nexus of the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade, operational from 1565 to 1815, where Mexican silver bullion—annually up to 1.5 million pesos—was exchanged for Chinese silks, porcelain, spices, and lacquerware via intermediaries in the Parian district. This entrepôt system funneled Asian luxury goods to Europe and the Americas, generating colonial revenue through monopolized commerce controlled by the Real Consulado de Manila, though it fostered dependency on silver inflows and limited local industrialization. Chinese merchants, known as Sangleys, dominated retail and artisan trades but faced segregation outside walls and periodic expulsions due to suspicions of disloyalty. Missionary efforts rapidly Christianized the population, with friars baptizing thousands in Manila shortly after conquest, erecting stone churches like San Agustin (built 1587–1604) as symbols of Catholic dominance over pre-colonial animist and Islamic practices. By the late 16th century, over 90% of urban indios had converted, facilitated by reducciones—forced resettlements into doctrina parishes for instruction—though syncretism persisted in folk devotions. Tensions erupted in Sangley revolts, notably 1603 when 15,000–25,000 Chinese were massacred amid fears of invasion, and 1639, suppressing another uprising with Spanish and indigenous forces. Hierarchical society stratified Spaniards at the apex, followed by Christianized natives, Chinese mestizos, and pure Chinese, with galleon wealth enriching elites but imposing heavy corvée labor and taxes on the masses, sparking sporadic revolts like the 1662 Chinese expulsion. Through the 19th century, Manila evolved into a cosmopolitan port under Bourbon reforms, incorporating neoclassical architecture like the Ayuntamiento, yet retained its role as the insular nerve center until Spain's 1898 defeat.

American colonial era (1898–1946)

The U.S. acquisition of Manila followed the decisive naval victory in the on May 1, 1898, when Commodore George Dewey's annihilated the Spanish Pacific Fleet anchored near , sinking or disabling all major Spanish vessels without suffering a single American casualty in combat. This engagement crippled Spanish naval power in the and paved the way for ground operations. On August 13, 1898, U.S. Army troops under Major General staged a brief, pre-arranged assault on Spanish-held fortifications outside Manila, allowing American forces to occupy the city while Filipino revolutionaries under , who had besieged the Spanish for months, were deliberately excluded from the surrender terms to prevent their control. The , ratified on December 10, 1898, ceded the —including Manila—to the for $20 million, formalizing colonial rule despite ongoing Filipino resistance. Tensions erupted into the on February 4, 1899, when U.S. troops fired on Filipino forces crossing into American-held territory near Manila, sparking intense fighting in the city's suburbs and surrounding areas. The , which lasted until 1902, saw U.S. forces under General Elwell Otis reinforce Manila, capturing key positions and suppressing Aguinaldo's forces, resulting in an estimated 4,200 American combat deaths and up to 20,000 Filipino combatants killed, alongside significant civilian casualties from violence, famine, and disease. Manila remained the administrative center under initial U.S. military governance proclaimed on December 21, 1898, transitioning to civilian rule via the in 1899 and the in 1900, with assuming the role of civil governor in 1901. American administrators prioritized modernization in Manila, establishing a system in 1901 that emphasized English instruction and enrolled over 150,000 students by 1903, alongside founding institutions like the in 1908. initiatives, including drives and reforms, drastically reduced outbreaks—responsible for thousands of deaths in prior epidemics—through and urban hygiene enforcement. Infrastructure expanded with the development of the , which handled increasing exports of , abaca, and , and the construction of roads, bridges, and electric streetcars connecting the city to suburbs. Urban planning transformed Manila's layout, with architect Daniel H. Burnham's 1905 report proposing a "City Beautiful" model featuring radial boulevards, the expanded Luneta Park (formerly Bagumbayan Field), and neoclassical government structures to replace congested Spanish-era arrangements. These efforts, partially realized by the 1920s, included the Legislative Building (now National Museum) and , fostering a from approximately 225,000 in 1903 to over 623,000 by 1939. The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934 granted commonwealth status effective November 15, 1935, with as president and Manila retaining its capital role, though full independence was scheduled for July 4, 1946. Japanese forces occupied Manila on January 2, 1942, interrupting American administration, but U.S. and Filipino troops under General liberated the city in the Battle of Manila from February 3 to March 3, 1945, in house-to-house combat that destroyed 80% of the urban core and killed over 100,000 civilians amid atrocities by retreating Japanese defenders. The achieved on July 4, 1946, ending formal U.S. , with Manila's beginning under the new republic.

Japanese occupation and World War II (1942–1945)

Japanese forces occupied Manila on January 2, 1942, after U.S. and Filipino commanders declared it an on December 27, 1941, to prevent aerial and artillery bombardment. The entry was unopposed, as defending forces had withdrawn to Peninsula and , allowing the Japanese 14th Army to establish control over the capital with minimal initial resistance. The occupation administration imposed , commandeered resources for the Japanese war effort, and disrupted the local through currency controls, bank closures, and forced labor requisitions, leading to , industrial collapse, and acute food shortages. Daily life deteriorated amid widespread , , and propaganda efforts to promote collaboration via puppet institutions like the , though resentment fueled networks. Filipino guerrilla groups, often remnants of USAFFE units, conducted ambushes, of supply lines, and gathering, harassing Japanese garrisons and complicating across until late 1944. As U.S. forces under General advanced following landings at in , Japanese commanders ordered a withdrawal from Manila to avoid urban entrapment, but Sanji Iwabuchi's naval of approximately 17,000 troops defied orders and fortified the city. The Battle of Manila began on February 3, 1945, when the U.S. 1st Division and 37th Division, supported by Filipino guerrillas, entered from the north, initiating month-long house-to-house combat amid booby-trapped buildings, minefields, and sniper fire. Iwabuchi's forces systematically destroyed infrastructure using arson, demolition charges, and artillery, while committing the Manila Massacre from early February onward, bayoneting, beheading, raping, and burning tens of thousands of civilians trapped in the crossfire or targeted in hospitals, churches, and homes. Estimates place civilian deaths at around 100,000, with Japanese losses exceeding 16,000 killed and U.S. casualties at about 1,000 dead and 5,500 wounded; the fighting razed over 80% of Manila's structures, including Intramuros, major churches, and government buildings, rendering the city one of World War II's most devastated urban centers. Full liberation occurred on March 3, 1945, after Iwabuchi's death, though pockets of resistance persisted briefly.

Post-independence era (1946–1972)

Following on , 1946, Manila, as the national capital and principal port, prioritized reconstruction from destruction, which had left it as the second-most devastated Allied city. The Philippine Rehabilitation Act of 1946 funded rebuilding of essential infrastructure, including the , structures like Palma Hall, and port facilities critical for economic recovery. However, comprehensive restoration proved elusive due to resource constraints and rapid postwar migration, resulting in many wartime ruins being cleared for informal settlements rather than faithful reconstruction. Economic policies shifted toward soon after independence, concentrating manufacturing and commerce in Manila's metropolitan area, which benefited from existing port access and administrative centrality. This spurred expansion in the 1950s, with private developers pioneering the Philippines' first corporately planned suburbs and upper-class gated communities in Greater Manila, such as Forbes Park, to accommodate elite relocation amid core-city congestion. Infrastructure investments, including expanded road networks like Highway 54 (now ), supported this growth, though services lagged behind population influxes from rural areas seeking jobs in emerging industries. By the 1960s, under President Ferdinand Marcos's early administration, public spending on roads, bridges, and utilities intensified in the , contributing to a perceived "" of physical development despite underlying fiscal strains from and agrarian unrest. Rapid processes—fueled by high national birth rates and —doubled metropolitan Manila's footprint, but generated persistent challenges like slum proliferation and inadequate , as formal planning failed to match demographic pressures. These dynamics positioned Manila as the country's , absorbing disproportionate economic activity while exacerbating inequality between its commercial core and sprawling peripheries.

Martial Law era (1972–1986)

On September 21, 1972, President signed , placing the under , with the measure publicly announced via television from in Manila on September 23. Marcos cited threats from communist , Muslim separatists, and domestic unrest as justifications, leading to the immediate suspension of the writ of , closure of , and imposition of curfews and media censorship in the capital. In Manila, military checkpoints proliferated, and thousands of opposition figures, journalists, and activists were arrested without warrants, including key senators and student leaders from universities like the in Diliman. These actions centralized power in Marcos's hands, transforming Manila's political landscape into one of enforced quiescence, though underground resistance networks persisted among urban intellectuals and laborers. Martial law initially brought order to Manila's streets, with strict policing reducing rates, including murders and robberies, and enabling urban beautification efforts such as park renovations and traffic management. The regime pursued ambitious infrastructure projects funded largely by foreign loans, including the expansion of the complex along , the construction of the (PICC) in 1976, and the GSIS headquarters, which symbolized Marcos's "edifice complex" of monumental architecture aimed at projecting national progress. Flood control initiatives in , involving dike reinforcements and channel dredging, were launched to mitigate perennial inundations but remained incomplete by 1986, exacerbating vulnerabilities during typhoons. Economically, Manila experienced short-term growth from these developments and export processing zones, but escalating debt—reaching $28.3 billion nationally by 1986—and funneled resources to Marcos allies, stifling broader prosperity and fueling inflation that hit urban poor hardest. Human rights violations were rampant, with Manila serving as a hub for detentions at facilities like and , where documented cases included and extrajudicial killings targeting perceived subversives. Official Philippine records later verified 70,000 imprisonments, 34,000 instances of , and over 3,200 deaths nationwide during the period, many occurring in or linked to the capital's military operations against dissidents. While apologists highlighted stability gains, independent accounts from victims and exiles underscore systematic abuses, including salvagings (summary executions) in urban slums and suppression of labor strikes in industrial areas like . was formally lifted on January 17, 1981, amid U.S. pressure and 's reelection bid, but authoritarian controls persisted through controlled elections and media dominance until the 1986 unrest.

People Power Revolution and democratic restoration (1986–2000)

The unfolded from February 22 to 25, 1986, with hundreds of thousands of protesters, including many from Manila, assembling along in to challenge Ferdinand Marcos's disputed claim of victory in the February 7 presidential . Manila residents contributed significantly to the swelling crowds, motivated by opposition calls from figures like and supported by key defections, including from Defense Minister and Lt. Gen. Fidel Ramos, who barricaded near Manila. The nonviolent standoff, bolstered by civilian human chains and supplies from Manila's communities, prevented military advances ordered by Marcos loyalists, culminating in Marcos's evacuation from in Manila via U.S. helicopters on February 25, after which Aquino was sworn in as president at Club Filipino in nearby . This event marked the collapse of the 14-year regime imposed in 1972, with Manila serving as the epicenter of the power transition. Following the revolution, Aquino's administration, headquartered in Manila's , prioritized democratic restoration by issuing a Freedom in March 1986 and appointing officers-in-charge (OICs) to replace Marcos-era local executives across the , including in Manila, to dismantle entrenched authoritarian structures. A new was drafted by a and ratified in a nationwide plebiscite on February 2, 1987, restoring bicameral legislature, term limits, and ; urban centers like Manila overwhelmingly approved it, reflecting broad support for institutional safeguards against renewed . National elections in May 1987 returned Aquino allies to , with Manila's districts electing representatives amid restored press freedom and assembly rights, though challenged by seven coup attempts between 1986 and 1989, including the December 1989 mutiny that saw rebel forces bomb Manila's key sites like Sangley Point and briefly seize parts of the city before U.S. intervention aided loyalist forces. These incidents, involving around 1,000 deaths nationwide, underscored vulnerabilities in the fragile transition but ultimately reinforced civilian-military alliances under Aquino. Local governance in Manila normalized with synchronized elections on January 18, 1988, under which OIC Mayor Mel Lopez, appointed post-revolution, secured victory and served until 1998, overseeing the city's reintegration into electoral politics. The 1991 Local Government Code devolved powers to cities like Manila, enhancing mayoral authority over budgets and services, which facilitated urban recovery efforts amid persistent issues like squatter clearances and infrastructure strain from the capital's 1.5 million residents. Fidel Ramos's presidency (1992–1998), elected in Manila-centric campaigns, pursued economic liberalization, including power sector deregulation that stabilized Manila's grids after chronic blackouts, while Joseph Estrada's 1998 victory extended populist appeals rooted in the city's dense electorate. By 2000, Manila's democratic framework had endured, evidenced by regular senatorial and local polls, though elite influence and corruption scandals persisted, as noted in analyses of post-1986 elite restoration rather than systemic overhaul. This era solidified Manila's status as the Philippines' political nerve center, hosting restored institutions like the Supreme Court and bicameral Congress in the city's historic districts.

Contemporary era (2001–present)

In January 2001, mass protests in Manila known as EDSA II led to the resignation of President Joseph Estrada amid corruption charges, with Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo assuming the presidency. Arroyo's administration faced multiple challenges, including attempted military coups in Manila in 2003 and allegations of electoral fraud in the 2005 "Hello Garci" scandal, which involved wiretapped conversations suggesting manipulation in national elections. Despite political instability, the period saw economic expansion, with the Philippine peso strengthening by approximately 20% in 2008 amid global financial turmoil. Arroyo declared a state of emergency in 2007 following an aborted coup attempt tied to opposition figures. Under President from 2010 to 2016, Manila experienced intensified urban pressures, including worsening that became a daily ordeal for commuters, exacerbated by rapid and inadequate . Aquino prioritized public-private partnerships for development, approving projects worth billions of pesos, and initiated the to address transportation bottlenecks through expanded rail and road networks with milestones targeted for 2016, 2020, and 2030. (Ondoy) in September 2009 devastated with record rainfall exceeding 400 mm in 24 hours, causing widespread flooding that displaced over 500,000 residents and contributed to hundreds of deaths nationwide, highlighting vulnerabilities in the city's drainage systems. Subsequent floods in 2012 submerged parts of Manila, killing over 50 and underscoring persistent flood risks from typhoons and poor . Rodrigo Duterte's presidency from 2016 to 2022 introduced aggressive anti-crime measures, including a nationwide drug war that resulted in thousands of deaths, many in urban poor areas of , with police operations targeting suspected dealers and users. Crime rates in the declined notably during this period, with index crimes dropping by over 50% in some metrics, attributed by supporters to the campaign's deterrent effect, though critics, including organizations, documented extrajudicial killings and cover-ups. Duterte's "Build, Build, Build" program accelerated infrastructure in , including flood control and transport upgrades, amid ongoing traffic gridlock. The struck in 2020, imposing strict lockdowns in Manila that halted economic activity and exposed healthcare strains. Ferdinand Marcos Jr., inaugurated in 2022, continued infrastructure momentum through the "" initiative, approving 194 projects totaling trillions of pesos, focusing on railways, airports, and mitigation in Manila, with commitments to improve by late 2025. Economic recovery post-pandemic supported national GDP growth averaging around 6% annually from 2022, driven by Manila's role as the commercial center, though irregularities in spending exceeding 545 billion pesos since 2022 prompted probes into corruption. Persistent challenges include in from storm surges and typhoons, with policy responses emphasizing dike reinforcements and relocation, yet and reclamation projects remain contentious. As of 2025, Manila's skyline reflects ongoing modernization, but socioeconomic disparities and disaster continue to define the city's trajectory.

Geography and Environment

Location, topography, and administrative divisions


Manila lies on the western side of Luzon island, the largest in the Philippine archipelago, positioned on the eastern shore of Manila Bay at the mouth of the Pasig River. The city's geographic coordinates are approximately 14°36′N 120°59′E. The Pasig River traverses the urban core, dividing Manila into northern and southern sectors as it flows northwest into the bay, which serves as a major natural harbor. The of Manila consists of a low-lying, flat deltaic plain formed by alluvial deposits from the and adjacent rivers, with average elevations around 6 meters above and maximum heights rarely exceeding 10 meters. Much of the land is reclaimed from former swamps and tidal flats, contributing to risks and frequent inundation during storms or high . The urban landscape features minimal relief, transitioning gradually eastward toward slightly higher ground in the metro area. Administratively, the City of Manila spans 42.88 square kilometers and is subdivided into 16 districts, such as Tondo, Binondo, and Malate, which originated from historical towns and are further divided into 897 barangays—the basic political units responsible for local governance and community services. These barangays vary widely in size and , with some encompassing dense residential zones and others smaller commercial or institutional areas. The structure facilitates localized administration within the highly urbanized setting of the National Capital Region.

Climate and seasonal patterns

Manila exhibits a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen classification (Am), characterized by high temperatures, elevated humidity, and distinct wet and dry seasons dictated by monsoon winds. The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) designates the region as Type I, featuring a pronounced dry season from November to April and a wet season from May to October, with minimal transitional overlap. Annual precipitation averages approximately 2,061 mm, concentrated heavily in the wet period due to the southwest monsoon (habagat), while the northeast monsoon (amihan) brings drier conditions with occasional light rain from November to January. Temperatures show little seasonal fluctuation, maintaining a mean annual average of 26.6°C, with daytime highs typically between 31°C and 33°C and nighttime lows around 24°C to 25°C year-round. Relative humidity consistently exceeds 75%, often reaching 80–85%, exacerbating the perceived , which can surpass 40°C during peak dry months. The dry season experiences scant rainfall—averaging under 50 mm monthly from December to April—yielding mostly clear skies and intensified solar exposure, particularly in March to May when "summer" heat peaks. The , conversely, delivers over 80% of annual rainfall, with monthly totals peaking at 335 mm in and around 300 mm in , August, September, and October, fostering lush vegetation but frequent overcast conditions and reduced visibility. This pattern stems from the interplay of and the , with the southwest dominating convective activity and occasional easterly waves contributing to variability. Despite the bimodal rainfall regime, no true winter occurs, as and influences ensure persistently warm conditions.

Natural hazards, floods, and disaster preparedness

Manila lies in a seismically active region along the Pacific Ring of Fire, exposing it to frequent earthquakes from nearby faults such as the Marikina Valley Fault System, capable of generating a magnitude 7.2 event dubbed the "Big One," which could result in over 30,000 deaths and extensive structural damage across Metro Manila. The city also faces annual threats from typhoons, with the Philippines experiencing about 20 per year, five of which typically cause significant destruction through high winds, storm surges, and heavy rainfall exceeding 200 mm in 24 hours. Taal Volcano, approximately 50 km south of Manila, poses risks of ashfall and pyroclastic flows; its phreatic eruption on January 12, 2020, produced ash plumes reaching the capital, disrupting air travel, contaminating water supplies, and prompting evacuations of over 100,000 people in affected areas. Flooding represents the most recurrent hazard, exacerbated by Manila's low-lying , inadequate systems clogged with waste, and rapid that increases impervious surfaces and runoff. from excessive extraction—primarily for industrial and domestic use—compounds vulnerability, with rates in reaching up to 5 cm per year in some zones due to after depletion, lowering land relative to and amplifying inundation during storms. Major events include (Ondoy) on September 26, 2009, which dumped 455 mm of rain in 24 hours, flooding 80% of , displacing 1.9 million residents, and causing 464 deaths nationwide. Similarly, enhanced southwest rains in August 2012 submerged 80% of the city, while Typhoon Gaemi in July 2024 intensified flooding, stranding thousands and halting transport. Disaster preparedness is coordinated by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), which oversees response through agencies like the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration () for flood and typhoon forecasting, and the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) for seismic and volcanic monitoring. The Manila Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (MDRRMO) conducts equipment inspections, drills, and prepositioning of rescue assets, including life detectors for scenarios. National campaigns, such as "Panatag Pilipinas" launched in , promote community awareness and stockpiling, while infrastructure efforts include dike reinforcements along the and early warning systems via SMS alerts. Despite these measures, challenges persist, including coordination delays, insufficient resilient infrastructure, and recurring failures in that hinder , as evidenced by repeated severe floods post-2009 improvements.

Pollution, sustainability, and environmental degradation

Manila experiences chronic primarily from vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and construction dust, with fine (PM2.5) averaging 17.4 µg/m³ across 2024, exceeding the World Health Organization's annual guideline of 5 µg/m³. Levels in the National Capital Region declined by 37.6% for PM2.5 from 27 µg/ncm in 2016 to 16.86 µg/ncm in 2024, attributed to regulatory and reduced emissions, though concentrations remain hazardous during dry seasons when AQI often reaches moderate to unhealthy ranges (e.g., 68 as of late 2025). Water bodies such as the and suffer severe contamination from untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and solid waste, rendering the Pasig a "toxic soup" of , nitrates, phosphates, oil, and fecal matter as of recent surveys. The of and Resources removed over 1.6 million kilograms of waste from the Pasig River system between January and May 2024 under the Manila Bay Rehabilitation Program, yet and persist in sediments, particularly during wet seasons. In , marine litter decreased in 2024 due to cleanup drives and reduced upstream dumping, but plastics constitute the majority of debris, with ongoing threats from inadequate plants covering only a fraction of needed capacity. Solid waste mismanagement exacerbates degradation, with local government units often failing to comply with the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, leading to open dumping and overflowing landfills that contribute to pollution and health risks. dominates, stemming from poor segregation and riverine transport, while waste-to-energy proposals face criticism for potential emissions without addressing root causes like collection inefficiencies. Urban environmental degradation includes land at rates up to several centimeters annually in coastal areas, driven by excessive for urban supply, compounding vulnerability to sea-level rise and storm surges. forests, critical for coastal protection, have declined since the 1980s due to conversion for , , and erosion, reducing natural buffering against erosion and biodiversity loss in . Reclamation projects, numbering over 187 nationwide with several in , disrupt ecosystems, deplete fisheries, and alter circulation, despite claims of economic benefits. Sustainability initiatives lag, with Metro Manila ranking 93rd out of 100 cities in the 2024 Arcadis Sustainable Cities Index, scoring lowest in and pillars despite some in emissions reduction via certifications (293,900 m² transacted in 2024). Local efforts, such as waste awareness campaigns and private-sector programs like Okada Manila's Green Heart for community , exist but are undermined by enforcement gaps and rapid outpacing . Overall, causal factors like (over 1.8 million in Manila proper) and weak perpetuate degradation, with empirical data indicating persistent exceedances of environmental thresholds despite incremental improvements.

Demographics

Population dynamics and urban density

The City of Manila spans 42.88 square kilometers and recorded a population of 1,846,513 residents in the 2020 Census of Population and Housing, making it the second-most populous city proper in the Philippines after Quezon City. This equates to a density of approximately 43,079 persons per square kilometer, among the highest for any major city worldwide and exceeding that of comparably sized urban cores like Mumbai (28,508 per square kilometer) or Dhaka (approximately 23,234 per square kilometer). High density stems from constrained land availability within the historic walled city and adjacent districts, compounded by vertical informal settlements and limited expansion space bounded by Manila Bay and the Pasig River. Population growth in Manila city proper has decelerated since the mid-20th century, with the annual rate averaging 0.72% from 2010 (1,780,148 residents) to 2020, below the national average of 1.35% during the same period. This slowdown reflects a combination of declining natural increase—driven by a total fertility rate estimated at 1.6 to 1.8 children per woman in recent years—and net out-migration to peripheral Metro Manila municipalities offering more affordable housing and space. Historically, the population surged from 283,613 in 1918 to 983,906 in 1948 amid post-war reconstruction and rural-to-urban migration fueled by industrial opportunities, but post-1970s urbanization shifted growth outward, stabilizing the city core. By 2024 estimates, the population hovered near 1.9 million, with projections indicating modest annual increases of 1-2% through 2025 absent major policy interventions on housing or zoning. Urban density exacerbates infrastructure strains, with over 70% of residents in informal dwellings averaging less than 10 square meters per person in core districts like Tondo and . Comparative analyses rank Manila's city proper density higher than (21,616 per square kilometer) or Tokyo's core wards (15,000-20,000 per square kilometer), attributable to lax enforcement of building codes and reliance on multi-story tenements rather than suburban sprawl. patterns contribute dynamically: while internal inflows from provinces sustain workforce replenishment in services and trade, emigration of middle-class families to enclaves like reduces the resident base, yielding a de facto commuter population that inflates daytime density beyond census figures.

Ethnic, linguistic, and migration patterns

Manila's is overwhelmingly ethnic Filipino, with comprising the predominant group in the National Capital Region (NCR), of which Manila is the core, based on self-identified ethnicity in the 2020 Census of Population and Housing conducted by the (). Nationally, Tagalogs represent about 26% of the household , but this share is higher in urban NCR areas due to historical settlement patterns and reinforcing Tagalog cultural dominance. Smaller ethnic minorities include (IPs) such as Aeta groups, though they constitute less than 1% in urban Manila per census data, and mixed-ancestry populations with Spanish or American influences from colonial eras. Chinese Filipinos form a significant non-Filipino ethnic minority, historically concentrated in Manila's district, established as a trading enclave in the late . National estimates from 2013 records indicate approximately 1.35 million ethnic (pure) , with a substantial portion residing in or operating businesses from Manila, contributing to its commercial landscape despite comprising only 1-2% of the national population. Recent assessments place the broader Tsinoy (Chinese-mestizo) population at around 1.2 million nationwide, many integrated into Manila's economy through family enterprises, though exact city-level figures remain untracked in official censuses due to assimilation and self-identification challenges. Foreign residents, including expatriates from , the , and , number in the low thousands in Manila, drawn by business and diplomacy; national alien registration data from recent years show over 22,000 Chinese nationals registered across the , with Manila hosting a disproportionate share as the capital. Linguistically, (the basis of national Filipino) is the dominant mother tongue in Manila, spoken natively by the majority in the NCR as per linguistic data tied to ethnic patterns, with influences incorporating loanwords from , English, and due to historical trade. English serves as a widespread for , , and commerce, with proficiency rates exceeding 50% among adults in centers like Manila, facilitating its role as a hub. Regional languages such as Cebuano, Ilocano, and Hiligaynon are spoken by migrants from and , reflecting linguistic diversity from internal flows, though Tagalog-Filipino remains the in daily interactions and media. Migration patterns in Manila are characterized by sustained net in-migration from rural provinces, driven primarily by opportunities in services and , with 's 2018 National Migration Survey reporting that 46% of internal migrants nationwide cite as the main reason. From 2013 to 2018, about 15% of aged 15 and over had migrated internally within the prior five years, with (including Manila) as the top destination absorbing streams from regions like and . However, post-2020 trends show decelerating inflows and some reversal, as congestion, high living costs, and options prompt outflows to peripheral areas; data for 2022 indicate 's business establishments remain dominant but population pressures have led to net losses in select urban cores like Manila . The 2025 National Migration Survey, ongoing as of August 2025, aims to update these flows, highlighting Manila's role in absorbing economic migrants while facing sustainability strains from unplanned .

Religious composition and practices

Manila's religious landscape is dominated by , reflecting the national pattern where 78.8% of the household population identified as Roman Catholic in the 2020 Census of Population and Housing conducted by the . As the historic center of Spanish colonial evangelization since the , the city maintains a high concentration of Catholic adherents, with smaller shares adhering to Protestant denominations (around 10% nationally), (2.6%), and other Christian groups. Muslim communities, comprising about 6% nationally but a minority in Manila, consist largely of migrants from southern , numbering in the tens of thousands and concentrated in areas like Quiapo and Tondo. Non-Christian faiths, including among Chinese and Indian residents, remain marginal, alongside a negligible irreligious segment. Catholic practices in Manila blend liturgical traditions with popular devotions, exemplified by the annual Traslación procession of the statue on January 9, which draws hundreds of thousands of barefoot devotees to for a 20-hour ritual involving climbing and touching the icon for purported miracles. This event, rooted in 17th-century Spanish introduction, underscores folk piety intertwined with formal sacraments like daily Masses in historic basilicas such as San Agustin Church, the oldest stone church in the dating to 1607. Semana Santa processions in areas like Malate feature life-sized santo images, while observances at cemeteries highlight ancestral veneration syncretized with pre-colonial animist elements. Protestant and evangelical groups, growing via urban outreach, emphasize studies and contemporary worship in independent congregations, contrasting Catholic ritualism. Minority practices include Sunni Muslim prayers at mosques like the Golden Mosque in Quiapo, serving the local Moro , and Iglesia ni Cristo services in distinctive octagonal chapels, with the faith's central temple in nearby influencing Manila's adherents. These groups maintain doctrinal separation, with limited interfaith friction reported in the densely populated urban setting, though Catholic dominance shapes public holidays and cultural norms.

Crime, public safety, and social issues

Manila experiences elevated levels of , with a mid-2025 crime index of 64.7 according to user surveys, indicating high perceived risks of , , and violent offenses in densely populated areas. Official (PNP) data reports a 23.13 percent decline in Metro Manila's overall rate from November 23, 2024, to May 23, 2025, attributed to intensified patrols and anti-criminality operations. Focus crimes, including , , , , physical , and car theft, dropped by 14 percent nationally in early 2025, with Metro Manila seeing similar reductions, such as a 41.94 percent decrease in s in February 2025 compared to the prior year. Common crimes in Manila include petty and in tourist-heavy districts like and Quiapo, alongside robbery and drug-related violence in informal settlements such as Tondo and Happyland. The city's high exacerbates these issues, with index crimes often linked to socioeconomic vulnerabilities. Despite trends showing a 13.82 percent drop in crimes from July to September 2025, public perception of safety remains low, with persistent fears of , unsafe streets at night, and encounters with drug users. Public safety measures involve heightened deployments, including over 1,330 personnel for beat patrols and checkpoints in as of October 2025, alongside augmented visibility during high-risk periods like holidays and elections. The (NCRPO) has focused on anti-drug operations and , contributing to reported declines, though challenges persist from underreporting and occasional . Road safety initiatives, such as 's 2025 action plan aiming for a 35 percent reduction in crash fatalities by 2028, address traffic-related hazards that compound urban risks. Social issues intertwined with include entrenched drug addiction, primarily to (""), which fuels petty crime and activity in impoverished barangays. The legacy of the 2016–2022 anti-drug campaign under former President Duterte resulted in thousands of extrajudicial killings, disproportionately affecting poor communities and leaving lasting trauma, with reports of continued vigilante-style violence post-2022. drives much of Manila's , with informal economies and in slums correlating to higher rates of and drug-related offenses, though official poverty alleviation efforts have not fully mitigated these causal links. concerns, including impacts on children from drug raids, highlight systemic vulnerabilities in low-income areas.

Government and Politics

Local governance structure and elections

Manila's adheres to the decentralized structure established by Republic Act No. 7160, the Local Government Code of 1991, which vests executive and legislative powers in elected officials at the level. As a highly urbanized , Manila operates autonomously, without subordination to a provincial government, allowing it to manage its internal affairs directly. The executive authority resides with the , elected by direct popular vote for a non-extendable term of three years, with incumbents eligible for up to two reelections consecutively. The directs operations, including services, , and coordination. Complementing this, the vice , similarly elected, presides over the legislative body and succeeds to the mayoral office upon vacancy. Legislative functions fall to the , or , consisting of 36 councilors elected from the city's six congressional districts, with six seats per district determined by vote among the top candidates. These councilors, serving three-year terms limited to three consecutive, deliberate on ordinances, fiscal appropriations, and policy matters, exercising checks on executive actions. Subordinate to the city are 897 barangays, the fundamental administrative divisions, each led by an elected and a seven-member council chosen via community elections. Barangay officials address hyper-local issues, such as , basic welfare delivery, and participatory , feeding into city-wide decision-making through federations. Elections for , vice mayor, and councilors synchronize with national midterm polls, held every three years on the second Monday of May, as in the May 12, 2025, contest administered by the Commission on Elections. Voters, registered via COMELEC precincts, cast ballots under a first-past-the-post system, with results canvassed locally and proclaimed promptly thereafter; terms commence on June 30 following the vote. Barangay-level elections occur separately every three years in , decoupled from city cycles to emphasize grassroots renewal.

Current administration and officials (2025–2028)

Francisco "Isko" Moreno Domagoso serves as the for the 2025–2028 term, having won the election on May 12, 2025, with a plurality of votes against incumbent and other candidates. He was officially proclaimed on May 13, 2025, and took his on May 19, 2025, before a associate justice. This marks Moreno's return to the position after serving from 2017 to 2022, during which he focused on and initiatives. The vice mayor is Chi Atienza, who acts as the presiding officer of the and oversees its legislative functions across the city's six districts. Atienza's role includes managing council sessions and committee assignments, with the 13th City Council holding regular sessions to address local ordinances on , , and public services. The , comprising 36 members elected from single-member districts, is dominated by allies of Mayor Moreno, securing 23 seats in the 2025 elections under the coalition. Key council officers include district representatives who chair committees on , urban poor affairs, and , enabling the administration to advance policies on and economic recovery, though early challenges such as uncollected have prompted declarations. Other principal officials include appointed department heads, such as the city administrator and health officer, reporting directly to the mayor's office at the .

Role as national capital and central government ties

Manila was designated the capital of the Philippines by Presidential Decree No. 940, issued on June 24, 1976, which explicitly established the city as the permanent seat of the national government, thereby restoring its status after Quezon City had served as capital from 1948 to 1976. This decree emphasized Manila's historical role as the center of Filipino national identity and governance continuity. Although the National Capital Region (NCR), encompassing Manila and surrounding cities, functions as the broader administrative hub, Manila retains symbolic primacy as the historic and official capital city. The city hosts critical national institutions that underscore its ties to the central government, including in the San Miguel district, which serves as the official residence and principal workplace of the . Additionally, the is located at Padre Faura Street in , Manila, where it conducts sessions and exercises its authority as the highest judicial body. These placements position Manila as a focal point for executive and judicial functions, even as the bicameral operates elsewhere: the at the in and the at the in City. Manila's role facilitates direct administrative and ceremonial linkages between the and local operations, with national agencies coordinating policies, , and security within the city through the and oversight from the Department of the Interior and Local Government. This integration supports Manila's function as a for national decision-making, despite the of some agencies to adjacent NCR cities to alleviate congestion.

Corruption scandals, protests, and governance failures

In 2025, a major corruption scandal erupted involving irregularities in government-funded projects across the , with significant implications for Manila as the densely populated capital prone to severe flooding. President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. disclosed in his 2025 State of the Nation Address that anomalies affected most of the 9,855 projects under the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), involving billions of pesos in taxpayer funds diverted through ghost projects, overpricing, and substandard construction. These failures exacerbated Manila's vulnerability to typhoons, as evidenced by the paralysis of the city during heavy rains in September 2025, where inadequate infrastructure led to widespread inundation despite allocated budgets exceeding 100 billion pesos since 2016. The prompted massive protests in Manila, with tens of thousands gathering on September 21, 2025, in the largest demonstrations since the 1986 . Organized by civic groups, students, and business alliances, the rallies centered on themes of "endemic corruption" and demands for accountability, including an independent probe into DPWH contracts awarded to politically connected firms. Clashes with resulted in 17 arrests and reports of excessive force, highlighting tensions between protesters and authorities amid public outrage over governance lapses that contributed to 2025's deadly floods killing over 100 and displacing millions in . Local governance in Manila has faced separate corruption allegations, particularly under former Mayor Francisco "Isko" Moreno (2017–2022), who was accused of favoritism toward select contractors in infrastructure bids worth billions, including road and drainage projects marred by delays and cost overruns. The city also inherited a 950 million peso debt to garbage contractors upon Moreno's entry into office, linked to prior mismanagement under long-term political dynasties controlling Manila Hall. Under current Mayor Honey Lacuna (2022–present), efforts to expose national-level graft, such as DPWH flood projects, have been noted, but persistent issues like uncollected waste and incomplete urban drainage persist, fueling criticisms of administrative inertia. Broader governance failures in Manila stem from entrenched and weak oversight, leading to chronic problems like traffic gridlock, informal settlements encroaching on waterways, and failed initiatives such as the delayed , which has been stalled by procurement irregularities and land acquisition disputes since 2019. perceptions surged to a record 31% in October 2025 surveys following the flood scandal, with analysts attributing stalled to repeated cycles of and , as legislators and officials face minimal convictions despite probes. In response, the government announced a specialized for implicated lawmakers in October 2025, though skeptics question its efficacy given historical precedents of elite .

Economy

Macroeconomic trends and growth drivers

The National Capital Region (NCR), of which Manila is the core, recorded a 5.6 percent GDP growth in 2024, the fastest annual expansion in two years and matching the national rate amid post-pandemic recovery. This followed contractions in 2020 due to and subsequent rebounds, with NCR's output resilience tied to its concentration of services and commerce; the region accounts for roughly 36 percent of the ' total GDP. Services dominated NCR growth, representing nearly 83 percent of output and expanding 5.9 percent in 2024, slightly accelerating from 5.7 percent in 2023, driven by wholesale and retail trade, financial intermediation, and activities. In Manila proper, services comprise 76.8 percent of city GDP, fueled by its role as the administrative capital hosting government offices, ports, and professional hubs that leverage for transaction efficiency. Industry contributed modestly at around 15 percent of NCR output, with and benefiting from spillovers, while remains negligible at under 1 percent. Key growth drivers include robust domestic consumption from remittances and employment in —concentrated in NCR—and in services, supported by lower (3.2 percent nationally in 2024) and policy stability. Early 2025 data indicate sustained services momentum, with national sector growth at 6.9 percent in Q2, propelled by professional and business services amid global outsourcing demand. However, vulnerabilities persist from external shocks like commodity prices and internal factors such as limiting gains.

Key sectors: services, manufacturing, and trade

The services sector dominates Manila's economy, comprising 76.7% of the city's (GDP) in 2023, when the city's total GDP reached P987.88 billion. This sector grew amid broader National Capital Region (NCR) trends, where services accounted for 83% of output in 2024, expanding by 5.9% year-on-year. Key drivers include (BPO), a cornerstone of Metro Manila's economic activity, which employed approximately 1.7 million workers nationwide by late 2023 and contributed 7-8% to the ' national GDP. , wholesale and retail trade, and further bolster this dominance, with BPO firms leasing 65.2% of Metro Manila's office space as of 2022. Manufacturing plays a secondary role in Manila proper, overshadowed by services and concentrated more in NCR suburbs like Valenzuela and for , textiles, and . Establishments in the city focus on consumer goods, with operations from multinational firms such as and producing food, beverages, and household products. Nationally, manufacturing output slowed in 2023 due to weak export demand, with dipping to a low of 2.927 million workers by November, though retains significance in garments and assembly. In Manila, this sector's limited scale reflects urban constraints like high land costs and regulatory hurdles, contributing far less than services to local GDP. Trade underpins Manila's role as a gateway, primarily through the , the ' busiest container facility, which processed 5.21 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) in 2023. Throughput rose to approximately 5.5 million TEUs in 2024 across its terminals, including the Manila International Container Terminal and Manila South Harbour, supporting national import-export flows where imports comprised 76% of top ports' volume. This activity facilitates exports and consumer goods imports, though inefficiencies like congestion and bottlenecks persist, impacting overall efficiency. Wholesale , integrated into services, amplifies these dynamics, with port-linked driving NCR's economic connectivity.

Tourism, retail, and cultural industries

Manila's tourism sector emphasizes historical and cultural sites such as Intramuros, Fort Santiago, and Rizal Park, attracting visitors interested in colonial heritage and urban exploration. As the main entry point via Ninoy Aquino International Airport, which handles the majority of international arrivals, Metro Manila's hospitality industry supports transit and city-based stays, with hotel market value projected at US$2.75 billion by end-2024 and average occupancy of 65%. Despite national tourism revenue reaching PHP760.5 billion in 2024 from inbound expenditures, Manila's share remains limited due to competition from resort areas and local challenges like congestion, contributing modestly to the city's service economy. The retail industry in dominates national trends, representing over 40% of the country's retail sales and featuring 7.9 million square meters of leasable mall space as of Q1 2025. Major developments like and drive growth, with Ayala Land's shopping centers reporting PHP21.1 billion in revenue for a recent period, up 31% year-over-year. The sector benefits from rising and , though vacancy rates hover around 13% amid renovations and new supply additions of approximately 158,000 square meters annually through 2027. Cultural industries, including and , cluster in Manila, bolstering creative output. The schedules over 765 events annually, encompassing theater, music, and exhibits to foster local talent and audiences. The generated over PHP1 billion in gross revenues in a recent edition, highlighting the sector's box-office potential amid efforts to revitalize production. These activities align with national contributing 7.3% to GDP in 2022, with Manila as a hub for , , and preservation driving ancillary economic activity.

Poverty, inequality, and economic vulnerabilities

Manila, as the core of the National Capital Region (NCR), records poverty incidence rates substantially below the national average, with the NCR's rate estimated at around 2-3% in recent years compared to the ' 15.5% in 2023, reflecting urban economic opportunities but masking concentrated deprivation in specific districts. Despite this, absolute persists, particularly in densely populated areas like Tondo, where and substandard affect hundreds of thousands; for instance, 105 in Tondo, one of Manila's largest slums, houses over 12,000 residents in precarious conditions as of 2024. Informal settler families (ISFs) number approximately 500,000 in Metro Manila's slums and high-risk zones, comprising a significant portion of the urban poor vulnerable to eviction and inadequate services. Income inequality in the Philippines, including , remains elevated, with a national of 40.7 in 2021, indicating persistent disparities driven by uneven access to high-wage services and formal . In , this manifests as visible socioeconomic divides, where elite enclaves coexist with low-income communities reliant on informal vending and , exacerbating wealth concentration; projections suggest a slight decline to 0.42 by nationally, though urban-rural and intra-city gaps hinder broader equalization. The informal sector dominates among the poor, employing a majority of low-skilled workers with limited social protections, contributing to economic fragility amid fluctuating remittances, which supported many households but declined during global disruptions like the . Unemployment in the NCR hovers near national levels, reaching 5.3% in July 2025 before easing to 3.9% in August, with at 10.7%, signaling insufficient quality jobs for the urban labor force. This underpins vulnerabilities, as rapid population inflows strain resources, fostering dependence on volatile sectors like construction and retail, where layoffs spike during slowdowns. Manila's economic vulnerabilities are amplified by its exposure to , including typhoons and floods, which disproportionately impact low-income areas due to poor drainage, encroachment on waterways, and weak enforcement of ; for example, frequent inundation in slums like those along the causes annual displacements and asset losses estimated in billions of pesos nationally, with urban poor bearing the brunt through income disruptions in agriculture-adjacent activities and informal trade. Seismic risks from the West Valley Fault further threaten informal structures, while challenges, such as delayed resettlement and in relief distribution, perpetuate cycles of recovery failure, as evidenced by post-typhoon analyses showing minimal long-term alleviation for affected households. These factors, combined with high —over 40,000 per square kilometer in parts of Manila—intensify by limiting among the economically marginalized.

Culture and Society

Architectural and historical landmarks

, the historic walled district of Manila, was established in 1571 by Spanish forces under as the colonial capital's fortified core, encompassing political, military, and ecclesiastical centers for over three centuries. Covering 0.67 square kilometers with extensive stone fortifications—the largest in —it followed a gridiron urban plan typical of Spanish colonial design, serving as a defensive against invasions and internal unrest. Designated a National Historical Landmark in 1951, much of was destroyed during the 1945 Battle of Manila but has since undergone restoration efforts preserving its original bastions, gates, and walls constructed primarily from volcanic tuff. Within stands , a citadel initially erected in 1571 at the River's mouth for strategic defense, later rebuilt between 1589 and 1592 using adobe blocks and dedicated to . It functioned as the headquarters, a prison during colonial rule, and the site of José Rizal's incarceration and execution by firing squad on December 30, 1896, amid the against . The fort's dungeons and Rizal Shrine highlight its role in both colonial oppression and nationalist history, with surviving structures including ramparts and a lighthouse overlooking . San Agustín Church, completed in 1607, represents the oldest extant stone church in the , built by Augustinian friars in style with earthquake-resistant features like thick walls and buttresses. Located in adjacent to Plaza San Luis, it withstood multiple disasters including the 1880 earthquake and bombings, serving as a repository for colonial-era art and relics while hosting significant religious events. The Manila Cathedral, or Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, traces its origins to 1571 as the colonial era's primary parish, with the current neo-Romanesque structure erected after 1945 destruction and consecrated in 1958 following repeated rebuilds due to typhoons, fires, and earthquakes. As the episcopal seat of the since 1595, its design incorporates for seismic durability, featuring twin bell towers and an ornate facade symbolizing ecclesiastical authority in the . Outside , the in Luneta Park (now ), unveiled on December 30, 1913, honors national hero with a 12.7-meter designed by sculptor Kissling, surmounted by a bronze statue and flanked by allegorical figures representing his ideals. Containing Rizal's remains since 1912, the monument underscores American colonial-era efforts to foster Filipino nationalism through public memorials, guarded continuously by Philippine Marines. The Minor Basilica of the (Quiapo Church), reconstructed in neo-Baroque style by architect after a 1928 fire and completed in the 1930s, features a symmetrical facade with columns and a central dome, blending and elements amid urban surroundings. Originating from a 1606 , it houses the venerated statue, drawing massive pilgrim crowds annually and exemplifying adaptive integrated into Manila's evolving cityscape.

Arts, museums, and cultural institutions

The (CCP), founded in 1966 as a , functions as the principal venue for in the country, encompassing theaters such as with a capacity of over 1,800 seats, alongside galleries and archives dedicated to Filipino cultural preservation. It hosts productions in theater, dance, and , including resident companies like and the Philippine Philharmonic Orchestra, which perform classical and contemporary repertoires drawing on both local traditions and international influences. Manila's visual arts are prominently represented by the National Museum of Fine Arts in , which maintains 29 galleries featuring works from 19th-century masters such as Juan Luna's (1884), Félix Resurrección Hidalgo's paintings, and collections by National Artists like , alongside modern and contemporary Filipino artists. The museum, housed in the neoclassical Legislative Building originally constructed in 1926, emphasizes Philippine art historical development from colonial to postcolonial eras, with over 400 paintings and sculptures on permanent display. Additional cultural institutions include the Museo Pambata in , an interactive established in 1994 that integrates art education through hands-on exhibits on Philippine , , and creativity, attracting over 100,000 visitors annually prior to expansions. In , the San Agustin Museum, adjacent to the 16th-century church, curates religious artifacts, vestments, and colonial-era paintings, preserving Augustinian missionary history with artifacts dating to 1571. These sites collectively underscore Manila's role in sustaining artistic expression amid urban challenges, though funding constraints from government sources have periodically limited programming expansions.

Festivals, traditions, and daily life

Manila's festivals prominently feature religious processions and cultural showcases, underscoring the city's predominantly Catholic population and multicultural influences. The Feast of the , held annually on January 9 at , involves the Traslacion procession of a darkened wooden statue of Jesus Christ, attracting over 8 million barefoot devotees in 2025 who seek miracles through physical contact or proximity. The event, originating from a 17th-century arrival, spans 17 hours over a 6-kilometer route and has resulted in numerous injuries and deaths from crowd surges, prompting enhanced security measures like metal detectors and segregated lines. The , staged yearly in City within , assembles competing regional festivals for street dancing, floats, and performances celebrating indigenous traditions, drawing hundreds of thousands to highlight Filipino artistry and pageantry. In , the world's oldest established in 1594, Chinese New Year festivities include dragon and lion dances, fireworks, and street parades, with hundreds of thousands participating in 2025 amid red lanterns and traditional cuisine. Cultural traditions in Manila emphasize ties and Catholic rituals, with multi-generational households common where three or more generations co-reside, fostering interdependence and frequent gatherings for baptisms, weddings, and fiestas. Respect for elders manifests in pagmamano, a where younger individuals press an elder's hand to their for blessing, reinforcing hierarchical structures. Fiestas honor patron saints with communal feasts, processions, and dances, blending Spanish colonial legacies with pre-Hispanic practices. Daily life in Manila revolves around navigating severe and fragmented , with commuters enduring overcrowded jeepneys, buses, and rail lines amid underfunded , often extending short trips into multi-hour ordeals. Street vending of staples like and integrates into routines, while family-centric evenings prioritize shared meals despite urban densities housing millions in informal settlements alongside high-rises. Over 90% Roman Catholic adherence shapes social norms, with and personal permeating work, leisure, and community interactions.

Sports, leisure, and community activities

dominates professional and in Manila, reflecting its national prominence in the , with local leagues and university competitions drawing large crowds at venues like the , an indoor arena within the built in the 1950s. The , Manila's primary multi-sport facility, includes the —a 12,873-seat outdoor venue constructed in 1934 that hosted the and continues to support , , and events. and also feature prominently, with training and matches at the complex's specialized halls managed by the . Leisure pursuits in Manila emphasize urban parks and waterfront recreation amid dense infrastructure, including jogging, picnicking, and biking along the Manila Baywalk, a promenade offering views of the bay and sunset gatherings. Indoor options prevail due to and traffic constraints, such as fitness centers, mall-based arcades, and shooting ranges like Tough Guys Shooting Range, alongside water-based activities at featuring aquarium exhibits and marine shows. Nighttime leisure includes rooftop bars and late-night eateries, providing social outlets in districts like and Malate. Community activities foster social cohesion through barangay-level sports leagues in and , often organized via local government units, and volunteer programs by organizations like Hands On Manila, which conducts monthly initiatives in , , and environmental cleanup targeting underprivileged areas. Events such as social meetups, philosophy discussions, and networking gatherings occur regularly through platforms like , particularly in central areas, promoting interpersonal connections among residents and expatriates. These efforts, including annual servathons, address urban challenges like poverty while building .

Infrastructure

Transportation networks and challenges

Manila's transportation networks primarily consist of road-based systems, urban rail lines, air facilities, and maritime ports serving the densely populated region. The Light Rail Transit (LRT) Line 1, operational since 1984, spans 20 kilometers from in to in , carrying over 300,000 passengers daily as of 2025, while provides an east-west route across 13.8 kilometers with heavy rail vehicles. The Metro Rail Transit (MRT) Line 3, the only MRT line in operation, runs 16.9 kilometers along Avenue (), serving as a high-capacity corridor but plagued by frequent breakdowns due to aging installed in the 1990s. Jeepneys, modified jeeps turned into colorful minibuses, remain a staple informal mode, with over 200,000 units in ferrying short-haul passengers, though a government-mandated modernization program since 2017 aims to replace traditional units with Euro-4 compliant vehicles by 2025 to reduce emissions and improve safety. Buses, including the EDSA Busway system, and ride-hailing services like Grab supplement these, but integration remains fragmented without unified ticketing beyond basic Beep card systems. Air transport centers on (NAIA), the primary gateway handling over 40 million passengers annually despite a design capacity of 35 million, operating four terminals with limited jet bridges and frequent air traffic bottlenecks. The , managed by the , processes about 70% of the nation's container volume, with key terminals like South Harbor accommodating over 5 million TEUs yearly but straining under peak loads. Ferries and water taxis along the and provide supplementary intra-city links, though underutilized due to pollution and seasonal flooding. Ongoing infrastructure projects seek to expand capacity, including the , a 33-kilometer underground line with tunneling underway as of mid-2025, projected for partial operation by 2029 connecting NAIA to key districts. The North-South Commuter Railway aims to revive 147 kilometers of suburban rail by 2028, while construction is slated to start in 2026, adding 12.7 kilometers of elevated track in the east. NAIA privatization, awarded in 2024, targets upgrades to boost capacity to 62 million passengers via new terminals and runways. Challenges dominate Manila's transport landscape, with Metro Manila ranking ninth globally for congestion in the 2024 TomTom Traffic Index, where drivers lose 117 hours annually to jams, equivalent to 4 days and 21 hours. Road networks, while extensive at over 20,000 kilometers in , suffer from inadequate maintenance, leading to potholes and flooding during typhoons, which disrupt 70% of routes seasonally due to the city's low-lying and poor . Rail systems face , with MRT-3 trains at 150% capacity during peaks, compounded by signal failures and power outages from a grid strained by rapid . Port operations run at 120% utilization, causing backlogs, truck on access roads, and delays averaging 3-5 days for clearance amid bureaucratic processes. NAIA's issues include chronic delays from slot shortages and outdated facilities, earning it the worst airport ranking in 2024 surveys for wait times exceeding 2 hours and failures like blackouts. These stem from underinvestment—public receives less than 1% of GDP in funding versus 2-3% in peer Asian cities—and rapid population growth to 13 million in , outpacing network expansion. Jeepney phase-out has sparked strikes and uneven compliance, exacerbating short-haul shortages without sufficient alternatives. Overall, these factors elevate costs to 20% of GDP, double the global average, hindering .

Housing, urban development, and slums

Manila's sector is strained by chronic shortages and affordability barriers, driven by pressures exceeding 1.8 million residents in the amid 's 13 million total. The faces a national backlog of 6.5 million units as of 2024, projected to escalate to 22 million by 2040, with centers like Manila bearing disproportionate demand due to rural- migration and limited formal supply. Residential prices in surged 13.9% year-on-year in Q1 2025, while vacancy rates are forecasted to hit 26% amid an overhang of unsold units valued at P130 billion, signaling oversupply in luxury segments but persistent deficits for low-income groups. Urban development initiatives aim to address density and infrastructure gaps through large-scale rehabilitation and reclamation. The Pasig River Urban Development Project, under the "Pasig Bigyang Buhay Muli" program, advanced to Phase 4 in October 2025, restoring 19 kilometers of the waterway, enhancing public spaces, and integrating mixed-use developments to boost connectivity and economic activity in historic districts. Complementary efforts include Metro Manila Flood Management Phase I and seismic upgrades to bridges, targeting resilience against typhoons and earthquakes that exacerbate housing vulnerabilities. Reclamation projects, such as the proposed New Manila Bay developments, seek to expand land for housing and commerce but face delays from environmental concerns and legal disputes over coastal ecosystems. Slums, or informal settlements, dominate Manila's housing landscape, with 20-35% of Metro Manila's population—roughly 2.6 to 4.5 million people—residing in such areas marked by makeshift structures, insecure , and deficient . In Manila city, Tondo's Barangay 105 ("Happyland") exemplifies extreme conditions, sheltering about 12,000 residents amid garbage heaps prone to fires and disease outbreaks, where homes are built from scavenged materials and flood-prone waterways serve as open sewers. Nationwide, informal settler families number 3.7 million, including 500,000 in Metro Manila's high-risk zones, where nearly 43% of the urban populace lived in substandard dwellings as of , reflecting causal factors like job scarcity in provinces and regulatory hurdles to formal . Relocation drives, such as those displacing 596,308 families under recent administrations, often relocate residents to peripheral sites lacking access, perpetuating cycles of and informal regrowth rather than resolving underlying land-use inefficiencies.

Utilities: water, power, and sanitation systems

Manila's water supply is primarily managed through the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System (MWSS), with distribution handled by two private concessionaires: Maynilad Water Services, Inc. for the west zone and Manila Water Company, Inc. for the east zone, encompassing the city of Manila and broader Metro Manila. These systems draw from sources including the Angat Dam and Laguna Lake, treating and distributing water to approximately 91.49% of the population in concession areas as of recent assessments. However, continuous 24-hour supply remains limited, reaching only about 45% of covered households in 2023 due to factors such as aging infrastructure, high non-revenue water losses (estimated at 30-40% from leaks and theft), and seasonal shortages exacerbated by El Niño events. Rate adjustments reflect operational costs; for instance, Maynilad's average basic charge rose from ₱39.70 per cubic meter in 2023 to ₱47.57 in 2024, incorporating increases for raw water procurement and system rehabilitation. Electricity distribution in Manila falls under the Manila Electric Company (), which serves over 7 million customers across and surrounding areas via a network exceeding 50,000 kilometers of lines. Meralco sources power from the grid, managed by the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines, with generation reliant on a mix of (around 50%), , and renewables. in the region surged during the 2024 heatwave, reaching over 12,000 MW amid record temperatures, prompting yellow and red alerts due to forced outages totaling up to 1,435 MW from plant malfunctions and maintenance. Reliability metrics improved slightly, with Meralco's system average interruption frequency index () reflecting fewer incidents per customer in 2024 compared to prior years, though typhoons like Habagat in 2023 caused widespread disruptions affecting hundreds of thousands temporarily. Aging transmission infrastructure and supply-demand imbalances contribute to vulnerabilities, resulting in economic losses from outages estimated in millions of pesos annually. Sanitation and sewerage systems in Manila lag behind water and power infrastructure, with only 26.73% of the MWSS concession population—about 5.07 million people—connected to services as of 2023, relying heavily on septic tanks and onsite systems for the remainder. coverage remains low, with national figures indicating just 10% of generated wastewater properly treated, leading to untreated discharges into waterways like the and contributing to contamination affecting 58% of sources. Maynilad and operate sewage treatment plants (STPs), with treating 66.39 million cubic meters in 2023 across its facilities, but overall capacity serves under 15% in some sub-areas due to limited sewer networks and high connection costs in dense informal settlements. Maintenance efforts include Maynilad's cleaning of 542 kilometers of sewer lines in 2024 to prevent overflows, while capital expenditures, such as 's ₱26.3 billion allocation in 2024 for upgrades like the Taguig North Sewerage System, aim to expand coverage amid rapid and flooding risks from inadequate . These deficiencies stem from historical underinvestment and enforcement gaps, resulting in persistent risks from fecal .

Healthcare services and public health

Manila's healthcare system relies on a combination of public institutions under the Department of Health (DOH) and private providers, with public facilities serving the majority of low-income residents amid chronic resource constraints. The Philippine General Hospital (PGH), a tertiary-level facility with 1,100 beds, handles over 600,000 outpatient visits and admissions annually, functioning as the primary referral center for complex cases in Metro Manila. However, PGH routinely faces severe overcrowding, with its emergency room accommodating up to 300 patients against a capacity of 75 beds during surges, as reported in August 2025 amid leptospirosis outbreaks linked to flooding. Other public hospitals, including East Avenue Medical Center and Jose R. Reyes Memorial Medical Center, similarly exceed capacity, with ER occupancy rates surpassing 138% in early August 2025, prompting referrals to alleviate pressure. Private hospitals like offer specialized services such as advanced diagnostics and , but accessibility is limited by costs, widening inequities between affluent and poor patients. Nationally, the ' total health expenditure reached 1.44 trillion in 2024, equivalent to 5.9% of GDP, with government contributions at 44.7% of current health spending; however, out-of-pocket expenses still comprise over 45%, burdening households in densely populated urban areas like Manila. allocation stood at 748.8 billion in 2024, yet spending remains low at around 12,751 , insufficient to address infrastructure deficits in a city of over 1.8 million residents plus commuters. Public health in Manila grapples with environmental and socioeconomic factors amplifying disease burdens, including contributing to respiratory illnesses and poor in informal settlements fostering waterborne pathogens. Non-communicable diseases dominate mortality, with heart disease and cancer as leading causes, while infectious threats like , dengue, and persist due to high and flooding; for instance, cases spiked in 2025, overwhelming facilities. at birth in the hovers at 70 years as of 2023, below the average, reflecting gaps in preventive care and chronic disease management despite PhilHealth coverage expansions under the Universal Health Care Act. rates for routine immunizations exceed 90% in urban areas, but disparities in communities hinder overall progress, with DOH initiatives focusing on decentralized to mitigate these vulnerabilities.

Education

K-12 and vocational training

The K-12 education system in Manila operates under the national framework managed by the Department of Education (DepEd) through the Schools Division Office of Manila. For School Year 2024-2025, enrollment reached over 267,000 learners across 323 schools, including 105 public institutions serving 203,774 students and 218 private schools with 63,808 enrollees. Public schools predominate in serving lower-income populations but contend with chronic infrastructure deficits, including a national classroom shortage projected to require 7,000 new facilities annually through 2040 despite declining birth rates. In Manila's Northern District, approximately 90% of public elementary students attend congested schools, often operating on double- or triple-shift schedules to accommodate pupil-teacher ratios exceeding recommended limits. Educational quality remains a persistent challenge, reflected in the Philippines' poor performance on international assessments applicable to Manila's urban student cohorts. In the 2022 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Filipino 15-year-olds averaged 355 in , 347 in reading, and 356 in science—scores below OECD averages of 472, 476, and 485, respectively, with only 16% achieving minimum proficiency in math. Private schools in the country, including those in Manila, consistently outperform public counterparts on such metrics, though access is limited by tuition costs. Contributing factors include a national teacher shortage of around 147,000 positions and uneven , exacerbating disparities in urban public systems. Vocational training complements K-12 through the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), which accredits programs at technical-vocational institutions () and regional centers in Manila. In , the City of Manila saw 19,402 enrollments in TESDA-registered technical-vocational education and training (TVET) programs, with 14,154 graduates. Offerings span sectors like human health care, electrical and electronics engineering, and , delivered via face-to-face, online, or blended formats at over 100 registered in the National Capital Region. The TESDA Regional Training Center in the NCR provides specialized courses, such as trainers' methodology certification, emphasizing practical skills for amid a TVET target of 1.37 million enrollments in . Despite growth, enrollment rates have fluctuated, with private providers handling about 59% of trainees, though certification completion varies due to economic pressures on participants.

Universities and research institutions

The University of Santo Tomas (UST), founded on April 28, 1611, by , the third Archbishop of Manila, operates as the oldest extant university in and one of the largest Catholic institutions in the , with its main campus in Sampaloc district. It encompasses 15 colleges and faculties, including medicine, engineering, and law, enrolling over 40,000 students as of recent counts, and maintains research centers in areas such as and . The University of the Philippines Manila (UP Manila), established in 1905 as the College of Medicine and Surgery and now the health sciences constituent university of the UP system, is located in and focuses on medical, nursing, and education, producing a significant portion of the country's healthcare professionals. Its (NIH), a primary unit, conducts studies in , , and clinical trials, serving as a national resource for with facilities including research labs and biobanks. The Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP), founded in 1904 as the Manila Trade School and now the largest state university in the country, is based in Sta. Mesa with additional Manila sites, emphasizing , accountancy, and for over 70,000 students annually, alongside in applied technology and socioeconomic development. Other notable institutions include Adamson University in , established in 1932 and specializing in and chemistry with in , and Mapúa University in , founded in 1925 and recognized for and programs with innovation labs in . The De La Salle University Manila, in Malate since 1911, contributes through centers like the Center for Business Research and Development, focusing on and studies. Research efforts in Manila's institutions often prioritize and due to and prevalence, though funding constraints and bureaucratic hurdles limit output compared to global peers, with UP Manila's NIH leading in peer-reviewed publications on tropical diseases.

Literacy rates and educational outcomes

The basic literacy rate in the National Capital Region (NCR), which encompasses Manila, stood at approximately 99.3 percent among individuals aged five years and older as of 2020, surpassing the national average of 97.0 percent reported in the 2020 of and . More recent 2024 Functional Literacy, Education, and Mass Media Survey (FLEMMS) data indicate that NCR's functional rate—encompassing reading, writing, , and —for ages 10 to 64 hovered around 79.9 percent, higher than the national figure of 70.8 percent but still reflecting gaps in practical skills application. Cities within Manila, such as and , recorded among the highest basic rates nationwide at 96.2 percent and similar levels, though disparities persist in densely populated, low-income districts like Tondo due to socioeconomic factors. Educational outcomes in Manila mirror national trends of high access but low proficiency, as evidenced by the Philippines' performance in the (PISA) 2022, where 15-year-olds scored 355 in mathematics, 347 in reading, and 373 in science—placing the country near the bottom globally and indicating that only 16 percent met minimum proficiency in math, 24 percent in reading, and 23 percent in science. These results, drawn from a nationally representative sample including students, highlight systemic deficiencies in and problem-solving, with Philippine scores lagging averages by over 100 points in each domain; urban areas like Manila benefit from better infrastructure but face overcrowding and resource strain that exacerbate underperformance. The nation also ranked lowest in PISA's creative thinking assessment with a score of 14, underscoring broader instructional shortcomings. Dropout rates contribute to suboptimal outcomes, with national reaching 39 percent in school year 2023–2024, and NCR reporting elevated figures around 52.4 percent amid economic pressures and concerns; K-12 dropout rates have risen post-pandemic, from 5.99 percent in elementary (2007–2013 baseline) to higher levels influenced by and family obligations prevalent in Manila's informal settlements. in NCR exceeds national averages, with higher proportions completing secondary and tertiary levels, yet affects an estimated 18 million graduates nationwide, including urban cohorts, as basic skills fail to translate to readiness. These patterns suggest that while Manila's metrics appear strong on paper, underlying quality issues—rooted in misalignment, shortages, and socioeconomic barriers—yield outcomes misaligned with global standards.

International Relations

Sister cities and bilateral partnerships

Manila maintains formal relationships with select foreign municipalities to facilitate exchanges in culture, trade, education, and . These agreements, often ratified through city council resolutions, aim to strengthen people-to-people ties and economic linkages, though their implementation varies and some face scrutiny amid geopolitical tensions, particularly those involving counterparts.
Sister CityCountryEstablishment Year
San FranciscoPre-2020s (reaffirmed via resolution)
Honolulu1980 (ratified February 2024)
Winnipeg1979
Havana1990s
BeijingNovember 14, 2005
Bilateral partnerships at the city level extend beyond traditional twinnings to include collaborative initiatives, such as goodwill missions and joint events, often aligned with national foreign policy objectives. For instance, Manila's ties with Honolulu involved a 2024 goodwill mission emphasizing mutual heritage preservation and economic opportunities. Recent agreements, like potential twinnings with Cartagena in Colombia, underscore efforts to diversify partnerships amid calls for reviewing pacts with Chinese entities due to national security concerns in the West Philippine Sea. These arrangements have yielded tangible outcomes, including cultural festivals and trade delegations, but their effectiveness depends on sustained funding and alignment with local priorities, with Philippine authorities inventorying foreign ties as of July 2025 to ensure compatibility with strategic interests.

Geopolitical role in South China Sea disputes and alliances

The Philippines, with Manila as its capital and seat of executive authority, asserts sovereignty over features in the South China Sea—termed the West Philippine Sea by Manila—encompassing its exclusive economic zone (EEZ) under the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), to which both the Philippines and China are parties. In 2013, the Philippine government in Manila initiated arbitration against China at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague, challenging Beijing's "nine-dash line" claim that overlaps Philippine maritime entitlements; the July 12, 2016, ruling invalidated the nine-dash line as lacking legal basis under international law and affirmed Manila's rights to resources within its EEZ, including around Scarborough Shoal and the Spratly Islands. China rejected the ruling, maintaining its expansive claims, which Manila views as incompatible with UNCLOS and a threat to freedom of navigation and resource access. Escalations have intensified since 2022 under President Jr., with Manila directing Philippine Coast Guard and Navy resupply missions to the , a grounded vessel at (Ayungin Shoal) since 1999 to assert Philippine presence. Key incidents include Coast Guard vessels using water cannons and ramming Philippine boats near on April 30, 2024, and a collision on June 17, 2024, at that injured a Filipino and severed his . Manila has responded by enacting the Archipelagic Lanes Act on November 21, 2024, to strengthen enforcement against foreign military incursions in its waters, directly targeting activities deemed violations of the 2016 ruling. These disputes underscore Manila's strategic vulnerability, as the sea lanes carry over $3 trillion in annual trade and hold potential hydrocarbon reserves, positioning the Philippine government as a frontline actor in resisting unilateral . Manila bolsters its position through alliances, primarily the 1951 U.S.-Philippines Mutual Defense Treaty, which obligates mutual aid against armed attacks in the Pacific, with U.S. officials clarifying in 2012 and subsequent statements that it applies to contingencies involving Philippine forces. The 2014 (EDCA) grants U.S. rotational access to Philippine bases, expanded in April 2023 to nine sites, four of which face the , facilitating joint logistics and deterrence without permanent basing. Multilateral efforts include annual exercises with the U.S., involving live-fire drills near disputed areas, and the October 2025 Sama Sama naval exercise with the U.S., , , , and others, simulating combat scenarios in Philippine waters to counter gray-zone threats like vessel blocking. Manila has also deepened ties with and via trilateral summits and defense pacts, while pursuing a U.S.-funded three-year training program for its starting in 2025 to enhance maritime capabilities amid ongoing pressure. These partnerships reflect Manila's strategy of leveraging external support to uphold the 2016 arbitral outcome against China's rejectionist stance, prioritizing deterrence over direct confrontation.

Notable Personalities

Political and military figures

(1863–1897), born in Manila, founded the secret society in 1892 and led the initial phase of the against Spanish colonial rule starting in August 1896, serving as its supreme leader until his capture and execution in 1897. (1866–1899), also Manila-born, commanded Filipino forces as a during the in 1899, known for his disciplined military tactics and strategic defenses in northern before his assassination by fellow revolutionaries on June 5, 1899. (died 1575), the last indigenous ruler of pre-colonial Manila, resisted Spanish conquest by leading defenses against Miguel López de Legazpi's forces in 1570–1571, resulting in the fall of the city and his death in battle on June 3, 1571. In modern Philippine politics, (born April 19, 1937, in Manila) served as the 13th president from 1998 to 2001, having previously been a senator and Manila vice mayor, before his impeachment trial and ouster amid corruption allegations. (born July 2, 1929, in Manila), wife of former president , held roles as of Metropolitan Manila from 1975 to 1986 and of human settlements, exerting significant influence over urban development policies in the capital during . (born October 24, 1970, in ), a former , was elected in 2017, serving until 2022 and implementing infrastructure projects like street vending regulations and flood control measures.

Cultural and business leaders

(1892–1972), born on May 30 in Paco's Calle Herran district of Manila, pioneered a distinctive style of Philippine featuring vibrant, sunlit scenes of rural life and traditional customs, earning designation as the nation's first National Artist for in 1972. His works, produced over a career spanning thousands of pieces, emphasized idyllic portrayals of Filipino women and laborers, influencing subsequent generations of artists despite critiques of idealization amid colonial and wartime realities. Nicomedes "Nick" (1917–2004), born on May 4 in , advanced through novels, short stories, and essays probing themes of , Catholic , and historical continuity, securing the National Artist for Literature award in 1976. Key works like The Woman Who Had Two Navels (1961) dissected post-colonial psyche and in Manila settings, drawing from the city's Spanish-era foundations while critiquing modern moral drift. , born on February 22, 1971, in Manila's district, achieved global acclaim as a singer and actress, originating the role of Kim in the production of (1989), which garnered her a Tony Award, and voicing Disney's in (1992) and Fa Mulan in Mulan (1998). Her career, rooted in Manila's theater scene, includes over 20 million albums sold worldwide and advocacy for arts education, highlighting Filipino talent on international stages amid limited domestic infrastructure. Manuel Villar Jr., born on December 13, 1949, in Manila's Tondo slum, built a fortune via & Lifescapes, Inc., founded in 1989, which by 2025 developed over 400,000 affordable housing units targeting low- to middle-income families in and beyond. His ascent from selling fish in Tondo markets to a exceeding $11 billion reflects strategic pivots into mass housing during Philippines' urbanization boom, though projects faced scrutiny for environmental impacts in densely populated areas. Enrique Razon Jr., born on March 3, 1960, in Manila, leads International Container Terminal Services, (ICTSI), transforming it since 1987 from a local operator at Manila's North Harbor—established by his grandfather in 1916—into a multinational handling 100 million containers annually across 30 countries by 2025. Under his tenure, ICTSI's revenue hit $2.3 billion in , bolstering Manila's role as a trade hub while navigating geopolitical tensions in regional shipping lanes. Henry Sy Sr. (1924–2019), who relocated to Manila from in 1936 and launched Shoe Mart in Quiapo's in 1958 with $4,000 in savings, expanded it into Corporation, operating 92 malls nationwide by his death and generating $10 billion in annual revenue through integrated retail, banking, and property ventures anchored in Manila. His model capitalized on post-war consumer growth in the capital, amassing a family fortune of $11.8 billion by 2025, though expansion drew concerns over and in Manila's core districts.

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