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Sha

Sha, commonly rendered in uppercase as SHA and standing for Secure Hash Algorithm, is a family of cryptographic hash functions developed by the (NSA) and standardized by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to produce fixed-length message digests from arbitrary input data, enabling applications in verification, signatures, and storage. Introduced in 1993 with the initial SHA-0 version (later withdrawn due to a flaw), the family evolved to include (160-bit output, published 1995 but deprecated since 2011 after practical collision attacks demonstrated its insecurity), (variants with 224- to 512-bit outputs, released 2001 and still widely used for robust ), and (based on the Keccak sponge , finalized 2015 as a with provable security properties distinct from prior Merkle-Damgård designs). While SHA functions are one-way (preimage resistance) and exhibit the for sensitivity to input changes, controversies include the 2017 Google-Shodan demonstration of collisions undermining its use in certificates, alongside unsubstantiated concerns over potential NSA backdoors in early designs, though empirical has affirmed and 's resilience absent contrary evidence. These algorithms underpin protocols like TLS/SSL, (e.g., Bitcoin's SHA-256), and federal standards, prioritizing computational infeasibility for reverses or collisions over 2^128 operations for stronger variants.

Cryptography and computing

Secure Hash Algorithms

The (SHA) constitute a family of cryptographic hash functions developed by the (NSA) and standardized by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to ensure , , and resistance to collision attacks in applications such as digital signatures and message authentication. These functions produce fixed-length outputs (digests) from arbitrary input data, with properties including , preimage resistance, second-preimage resistance, and ideally , where finding two distinct inputs yielding the same output is computationally infeasible. The evolution of SHA reflects advances in , with earlier variants succumbing to practical attacks, prompting NIST to promulgate stronger successors based on empirical testing and public competitions. The inaugural SHA-0, published in the initial draft of Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 180 in 1993, was withdrawn shortly after release due to an undisclosed weakness identified by NSA, preventing its widespread adoption. , formalized in FIPS 180-1 in 1995 as a 160-bit hash, succeeded it and saw extensive use in protocols like TLS and until theoretical and practical vulnerabilities eroded its security; a chosen-prefix was demonstrated in 2017 by researchers from and CWI, requiring approximately 2^63 operations and confirming SHA-1's unsuitability for security-critical roles, leading NIST to deprecate it fully by 2030. SHA-2, introduced in FIPS 180-2 in 2002, comprises variants with output sizes of 224, 256, 384, and 512 bits, employing the Merkle-Damgård construction with distinct initial values, round constants, and bitwise operations tailored to word sizes (32 or 64 bits). Designed by NSA with longer digests and modified compression functions, SHA-2 variants like have withstood known cryptanalytic attacks as of 2025, with no practical collisions found despite extensive scrutiny, though their structural similarity to motivates diversification. SHA-256, in particular, underpins blockchain consensus in , where block headers undergo double hashing (SHA-256 applied twice) to generate proofs-of-work resistant to alteration. To address potential long-term risks from advances in computing or novel attacks, NIST initiated a 2007-2012 culminating in the selection of Keccak, a construction-based by Bertoni, Daemen, Van Assche, and Peeters, as the basis for , standardized in FIPS 202 in 2015. Unlike 's Merkle-Damgård , SHA-3 absorbs input into a state via rounds and squeezes output, offering tunable security levels (e.g., SHA3-256 provides 128-bit ) and potential resilience against quantum threats like , though not fully post-quantum secure without extensions. SHA-3 variants are recommended for new systems requiring high assurance, complementing SHA-2 in deployments for and pseudorandom generation.

Related instruction sets

Intel introduced SHA extensions for the x86 in 2013 to accelerate and SHA-256 computations through dedicated instructions such as SHA1MSG1, SHA1NEXTE, SHA256MSG1, and SHA256RNDS2, which process multiple rounds in parallel using SIMD registers. These extensions first appeared in the microarchitecture for low-power processors and were later integrated into mainstream CPUs starting with Cannon Lake in 2018, enabling hardware-level optimization for cryptographic hashing without software emulation overhead. AMD incorporated support for these x86 SHA instructions beginning with the Zen microarchitecture in 2017, providing native acceleration in Ryzen and EPYC processors for improved throughput in hash-intensive workloads. Similarly, ARMv8-A cryptography extensions, introduced in the ARMv8 specification around 2011 with implementations from 2012 onward, include instructions for SHA-1 (e.g., SHA1C, SHA1M) and SHA-256 (e.g., SHA256H, SHA256SU1), with SHA-512 support added in ARMv8.4-A; these are widely adopted in mobile and server SoCs for efficient secure communications and data integrity checks. Empirical benchmarks demonstrate 4x to 10x speedups in computation rates compared to pure software implementations on equivalent , depending on input size and model; for instance, ARMv8 SHA instructions achieve up to 3 /s per core for SHA-256, while extensions yield similar gains in multi-threaded scenarios. These accelerations prove particularly beneficial in real-world applications like , where SHA-256 dominates Bitcoin's proof-of-work, reducing latency and power draw for high-volume validation.

Geography

Settlements and administrative regions

Shaxian District, formerly Sha County until redesignated in 2016, serves as an administrative district under Municipality in Province, . The district spans 3,420 square kilometers and had a population of 250,503 according to China's 2020 . Sha District in Bokkos Local Government Area, , , comprises ten villages settled mainly by the Sha people, forming a distinct rural administrative zone in the region.

Natural and physical features

Mingsha Shan, also known as Echoing Sand Mountain, is a vast dune field situated approximately 5 km south of in Province, northwestern China, within the Cumulus . The feature extends about 40 km in length and 20 km in width, with dunes rising to heights exceeding 300 meters, shaped by wind erosion and deposition over millennia. Its sands exhibit a rare acoustic where between grains generates a deep roaring or humming sound during avalanches or footsteps, attributed to electrostatic forces and spherical particles averaging 0.15–0.25 mm in diameter. Shashan is a in Taiwan's , located in the interior highlands with coordinates around 24°10'N 121°10'E. Rising to an elevation of 2,146 meters above , it features a of 118 meters and is accessible via trails amid subtropical montane forests and rugged formed by tectonic uplift and . The Dongsha Islands (Pratas Islands) form a remote atoll group in the northern , centered at approximately 20°50'N 116°45'E, encompassing reefs and low-lying islets with a total land area of about 4.8 km² amid a spanning roughly 145 km². Composed primarily of limestone and sand cays, the islands support diverse marine habitats including fringing reefs hosting over 200 species and seabird colonies, shaped by and sea-level fluctuations since the Pleistocene.

Personal names and etymology

As a given name or surname

Sha serves as a surname primarily among individuals of Chinese descent, derived from the character 沙 (shā), meaning "," and originating from the name of an ancient state in present-day province during the (771–476 BCE). The surname ranks approximately 387th in historical lists from the and remains common in , with over 97% of bearers residing there as of recent global distribution data. Notable individuals include Sha Zukang (born 1948), a who served as Office for Disarmament Affairs from 2007 to 2012, and Sha Menghai (1907–1968), a prominent calligrapher and scholar of classical literature. In South Asian contexts, Sha appears as a variant of surnames like or Sah, particularly among communities in regions such as , , where it historically connects to merchant or administrative families, though (meaning "" in ) predominates. Less commonly, it functions as a across cultures; for instance, Sha is the stage name of di Fresco (born May 7, 1979), a singer of Italian descent from , who debuted with the single "" in 2006 under , achieving chart success in . In American naming practices, particularly among African-American communities, "Sha-" often prefixes given names for phonetic emphasis or stylistic flair, as seen in (born March 6, 1972), the retired NBA player known for his seven-foot-one stature and four championships with the between 2000 and 2002, though the full name extends beyond "Sha" alone. This prefix trend reflects broader creative naming conventions rather than direct etymological roots in "Sha."

Linguistic origins

The syllable "sha," phonetically transcribed as /ʃɑ/ or /ʃa/ in the International Phonetic Alphabet, emerges in diverse linguistic families due to the acoustic and articulatory simplicity of the /ʃ/ paired with the low /a/, which facilitates early acquisition in child and cross-linguistic borrowing. This combination appears independently in Indo-Iranian, Sino-Tibetan, and branches, often without shared proto-forms, reflecting in rather than direct inheritance. In , "sha" derives from the Proto-Iranian *xšaθra- "power" or "realm," evolving into šāh and modern شاه (shāh), denoting "" or "," with s occasionally simplifying to "sha" in non-standard Romanizations or loanwords, as seen in historical compounds like shāhanshāh (""). The term traces to xšāyaθiya (circa 6th century BCE inscriptions), where the initial /xʃ/ cluster softened in later dialects. Cyrillic "Ша" (uppercase Ша, lowercase ша) represents the precise phonetic value /ʃa/, introduced in the 9th-century Glagolitic-derived script by Cyrillic inventors and for phonemes absent in ; it systematically transcribes the /ʃ/ (from Proto- *šъ) plus the /a/, as in слова like шалаш (shalaš, "hut"). In , pinyin shā (first tone) corresponds to characters such as 沙 (shā, "sand"), reconstructed from sræ (circa 7th century CE) and *sˁraj (circa 1200 BCE), based on inscriptions showing phonetic-semantic compounding with 水 ( ) for granular particles; similarly, 殺 (shā, "to kill") shares the same tonal onset but derives from distinct roots emphasizing or martial severance. Tonal distinctions in (high level for shā) arose post-Proto-Sino-Tibetan, altering vowel quality without altering the core /ʃa/ onset.

Languages and scripts

Sha language

The Sha language, also known as Shall-Zwall, is an indigenous Niger-Congo language spoken primarily in , central . It belongs to the Atlantic-Congo > Volta-Congo > Benue-Congo > Plateau subgroup, with affinities to Beromic languages such as Berom. The language features a tonal system common to many Benue-Congo varieties, where pitch distinctions convey lexical and grammatical meaning, and employs affixation for noun classification and verb morphology, aligning with agglutinative tendencies in the family. As of surveys conducted around 2020–2022, the ethnic population identifying with Sha or Zwall communities numbers approximately 18,000, but fluent first-language speakers are limited to older adults, estimated at no more than 1,000 due to intergenerational toward dominant languages like . The holds endangered vitality status, with no formal or media use, and assimilation pressures from neighboring groups exacerbating decline. Documentation remains sparse, consisting mainly of basic wordlists and sociolinguistic profiles rather than comprehensive grammars or texts.

Script and phonetic representations

In the Cyrillic script, the syllable "sha" is orthographically represented as Ша, combining the letter Ш (U+0428, Cyrillic capital letter Sha), which denotes the /ʃ/, with the letter А (/a/). This combination appears in languages using , such as , where it produces the sound as in the word "шапка" (shapka, meaning ""). In linguistic , the sound sequence "sha" is transcribed in the (IPA) as /ʃa/, with /ʃ/ representing the (as in the English "sh" of "ship") and /a/ the . This transcription standardizes the pronunciation across languages, accommodating variations like the slightly retracted /ɑ/ in some English dialects, but defaults to /ʃa/ for the core alveolar approximation. Orthographic variants of "sha" in Latin-based transliterations include accented forms such as šá or shà, used in systems to indicate , , or phonetic nuances in source languages like those employing diacritics for /ʃ/-initial syllables. For instance, the caron-modified Š (U+0160) paired with a vowel renders "ša" to explicitly mark the /ʃ/ sound in scripts like those of or derivations. These representations prioritize phonetic accuracy over native script forms, aiding cross-linguistic analysis.

Organizations and government

Housing and public authorities

The Housing Authority (SHA), established as a , owns and operates developments while administering the federal Housing Choice Voucher program to support low-income residents. It manages approximately 8,800 owned and managed units alongside over 8,200 tenant-based vouchers, serving primarily extremely low-income households including families, seniors, and individuals with disabilities. Funding derives mainly from U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) allocations, local taxes, and bond issuances, enabling capital investments in maintenance and expansion. In March 2024, SHA acquired a waterfront office building at 101 Elliott Avenue West for $39.5 million to serve as its new headquarters, preserving financial stability through a negotiated purchase 30% below assessed value. The agency also purchased an apartment building in Seattle's Central District and plans further acquisitions, targeting 171 unsubsidized units and 62 subsidized units to expand stock. These efforts align with broader operational goals of property acquisition without prior approval under Moving to Work flexibilities, provided site criteria are met. However, SHA has drawn criticism for bureaucratic inefficiencies, such as delays in timelines that hinder timely unit delivery. The Syracuse Housing Authority (SHA), another public entity focused on low-income , oversees redevelopment projects amid ongoing negotiations with municipal partners. In March 2025, it finalized a land swap with the City of Syracuse, exchanging control of Eastwood Heights for Latimer Terrace to facilitate senior upgrades and new apartment construction, while paying the city $500,000 for associated costs. This deal aims to preserve paths for community facilities like the Children's Rising Center but has faced scrutiny for protracted timelines, with Phase 1 closure delayed to October 2025 after missing self-imposed deadlines. Such delays exemplify broader critiques of housing authorities' operational rigidity, which can exacerbate waitlists and slow unit turnover despite federal mandates for efficiency. Across U.S. housing authorities abbreviated SHA, operational scopes emphasize managing HUD-subsidized units—totaling about 1.1 million nationwide through over 3,000 agencies—but persistent challenges include funding constraints and administrative hurdles that limit scalability. Recent allocations, such as $20 million for the Northgate Commons project in the 2026 city budget, contrast with systemic issues like inflexible regulations, underscoring the tension between expansion ambitions and execution bottlenecks.

Other institutions

The Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA), established in 1967, is a scholarly organization focused on advancing research into the archaeological remnants of post-1500 societies, emphasizing interdisciplinary methods to interpret historical material culture. It publishes the journal Historical Archaeology and organizes annual conferences to disseminate findings on topics such as colonial settlements and industrial sites. The Southern Historical Association (SHA), founded on November 2, 1934, promotes rigorous historical scholarship with an emphasis on investigative approaches rather than commemorative narratives, particularly concerning the American South. It hosts annual meetings and awards such as the Hattie M. Williams Award for the best book on Southern history, fostering professional development among historians. The Society for Humanistic Anthropology (SHA), a section of the initiated in discussions at the 1974 AAA meeting in , integrates humanistic perspectives into anthropological inquiry, encouraging interpretive and narrative-based studies of culture. It supports publications like the Anthropology and Humanism journal and prizes for ethnographic writing that prioritize subjective experience alongside empirical observation.

Historical and cultural uses

Events and periods

The State of Sha (沙國) existed as a minor polity during the dynasty in ancient , roughly from 1046 to 771 BCE, located in present-day province. This period marked its integration into the broader feudal system under Zhou oversight, with archaeological and textual records indicating limited territorial extent and reliance on amid regional power struggles. By the (770–476 BCE), escalating interstate conflicts led to its annexation by the larger State of Song, reflecting the consolidation of power among dominant Zhou vassals through military conquest and diplomatic maneuvering. In post-World War II Europe, "Sha" emerged in cultural timelines via the music industry, notably with the rapid ascent of singer Grazia di Fresco, stage-named Sha, in 2006. Discovered by producers earlier that year, her debut single "JaJa" topped charts and achieved multi-platinum status across several countries, driven by appeal and media promotion amid the era's revival. This event highlighted transient fame cycles in the digital music transition, with Sha's follow-up releases sustaining visibility until mid-decade shifts in pop trends diminished her momentum.

Traditional and mythological references

In ancient , "Sha" refers to the enigmatic sacred animal associated with the god Set (also known as ), depicted in hieroglyphs as a composite or unidentified with a long snout, erect ears, forked tail, and distinctive posture, often symbolizing chaos and desert forces. These representations appear in religious texts and tomb art from onward (circa 2686–2181 BCE), but lack clear zoological equivalents, leading scholars to speculate on extinct species, stylized canines like the , or purely symbolic inventions without empirical basis. Traditional lore portrays the Sha as embodying Set's disruptive attributes, such as storms and foreign threats, in myths like the cycle where Set assumes animal forms to contend with , though primary sources like the provide scant detail on the Sha's independent agency or rituals. Interpretations remain speculative due to inconsistent and absence of faunal remains matching descriptions, underscoring the mythological nature over verifiable tradition; later Greco-Roman accounts conflate it with asses or typhon-like beasts, reflecting interpretive drift rather than authentic continuity.

Other meanings

Biology and zoology

In , "sha" serves as a local vernacular name for the Ladakh ( vignei vignei), a of wild sheep endemic to the high-altitude, arid landscapes of the Trans-Himalayan region in , . This is distinguished by its reddish-tan coat, robust build, and males' long, curved horns that sweep outward and forward, adapted for rugged terrain at elevations of 2,500 to 5,000 meters. The species inhabits steep slopes, river valleys, and grasslands, where it grazes on grasses, herbs, and shrubs, with populations estimated at fewer than 3,000 individuals due to and pressures. Taxonomically, the urial falls within the broader Ovis vignei group, sometimes subsumed under Ovis orientalis in older classifications, reflecting its evolutionary lineage among Asian wild sheep that diverged from ancestral stocks approximately 0.8–1.2 million years ago based on genetic analyses. Hybridization with related taxa like the Asiatic (Ovis orientalis) occurs in overlapping zones, such as northern , but remains limited in Ladakh's isolated habitats. efforts classify it as vulnerable, with key threats including competition from and climate-induced forage scarcity, underscoring its ecological role in and as prey for predators like snow leopards.

Astronomy and navigation

In astronomy, the (SHA) denotes the angular position of a celestial body relative to the observer's local meridian, expressed in coordinates. It represents the time elapsed since the body crossed the local meridian, measured westward along the from the vernal equinox. SHA is distinct from hour angle (GHA) by incorporating the observer's and is fundamental for determining the azimuthal position of stars, planets, and other bodies during observations. The SHA of a star is calculated using the formula SHA = LST - RA, where LST is the local at the observation site and RA is the of the star, both converted to angular degrees (with 15 degrees per hour of time). This yields the hour angle in degrees, facilitating the transformation from equatorial to horizon coordinates via computations, such as the astronomical triangle solution involving zenith distance and . For navigational purposes, the fixed SHA values for selected stars are tabulated in resources like the , allowing computation of GHA as GHA = GHA of + SHA, adjusted for the date and time. In , SHA enables mariners and aviators to solve for latitude and longitude by sighting stars with a , integrating with data to compute lines of position via the intercept method. For instance, during a , SHA contributes to deriving the local (LHA = SHA - longitude correction), essential for plotting fixes accurate to within 0.5 nautical miles under clear skies. Astronomy software, such as StarFinder and OpenCPN's celestial tools, automates SHA calculations for sight planning and verification, processing inputs like UTC time and position to output predicted altitudes and azimuths. Star catalogs, including those derived from missions like , provide and data from which SHA is derived in applications, supporting precise pointing for telescopes and interferometers by correlating LST with entries. These catalogs list over 100,000 stars with sub-arcsecond accuracy, enabling SHA-based tracking for observations spanning epochs from 1991 to modern updates.

Miscellaneous acronyms and terms

In , SHA denotes System Hazard Analysis, a structured process for identifying, assessing, and mitigating hazards in complex systems from design through operation. This analysis verifies that requirements are met by examining interfaces, modes, and controls, as detailed in U.S. Department of Defense standard MIL-STD-882E, which mandates SHA as a foundational task in program assessments. incorporates similar SHA procedures in its framework to support mission reliability, integrating subsystem data to prioritize catastrophic risks. In English, a spoken widely in , "sha" functions as a versatile equivalent to "anyway," "however," or "at least," often softening assertions or acknowledging concessions in informal discourse. For instance, it appears in phrases like "e go happen sha," implying inevitability despite circumstances. This usage reflects linguistic adaptation in West African English varieties, distinct from formal English transitions. In sports media and statistics, particularly , SHA abbreviates short-handed assists, crediting players for assists on goals scored by their while shorthanded due to penalties. This metric highlights defensive contributions during penalty kills, as tracked in NHL records where SHA contributes to overall shorthanded point totals. Such abbreviations standardize reporting in professional leagues, aiding analysts in evaluating special teams efficiency.

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